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History
1) Indian History i) Battles and Wars in India ii) Ancient Culture and Civilizations iii) Reforms and Acts during British period iv) Governors General of India v) Presidents of Indian Republic 2) World History i) Reforms and Movements in World History ii) Battles and Wars in World History

Battles and Wars in India

Battle of Hydaspes 326 B.C: Alexander the Great, had to turn back at the Hydespes (Beas) as his home-sick troops refused to march against the Nanda Empire situated in the Gangetic valley. Battle of Kalinga 261 B.C.: Ashoka defeated the king of Kalinga. This battle killed the soldier in Ashoka and he embraced and preached Buddhism during the rest of his life. First Battle of Tarain or Thaneswar 1191 A.D: Prithvi Raj Chohan defeated Mohammed Ghori. Second Battle Tarain 1192 A. D: Mohammed Ghori defeated Prithvi Raj Chohan. This battle gave an irreparable blow to Rajput power. First Battle of Panipat 1526: Babar defeated Ibrahim Lodhi. This laid the foundation of the Mughal rule in India. Battle of Kanwah 1527: Babar defeated Rana Sanga of Mewar. This battle resulted in the defeat of the powerful Rajput confederacy. Second Battle of Panipat 1556 Bairam Khan (Akbars General) defeated Hemu (the Hindu General and right hand man of Mohd. Adil Shah). The defeat of Hemu frustrated all hopes of the Hindus to establish their own Rule in India. It also ended the Afghan Rule and Mughal Rule began instead. Battle of Talikota 1564-65: United alliance between Bijapur, Bidar, Ahmednagar and Golkonda under Hussain Nizam Shah defeated Ram Raja of Vijayanagar. It destroyed the Hindu Kingdom of Vijayanagar.

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Battle of Haldighat 1576: Akbars forces headed by Raja Man Singh and Asaf Khan II defeated Rana Pratap, the brave Rajput king who had refused to acknowledge Akbars suzerainty. Rana Pratap took refuge in remote fortresses. Battle of Plassey 1757: The English under Lord Clive defeated Sirajud-Daulah supported by the French forces. It brought Muslim Rule in Bengal to an end and laid foundation of the British rule in India. Battle of Wandiawash 1760: The English defeated the French. This battle sealed the fate of the French in India. Third Battle of Panipat 1761: Ahmed Shah Abdali defeated Marhattas. It gave a terrible blow to the Marhatta power. This battle also sealed the destiny of the Mughal Empire. It made the field clear for the English. Battle of Buxar 1764: The British forces under Sir Hector Munro defeated the Muslim army under three Mohammedan leaders. Mir Kasim, Shuja-ud-Daulah and Shah Alam II. This battle made the English supreme in Hindustan. Battle of Cheelianwala 1849: Forces of the East India Company under Lord Hugh Gough defeated the Sikhs under Sher Singh. Indo-Pak War, 1965: This was Pakistans third attack on India. While India had the upper hand, the fighting was brought to a stop by a call for cease-fire by the Security Council. It resulted into a pact between India and Pakistan known as Tashkent Pact. Indo-Pak War, Dec. 1971: Pakistan started war attacking India on Dec. 3 with surprise air-raids on a number of Indian airfields. India defeated Pakistan on all fronts. Pakistani occupation forces, numbering about one lakh, in East Bengal (Bangladesh) surrendered. The outstanding achievement was complete liberation of Bangladesh. India emerged victorious, stronger and a united nation.

Ancient Culture & Civilizations

1. Indus Valley Civilization (a) Approximate dates of the civilization: According to the carbon-dating process, the Indus Valley Civilization appears to have flourished between 2500 to 1700 B.C. though at some places it may have lasted till later. The only written records of the period so far discovered are some seals, the script on which has not so far been deciphered. (b) River from which it derives its name: The Indus Valley Civilization derives its name from the river Indus, because the numerous sites at which the remains of this civilization have been found are all situated in the basin of the river Indus and its tributaries. (c) Year in which its traces were found: It was in 1921 that traces of this ancient civilization were first discovered at Harappa in the Montgomery district of Punjab (now in Pakistan). Next year, an equally important site was unearthed at Mohenjodaro in the Larkana district of Sind (also in Pakistan now). Subsequently, remains of the civilization were found over a big area which includes Gujarat, Haryana and Punjab. (d) Names of two cities where archaeological excavations were carried out: Archaeological excavations for the remains of the Indus Valley Civilization were carried out at many places.

