KASHMIR STUDY

1. Geography of Kashmir;-

The state of Jammu and Kashmir lies in the North East of Pakistan and North West if India, China and Afghanistan also boarded it
towards the North of the state. It is famous for its mountains,valleys,plains,lakes,and rivers. It is also worldly known for its different
agricultural products, like fruits,vegetables, herbs, minerals,precious stones like woolen carpets shawl. In Kashmir one can enjoy the
beauty of nature trout fishing, big and small hunting. During winter climbing on mountain peeks,sports like skating on the mountains.
In addition to the above of the pilgrimage to famous religions shrine of Hindus and Muslims. A great tourist attraction a great Persian
poet Shakh Sadi is believe " If there is an heaven on Earth it is there in Kashmir."

2. Political Importance:-

The state of Jummu Kashmir has acquiring a unique Geo political status in the Indian subcontinent it has contiguous boundries with Rusia
,Afghanistan, Pakistan,China and India . And that it has made the state very important for these countries geographical, political,economical
and from military point of view.

3. Name of Kashmir:-

Name of Kashmir is derived from "Chasa", a very ancient and brave tribe of Kashmir. The tribe founded the cities of Kashan and Kashghar.
The tribe was inhabited between the Hamalias and Hindu kush.

According to Baber the name of Kashmir has been derived from Kash and Mir and latter it became Kashmir

According to some historians the whole valley was covered by water of a lake. And a beautiful goddess Pervati use to visit the lake in the
beautiful sail boat. In her honor the lake was known as Sattisar.

According to some Brahumans, name of Kashmir has been taken from Kash(mean light) and Mira(mean sea).

Their is an other opinion that the word of Kashmir has been derived from Ksahaf and Mor.

According to the Muslims the word of Kashmir has been derived from Kas and Mir. Thus Kashmir means consisted with Nalas and Mountains.

There is another story narrated by the Muslims, prophet of God,Hazrat Sulaman came to Kashmir and landed on the peek of mountain called
Tkatat-e-Sulamana. And the demain called Kash drained the valley by cutting the hills of Baramula and as a regard he was married to the
goddess name Mir in the court of Hazrat sulaman. And on the name of Kash it became the Kashmir.

4. Earlier state of kashmir :-

The oldest regard of historic Kashmir shows Kashmir was a huge lake called Sattisar and in this lake a demain called Jolod Bhawa who used to
torched and frightening the people living in the vicinity of the lake. These people were called Nagas and Considered to be the first settlers of
Kashmir.

There are some tradition which give some proves of existing of the early men of in this valley "Dr. Terra and petterson" carried out first
exploration during the year in 1935. But they couldn't find any remains of perulethic man but latter in 1969, proff. Sankalia and his team of
arechaloiglst of India,discovered the first tool from Kashmir. He give some evidence of early man of Kaliulithiacl period in the site burzahoim
nearly Srinagar. The site is located on the ancient lake locally called Karewa. The extavation have brought to light four cultural phases of
these periods 1st and 2ndbelong to Neolithic,3rd to Megalithic and 4th to the Historicalithic. They noticed a menhirs at the site. They also
noticed the presence of post holes on the site. These post holes were supported with wood posts against the severness of weather.

Presences of ash(fire), carbon,charcoal and pot sheds clearly indicate the human occupation of the site. From the evidence of the stone
nearly the mosques of these pits indication of their open life. It also indicates that shallow storage pits suggest that they used to shift to the
ground level on sunny days in summer months. These pits were in rectangular shape or sometime in square shape. These settlers used hand
made pottery. Many types of them are using in the valley of kashmir even now.

The pottery was used is crude. Hand made ware, color being cheafly steel, gray, shade of dull red, brown and buff. They are Coates in fabric
and fanish and are present by bowl, veshels and stump, wheel made pottery is how ever absent in this period.
5.period #1:-

The main figures of early settlers are dwelling pits cuts below ground level into the nature site. The pits are well light structure. The pits were
dug out with long stone Celts,and traces of these cuts made are still visible. Cuts were usually made in circle or oval shape. Narrow at the top
and wide at the base, the largest of these pit measured 2.47 meter of top and 4.57 meter at the base and 3.95meter in depth.

Death:-

There is no evidence of death in this period. The total absence of any Burrier may indicate that the period may indicate that the people may
have adopted some other character.

Livings:-

The main types are harpoors for fishing, needle with or without eyes, spearpoints, arrow heads and diggers for hunting have been found.
Some tools, such as stone, axes, adzes pounders have been found during the excavation. Bone and stone tools have also been found. There is
no evidence for cultativations for cerials of this period.

6. Period#2:-

At the second stage structure in mud or mud bricks with regular floor made of Karewa have been found. Timber structure are also indicate
that the people have been living at these places and they aware about the use of wood. The underground pits and chambers were no longer
used, some of these were filled, and plastered with mud and covered with thin coat of red orctre to serve as a floor.

Pottery at this period is general hand made fabric cloths has been found. Some shapes of dish with a hallow stand jar, stemp with triangular
shape have been found. There were some parts which were painted, and may have been imported from some other countries, a wheel made
red part has been found.

Death:-

This period indicate some types of burriers which were found with in the settelments. Human beings were burried in oval pits mostly dug in
the houses floor or in the compounds with the inner side of pit plastered with limes. Burriers shows that they were also burring the animals
with human beings. Some bones of dog and horns have been found with the skeletons of human beings. There is a borer with a long hollow
for boring purposes have been found.

7. Period#3:-

Pottery parts, bone and stone tools continuous to be used in this period. The only main difference of this period is use of wheel made
pottery. A few metallic objects have been found. Mud bricks structures have also been found. This is era may have been of the 3rd or 4th
century A.D.

Conclusion:-

The Kashmir valley has its an distinctive trades not shared by its country part as well india. Its wide range bone and stone tools, dwelling pits,
knife or blades, barriers of animals with human skeletons, makes it unique in the world.

8. History of old Hindu kings:-(2480B.C.to 1320A.D.)

According to Raj Trangni famous book written on kashmir, Gonanda, was the 1st ruler of Kashmir who lay down the kingdom of the Kashmir
in 2480 B.C. But this government was recognized in the entire valley and his name is no longer remember in the history of Kashmir. According
to some other historian Pya Karan who found his kingdom in Kashmir in 2180B.C. He was the first ruler who introduced the monarical system
of government in Kashmir.

Ashuka was the ruler in among the Hindu who followed Buddha and built the famous city of Srinagar. Hushka,Juskhka,Kanishka were the
strong rulers of Kashmir who followed Buddha and third Great conical of Baddhists was held in Kashmir during the region of great Kasnishka.
Then the nagas took offence and Baddhists was destoried. The Hindus ruled over kashmir about 4,000 years during this long period of history
21 Hindu families ruled to power in Kashmir.

Among these ruler Vinadityai(407 to 530A.D.) was the noble and philosopher king. He build a small hut to live a administrat to the state. He
lead a very simple life and retrained a very strong army but only to deafend his country.
Mirahakulla is known as cruel as death ascend the throne in 502A.D. He was the leader of white Hun. People of Kashmir still point out
about his cruelties and say that "to a ridge on Pir Panjal the king used to amuse himself 100 elephants fallen from the peek of the mountain
and he was enjoying with their crys."

Paravara Sena 2 was the other famous Hindu king who reigned in the 6th century and built the famous city of Paravarapura near Srinagar.
But the most famous king of these days was Lalitaditya (697 to 738 A.D.) famous as Muktapida. He was the great conqueror. He not conqured
India but also subdued the king of central Asia. He brought himself the skilled men and divoted to great public works. He built great Temple
and ornamented them with gold. He built canals to erigate the land and constructed large cauldron from which 100,000 of men could be feed
daily. The magnificent city of Paraspur or Parikashpur also built by him. He also built the beautiful Temple of Martand. He was died in
Trakhstain after the reign of 37 years. There were the signs of decay in the beginning of 14th century a civil war was broke out in the Kashmir
in the century of the Hindu kingdom was weakened.