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Two big cities discovered in the beginning were Harappa in 1921 and Mohenjodaro in 1922. These two cities are now in Pakistan. These cities appear to have been well planned with broad streets up to 33 ft. in breadth. The roads cut each other at right angles. The people used burnt bricks with gypsum and mud-plaster. Most of the houses had bathrooms and the cities had a well laid out drainage system. In every house, big jars were fixed in the floor for storage of grains. In 23' 8' tank in the middle. The Mohenjodaro, there was a great communal bath with a 30' town had a good system of water supply built round a large number of wells. (e) Life of the people at that time: From archaeological excavations at Indus Valley sites it appears the people belonging to that era cultivated barley, wheat, peas, melons, sesame etc. The large number of earthen spindles found in the remains go to show that the people knew how to spin both cotton and woollen threads. From the statues and carvings, we can make out that women put on skirts, and the men wore a band of cloth round their loins, and sometimes put on wrappers covering their left shoulder and passing below the right shoulder. They also sported beards and whiskers. Both men and women wore ornaments like finger-rings, necklaces, armlets etc. made of gold, silver, ivory, shell, bone, copper or terracotta. Women also used anklets, girdles, ear-studs, nose-studs etc. People had domesticated the humped bull (zebu), buffalo, pig, elephant, horses and dogs. Available evidence suggests that among wild animals the Indus Valley people were familiar with tigers, bears, rhinoceros etc. According to eminent archeologists, the supreme god of the Indus Valley people was the Pipal God. A form similar to that of the great God Siva of the Hindus has also been repeatedly found. The people worshipped trees. The large number of steatite seals and other carvings discovered in the excavations show that art had made great progress. This is also borne out by the excellent finish of some stone-images found among the ruins. 2. Similarity of the Indus Valley Civilization with the Sumerian and Mesopotamian civilizations and its differences with the Vedic civilization. (a) Similarity with the Sumerian and Mesopotamian Civilizations: According to the historians, there were close commercial and cultural contacts between the Indus Valley and the Sumerian civilization. The Valley of the Indus has been referred to in Sumerian myths as Dilbun. The similarity between the Indus Valley civilization and the civilizations which developed in Sumeria and Mesopotamia were the use of burnt bricks, copper and bronze vessels, the potters wheel, pictorial seals etc. They had a flourishing trade with each other and each one of them had a fairly well developed pattern of urban life. (b) Difference with the Vedic Civilization: The Indus Valley people had not learnt to domesticate horses but those who lived in the Vedic age did make use of the horse. The use of armour was likewise a Vedic practice unknown to the Indus people. Whereas the latter lived mostly in towns and cities, the Vedic people were for the most part pastoral. They lived mostly in the countryside. They knew the use of iron which was not known to the inhabitants of the Indus Valley. The two civilizations worshipped different gods. 3. Some important points on Vedic or Aryans civilization The location of the original home of the Aryans still remains a controversial point. Some scholars believe that the Aryans were native to the soil of India and were living in the Punjab or in the Ganga-Yamuna valley. According to popular belief, the Aryans are supposed to have migrated from Central Asia in the course of a great nomadic movement that spread from the Mongolian Steppes in the east to the eastern shores of the Mediterranean in the West. It is not definitely known when the Aryans first came to India. The group that came to India first settled in the present Frontier Province and the Punjab then called Sapta Sindhu. They lived here for many centuries and gradually pushed into the interior to settle in the valleys of the Ganges and

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the Yamuna. It is presumed that the Rig Veda was composed while the Aryans were still in the Punjab. The Aryans were skilful farmers. They knew the art of domesticating animals. They were engaged in trade and knew maritime navigation. The religious books of the Aryans show their culture at the highest perfection. The most important of these books are the Vedas four in number: (i) the Rig Veda, the oldest, (ii) the Yajur Veda, (iii) the Sama Veda, and (iv) Atharva Veda; the Upanishads philosophical treatises; the Epics the Ramayana and the Mahabharata; the Puranas 18 in number; the Shastras or the Darshanas six in number and the Manu Smriti. The Aryans or the Hindus were divided into four groups called castes: (i) Brahmanas, (ii) Kshatriyas, (iii) Vaishyas and (iv) Sudras. To lead an ideal life they had divided human life into four stages (Ashrams): (i) Brahamacharya Ashram, (iiv) Grahastha Ashram, (iii) Banprastha and (iv) Sanyas Ashram. Gradually, changes of far-reaching importance occurred in the social system of Aryans. The caste system became more rigid and the sacrificial side of religion was greatly developed by the Brahmanas. The privileges of the Brahmanas and growing complexities of their rituals, however, did not last long and the struggle against Brahmanism found expression in two new faiths Jainism and Buddhism. 4. Social religious and political life of the Aryans in the Rigvedic period of Indian history. Aryans in the Rigvedic Period: The Aryans in the Rigvedic period were a highly organized patriarchical society. Marriage was a recognized institution and it was looked upon as a sacrament which could not be broken by any means. Women occupied a place of honour in society and had freedom to choose their marriage-partners. As a rule people were monogamous though those in the higher strata of society sometimes practised polygamy also. Widows were allowed to remarry, particularly when they had no male progeny. The father was the head of the family, which was the basic unit of the social structure. It has not been conclusively established whether the Aryans in the Rigvedic age believed in or observed the caste-system, but they did look down upon the non-Aryans or the original inhabitants of the land whom they described as dasyus or asuras. As compared to the Aryans, the latter were short-statured and dark-skinned. They spoke a different language and worshipped other gods. The Aryans deified natural phenomena like fire, wind, water etc. and worshipped them. They had an elaborate code of rituals and sacrifices. They performed several types of Yajnas to propitiate the elemental forces. It is believed that the Aryans of the Rigvedic period were settled in what are now known as the Shivalik Hills. As has been said earlier, the basic social unit was the family. Families were further organized into Kulas or clans, Janapads or cantons and then into the Rashtra or the nation. The system of government prevailing in the age was monarchic. The king was the protector of his people and also led them in the battlefield. He had ministers to help him in running the administration. He was also advised in the task of government by sabhas and samitis assemblies of representatives elected by the people. 5. Buddhism and Jainism These two non-Brahmanical systems of religion came to the fore in the middle of the sixth century A.D. Buddhism was founded by a Kshatriya Prince, Siddhartha, born in 567 B.C. at Lumbini village in the Nepalese Terai. Siddhartha, afterwards known as the Buddha, was the son of Suddhodana, Raja of Kapilvastu. The founder of Jainism is unknown. Mahavira, a contemporary of Buddha, was the preceptor of Jainism. He was the last of the Jain teachers called Tirthankaras. He too, like the Buddha, belonged to the Kshatriya clan of eastern India. The two faiths shared the belief in the transmigration of soul, but rejected the authority of the Vedas. Both condemned animal sacrifices. While Jainism carried the doctrine of non-violence

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to the extreme and prescribed rigid asceticism for salvation, Buddhism advised the middle path and abhorred the mortification of the flesh as much as indulgence in sensual pleasures. Mahavira laid stress on the unity and universality of life and held that the aim of life was the development of all the good latent in the human soul. Buddha laid stress on the Four Noble Truths viz., (i) existence is suffering; (ii) suffering is born of desire and desire unfulfilled leads to rebirth; (iii) when desire ceases, rebirth ceases and that is the highest good (nirvana), and (iv) the cessation of desire is attained by purity in deed, word and thought, the observance of the ten commandments and the pursuit of the Noble Eight-fold Path. The ten commandments are not to kill, steal, or commit adultery; not to lie, speak ill of other people, indulge in fault-finding or profane language; to abstain from covetousness and hatred and to avoid ignorance. The Eight-fold Path consists of right belief, right thought, right speech, right action, right means of livelihood, right execution, right remembrance and right mediation. 6. Important points on the contributions of Emperor Ashoka for Buddhism. Emperor Ashoka became a convert to Buddhism after the battle of Kalinga in which there had been a great bloodbath. Disgusted with the spectacle, Ashoka became a Buddhist and ordered that royal-hunts be stopped. He appointed officials to proclaim and propagate Buddhist doctrine among the people and to act as censors of religion and morals. He got Buddhist doctrine inscribed on stone and such inscriptions were affixed all over his dominions. He also sent Buddhist missionaries to foreign countries. His own son Mehendra was sent to Ceylon to propagate the faith. Likewise his daughter, Sanghmitra also went abroad for the same purpose. He followed a policy of religious toleration. 7. The foreign countries which were influenced by Indian culture in the ancient period. India in the ancient past was a great maritime and colonial power. According to researches made by eminent Indian and foreign historians, ancient Indians extended the frontiers of India to include several countries in the Far East. Traces of Indian culture can be found even to-day in the following countries (the ancient Indian names of these countries are given in brackets in each case): Vietnam (Champa), Java (Yavadwipa), Sumatra (Suvarnadwipa), Borneo (Varunadwipa), Cambodia (Kamboja), Ceylon (Tamraparni), Burma (Indradwipa), Malaya (Malaya Desha) etc. 8. Bhakti Cult Bhakti Cult was a socio-religious movement revived in India during the 15 th and 16th century A.D. The new schools of religion gathered momentum as a result of Islamic influence. The belief in one God and the democratic spirit of Islam served as a potent factor in the evolution of Bhakti movement. Its main purpose was to bring reform in Hindu religion and check conversions to Islam. The saintly reformers preached a non-ritualistic and unflinching devotion to a personal God to attain salvation. They pointed out the absurdity of the caste system and preached a religion open to all without any distinction of caste or creed. Another attempt of some of the reformers was to bridge the gulf between the Hindus and Muslims. The teachings of Kabir and Guru Nanak were particularly directed toward that end. The great exponents of the Bhakti Cult were: Ramanuja in the south, Ramanand and Kabir in Uttar Pradesh, Namdeva, Ramdas and Tukaram in Maharashtra, Chaitanya Mahaprabhu in Bengal, Jaidev in Orissa and Guru Nanak in the Punjab.

Reforms and Acts during British Period

The Regulating Act, 1773: The main purpose was to give a legalized working constitution to the East India Companys dominion in India.

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Pitts India Act, 1784: It was a measure for centralization of the Company under the control of the British Parliament. Doctrine of Lapse: Lord Dalhousie (1848 56) laid it down as a principle that on the death of a ruling prince without direct descendants, the British Government should refuse to sanction the adoption of an heir and declare the dominions of the deceased as lapsed to the sovereign power by total failure of heirs natural. This is known as Doctrine of Lapse. The Revolt of 1857: The revolt of 1857 was a combination of political, economic and socioreligious causes. It was a national upsurge which was directed to achieve freedom from foreign domination. There was a general feeling of annoyance and discontent among Indian masses against their foreign masters. This hatred was mingled with alarm at the spread of Christianity. As a reaction to foreign rule, a sense of pride in Indias glorious past had been revived and people had come to feel that the foreigners were usurpers and intruders. Even in the rank of the Indian army there was dormant unrest. In short, the whole nation was in ferment. The leaders of the revolt Rani Lakshmi Bai of Jhansi, Nana Saheb, Tantya Tope etc. were fired with revolutionary zeal but they lost the first war of independence mainly because of lack of unity of purpose, effective organization, and a unified system of command. Though the British were able to survive the most serious challenge to their rule in India, yet the lessons of the revolt were never lost upon them. Indian Councils Act, 1861: It brought about many changes in the administration. Non-official Indians were taken in the Executive Council, the government departments were mostly decentralized and the portfolio system was introduced. The main purpose was to have more understanding between the rulers and the ruled and to associate a few Indians with the legislative business of the government. Permanent Settlement of Bengal: Was the most important revenue system introduced by Lord Cornwallis. It placed the Indian Revenue System on a scientific basis. Ilbert Bill: This Bill was prepared in 1883 by Mr. C.P. Ilbert, the Law Member during the Viceroyalty of Lord Rippon, for the purpose of abolishing judicial disqualification based on race distinction. According to Criminal Procedure Code of 1873, no Magistrate or Sessions Judge could try a European British subject unless he was himself of European birth. Rowlett Acts: The Rowlett Acts (also known as Black Bills) were passed by the Government of India in 1919 giving extensive powers to the police and the judiciary. As a protest against these Acts, Satyagraha movement was launched by Mahatma Gandhi. Morley-Minto Reforms (or The Indian Councils Act of 1909): The Act was designed to be a blended policy of repression and concession. It enlarged the Legislative Council, the nonofficial majority was maintained. The Act recognized the separate electorates for Muslims, and Indians were appointed to the Executive Councils for the first time. Government of India Act, 1919: or the Montague-Chelmsford Reforms was a great measure for decentralization. (By this, Provincial Governments were enlarged on the basis of direct election. Dyarchy was introduced in the Provinces). Jallianwala Bagh Massacre: The massacre at Jallianwala Bagh, Amritsar on April 13, 1919 lit the flame of liberty and inspired the people in continuing their fight for freedom. Terrible brutalities were committed by the troops under the command of General ODwyer who ordered

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indiscriminate firing on peaceful citizens assembled in the Bagh in protest meeting against the arrest of their local leaders. Hundreds of innocent men, women and children were killed at the spot. This was followed by heartless atrocities on the civil population. The incident, however, proved to be a milestone in Indias struggle for freedom. (On March 13, 1940, Sardar Udham Singh, an Indian patriot hailing from Punjab, shot down Sir Michael O Dwyer, the Lt Governor of Punjab at the time of the Jallianwala Bagh Tragedy, while he was addressing a meeting in Caxton Hall, London. Lord Zitland, the Secretary of State for India, who was also one of the perpetrators of that heinous slaughter, escaped with bullet wounds.) The Non-Co-operation Movement: Mahatma Gandhi gave a new direction to the national freedom movement. The policy of progressive, non-violent non-co-operation adopted by him was a novel technique in political agitation not tried anywhere else. It envisaged surrender of titles, boycott of legislative bodies, courts, and foreign goods, resignations from nominated posts etc. The movement caught the imagination of the unarmed masses of India. It led to the boycott of a visit by the Prince of Wales in 1921. To crush the non-co-operation movement, the government resorted to a policy of repression. Mahatma Gandhi responded with a call for civil disobedience in Bardoli and a no-tax campaign in Guntur. Chauri Chaura Incident: Before the civil disobedience movement could be started, however, a strong mob in a place called Chauri Chaura killed some police personnel. This went against Gandhijis strict injunction to avoid adoption of violent methods and abruptly called off the agitation. Simon Commission, 1927: In 1927, when Lord Irwin was the Viceroy of India, the British Parliament appointed a Commission with Sir John Simon as the president to report on the working of the constitutional reforms of 1919 and to suggest further advance in the direction of responsible government. The Simon Commission which did not include any Indian representative, visited India twice in 1928 and was each time met with shouts of Simon Go Back. It was boycotted from the very beginning by Mahatma Gandhis followers and the moderates on the plea that all its members were British. Moreover, Indians at that time demanded that the British should come out with a promise to grant Dominion Status. Dandi March: To work towards the achievement of the goal, Mahatma Gandhi drew up a civil disobedience programme. On March 12, 1930 he started from Sabarmati Ashram on a march to the sea for manufacturing salt from sea-water a symbolic act of law-breaking. The march came to be known as the Dandi March. Gandhi-Irwin Pack: As a part of its programme of non-co-operation, the Congress boycotted the First Round Table Conference held in London in 1930. At this stage, two moderate statesmen, Sapru and Jayakar, started efforts to bring about rapprochement between Mahatma Gandhi and the Government. Their efforts resulted in the Gandhi-Irwin Pact which was signed on 5 th March, 1931. In terms of the Pact, the civil disobedience movement was withdrawn, and Gandhiji agreed to attend the Second Round Table Conference. Poona Pact: In 1932 British Prime Minister Ramsay MacDonald gave the Communal Award which conceded a separate electorate for the scheduled castes. The Award created great dissatisfaction among the Hindus. Gandhiji staked his life to get it annulled and went on a fast unto death. Ultimately the fast ended in the Poona Pact which repudiated the Award. The leaders

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of the various groups and parties among Hindus and Dr. B.R. Ambedkar on behalf of the Harijans signed the Poona Pact. Government of India Act, 1935: Its main feature was the introduction of the Federation of India a union between Governors Provinces and those Indian States whose rulers desired to become members of the Federation. Quit India Movement, 1942: On August 8, 1942, the All India Congress Committee met in Bombay and passed the resolution, known as Quit India resolution, calling upon the British to quit India. The resolution demanded immediate end of the British rule and sanctioned non-violent mass-struggle on a wide scale to achieve the goal. This was a signal for a countrywide agitation which, however, took a violent turn at many places. In several districts, the administration was paralyzed and a large number of persons were killed as a result of police firing. A revolutionary upsurge swept the country from one corner to the other and the Government used its entire machinery to suppress the movement. All the Congress leaders were put behind the bars and the movement was crushed by ruthless measures and with the help of armed forces. The Mountbatten Plan: The Mountbatten Plan of June 3, 1947 contained a solution for the political and constitutional deadlock created by the refusal of the Muslim League to join the Constituent Assembly formed to frame the Constitution for India. It laid down detailed principles for the partition of India and the speedy transfer of political power in the form of Dominion Status to the newly born Dominions of India and Pakistan. Its acceptance by the parties concerned resulted in the birth of Pakistan as a sovereign state out of the territories which formerly constituted parts of undivided India. Indian Independence Act, 1947: The main purpose was to grant freedom to India after partitioning of the country into India and Pakistan.

Governors-General of India
Louis Mountbatten: Aug, 15, 1947 to June 20, 1948. (The first governor-General of free India) C. Rajagopalachari: June 21, 1948 to Jan. 25, 1950. (The first Indian Governor-General of free India) Presidents of the Indian Republic Dr. Rajendra Prasad: (1950-62) (The first President of the Indian Republic) Dr. S. Radhakrishnan: (1962-67) (The philosopher-President of India) Dr. Zakir Hussain: (May 13, 1967 to May 3, 1969) (The first President of India to have died while in office) V.V. Giri: (Aug. 24, 1969 to Aug. 23, 1974) (The first President to be elected in contest against a Congress nominee for Presidentship) Fakhruddin Ali Ahmed: (Aug. 24, 1974 to Feb. 11, 1977) (The fifth President of the Republic of India) Neelam Sanjiva Reddy: (July 25, 1977 to July 24, 1982) (He is the sixth President of the Republic of India) Gani Zail Singh: (July 25, 1982 1987) (He is the seventh President of the Republic of India)

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R. Venkataraman (July 25 1992 July 25, 1992) Dr. Shankar Dayal Sharma (July 25 1992 July 1997) Mr. K.R. Narayanan (July 25, 1997 2002) A.P.J. Abdul Kalam (July 26- 2002 July 2007) Prativa Devi Singh Patil (July 25, 2007 Continuing) World History Reforms & Movements French Revolution: It was brought about in 1789 by the revolutionary teachings of French philosophers namely, Rousseau, Voltaire and Montesquieu. In those days in France, the Clergy enjoyed privileges at the expense of the poor people. Rousseau preached the gospel of Liberty, Equality and Fraternity. The revolt spread when a mob stormed the Bastille Prison in Paris. King Louis XVI was executed in 1793 and the Queen Marie Antoinette also suffered death later. Napoleon emerged as Emperor of France. Russian Revolution: It came about 1917 during Czar Nicholass regime. The people in his time were very poor and the Czar suppressed them ruthlessly. A full-scale revolt broke out in 1917 when the Soviet Council of Workers sprang into action. The army refused to fire at the revolutionaries and rather sided with them. Bolsheviks came to power. Czar Nicholas was executed and Lenin emerged as the strong man of Russia. Magna Carta: It was the Charter of Liberties which King John II was forced to sign in 1215. It meant to put a check upon the arbitrary powers of the King. The most important principle that it laid down was that Englishmen should be governed by definite laws and not by the whims or the will of a despotic ruler. Magna Carta was said to be the foundation-stone of the rights and liberties of the English people. Renaissance: It was a transitional movement in Europe between the mediaeval and the modern which brought back the classic ideals in literature, painting and architecture. It began in the 14 th century and attained its highest glory in the 15th and 16th century. Glorious Revolution (England): It is so called due to its bloodless character and far-reaching consequences. The Glorious Revolution of 1688 ended the despotic rule of the Stuarts in England, reduced monarchy to a sort of crowned Presidency in a free state, vested sovereignty in the Parliament and led to far-reaching and permanent changes in the English system of Government. The Bill of Rights: was the name given to a law declaring the rights and liberties of British subjects and settling the question of succession to the British Crown, passed by Parliament in 1689. The significance of the bill lies in that it not only clarified the existing law but also placed monarchy in England on a constitutional basis. It liberated British subjects from arbitrary government. Industrial Resolution, England: Period beginning in the second half of the eighteenth century, during which power-driven machines replaced handwork as a result of rapid growth of applied science watt and steam power. American Civil War: Fought by the settlers in America against the sovereignty of British Empire under the leadership of George Washington in 1776-83. America became independent.

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The Crusades: Military expeditions undertaken by some Christian Nations to ensure the safety to pilgrims visiting the Holy sepulchre and to retain in Christian hands the Holy Places (10951217). First Crusade was undertaken by Godfrey of Bouillon. Reformation Movement in Germany: A great religious movement of the 16 th century, under the leadership of Martin Luther; resulted in establishment of Protestantism. From Germany it spread to other European countries. Human Rights Charter: The General Assembly of the U.N. adopted Universal Declaration of Human Rights in 1948. The Declaration recognized the inherent dignity and equal and inalienable rights of all members of the human family. The work of drafting the Human Rights Charter was mostly done by Rene Cassin, Nobel Peace Prize winner of 1968. Nazism: the cult of the Nazis or of the National Socialism of Hitler in pre-war Germany, which believed in the superiority of the German or Nordic race and treated the peoples of other races, particularly the Jews, in a cruel manner. The Spanish Armada: was a great fleet sent by Philip II of Spain, leader of Catholic Europe, to invade England in 1588. The British defeated the Armada and thus established their supremacy over the seas. Battles and Wars outside India Hundred Years War 1338-1453 Fought between France and England. The cause of the war was the succession question to the throne of France which was claimed by Edward III of England. The war was resumed by Henry V and was brought to and end by the heroism of Joan of Arc A country girl who overthrew the power of England. Joan of Arc was burnt alive at the stakes in 1431. Battle of England or the defeat of the Spanish Armada 1588 The British fleet under Lord Howard defeated the Spanish Armada. A heavy storm scattered the Spanish fleet. This victory of the British established their supremacy over the seas. Battle of Gibraltar Bay 1606-07 the Dutch defeated the Spaniards and the Portuguese. Battle of Preston 1641 Cromwell defeated Charles I and succeeded in establishing the Protectorate. Battle of Naseby 1645 Royalists in England defeated. Battle of Blenheim 1704 England and Austria headed by Marlborough defeated the French and Bavarians. Seven Years War or Anglo-French War III 1756-63 England and Germany defeated France and Russia. American War of Independence 1776-83 George Washington defeated the British forces. America became independent. Battle of the Nile 1798 A.D. The British fleet under Lord Nelson defeated the French fleet and established their supremacy over the Mediterranean Sea.

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Battle of Trafalgar 1805 The British fleet under Lord Nelson defeated the combined French and Spanish fleet. By this defeat, Napoleons scheme of invading England was foiled. Battle of Austerlitz 1805 - Napoleon defeated Austria and Russia. Battle of Leipzig 1813 - The English and the Allies (Russia and Prussia) defeated Napoleon and called this battle as the Battle of the Nations. Battle of Waterloo 1815 - The British under the Duke of Wellington (Sir Arthur Wellesley) defeated the French under Napoleon. Napoleon was captured and exiled to St. Helena where he died. Crimean War 1854-56 - The combined forces of the British, French and Turks defeated Russia. American Civil War 1861-65 - Northern States of America under Abraham Lincoln defeated the Southern States and established a Federal State. Sino-Japanese War 1894-94 - Japan defeated China and occupied Formosa and Korea. Battle of the Sea of Japan 1905 (i) Battle of Port Arthur and (ii) Battle of Yalu Japanese fleet defeated the Russian fleet. It led the wave of the idea of Asian resurgence. Battle of Jutland 1916 - Naval battle between England and Germany during World War I; England defeated Germany. Battle of Verdun 1916 - famous battle of world war I fought between France and Germany. World War I 1914-18 - Britain and her Allies (France, U.S.A. and Belgium) defeated Germany and her associated powers. World War II (1st Sept. 1939 to 14th Aug. 1945) The Allies (England, France, USA and USSR) defeated the Axis powers (Germany, Italy and Japan) Battle of E1 Alamein 1942 The Allies victory during the Second World War and retreat of General Rommels forces. Third Arab-Israel war (June 5-9, 1967) Fought between Israel on one side and the U.A.R., Syria and Jordan on the other. Israel achieved victory within 80 hours before all hostilities ceased on June 10 in response to repeated cease-fire cells by the U.N. Security Council. Fourth Arab-Israel War (October 6-23, 1973) Fought between Israel on one side and the U.A.R. and Syria on the other (the latter supported by Iraq, Jordan, Morocco, Algeria, Sudan and Saudi Arabia). The fighting was started by Egypt and Syria in a bid to regain the territories they had lost to Israel in 1967. It was brought to a stop by the U.S.A. and the Soviet Union acting together. By the time the guns were silenced, the Egyptians had established themselves on the east bank of the Suez canal and the Israelis had cut a deep salient on the west bank of the canal. In the process they had encircled an army of 20,000 Egyptian solders. On the other front, viz., the Golan Heights in Syria, the Israelis had maintained their positions, besides making a deep thrust towards Damascus. Falkland war The world witnessed a unique war as a result of the surprise invasion of the British-owned Falkland islands (in South Atlantic) by Argentina on April 2, 1982. The British

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claimed sovereignty over the islands on the basis of certain agreements reached over 150 years ago. But Argentina has laid claims to at least three dependencies of Falklands and still describes the territory as disputed. To regain control 10,000 strong armada was sent by Britain. Argentina damaged several ships, shot down several planes and thwarted the British forces plan for a quick victory for several days. However, on June 16, 1985 Argentinian forces surrendered. It cost Britain over 2 billion dollars and loss of several lives to regain its hold on the disputed islands. Iran-Iraq War The war between the two Gulf countries started when Iraq suddenly invaded Iran on September 22, 1980. Though Iraq gained some initial advantages, but lost them with Iran mobilizing its forces effectively, The Iranian-Iraqi frontier has been a trouble-spot for decades, with periodic skirmishes erupting over Iraqi efforts to control Shatt-al-Arab waterway at the head of the Gulf, the key oil gateway to both the nations. It has been over six years now and the war is still continuing. Despite several appeals by U.N. and NAM no effective ceasefire could be brought forward. The hostilities are on in one of the biggest blow-up between two Gulf countries.