During the reign of Simba Deva in 1305A.D. a Tartar Invader, Khan Dalcha or Zulkdar khan invaded and Simba Deva run to Kishtwar. The
Tartar slotted the people many of them took as slave and set fire to the city of Srinagar. After the occupation of about 8 months. Khan Dalcha
went back and departed the city. Rama Hand the commander in chief of simba Deva tried to ascend but in vein.

Conculation:-

When we discuss the Hindu period some of them were very brave and very kind to the people but some of them misbehave and they
tyrannized the people and nothing was scared in their eyes. They looted the properties of the people, culture and engineering made great
progress and their ruins can be seen at different places through the valley. Particular at Prata, Auwantipura and Wangat they knew many arts
of using stone and bronze and developed them to a great degree the Temple of Mortand is the great example of their art. But economic
condition of people were very poor and there was no wealth in the country the cultivaters have to paid 1/10th of their production to
government as a review.

Muslim Sulatins:-(1320-1323)(1338-1556)

A Tibtian Prince Raim-chan-Shah who had curled with hi father's the king of Tibat and taken a selder under the king of kashmir broke with
Ram Chand the commonder in chief and the Prime Minster of Kashmir and killed him in 1320.He married of "Kota Rani" the daughter of Ram
Chand and claimed himself as the king of kashmir.He was the first Muslim ruler who heints abmressed at the hand of Bulbul Shah and took
the name of SADRUDDIN in 1320.He built the Jamaya Masjid of Siri-Nagar and great shrine for Bulbul shah which is still as *BULBUL LANKAR*
Sardruddin ruled only for two and half year in Kashmir.On the death of Sadruddin,in1323A.D UDAYANADEVA brother of Simba Deve married
to Kota Rani and became the king of Kashmir.

Thus Kashmir once again went into the hands of Hindu's.Udayanadeva ruled for 15 years and on his death Kota Rani ruled in Kashmir for a
very short of period.

In 1338A.D Shah Mir assdended the thrown under the name of SHAMS-UL-DIN.He proposed married to Kota Rani but Rather to marry him
she commented to suisite.

After the death of Kota Rani he assmued all the power and became the king of Kahmir.He was the first Muslim ruler who was called the
SULTAN of Kashmir.The Muslim Sulatins of Kashmir ruled over Kashmir for more then two and a half centries.

In 1349A.D SULTAN SIKANDAD assdended the thrown and assumed the tittle of BUTH-SHIKN.He was very brave and cultraled.He destroyed
all the grained buildings and temples of the old Hindu Predessors.He offered the peoples 3 choices 1.convesation 2.exire(Homeless.To settle
down) 3.Death Many fled Many were migrated and many were converted.

During his regime vine,gambling and music were strictly prohibited and the end of his regime all the inhibitence of Kashmir ececty the
Burmans had Probably accepted Islam.

In 1420 A.D SULTAN ZAIN-UL-ABIDIN came into the power in Kashmir and he was known in the history of kashmir as BAD-SHAH and his long
regime of 52 years is couted by the Kashmiries as the happiest period of Kashmir.He was very brave,generest,large hearted kind and just.

He was the lover of art and he respected the mens of learning.He was the first king who introduced the industries of SHAWL manufeacturing
PAPER MAKING and Sericulture.He relised all the prisoners in the state.He constructed many bridiges and cannal's to erigate the land and
planted many gardens through out the state.He also cause way from under court to SOPUR.He was very tolerent to Burmans,he repaired
many hindu's temples and revined hindu's learning.He remited the JAZYA or POLTENCE for Hindu's taught them Persians and encougred them
by granted them peaces of land his court was throwned with poets,musians and singers.He concured Tibat and Punjab estabilshed his
kingdom from PESHAWAR to SIRHIND.He built a manificant palce 12 stroies,franshish rooms and in each room 500 men could live.The
building known as LAINA DUB.He was found of sports and built a beal three stories palce and masjid on Wullar lake under the SULATINS the
population was happy.

Kashmir under CHAKS (1556 to 1586 A.D.):-

Towards the end of Zain-ul-Abidin period, the Chaos began to prominent but Zain-ul-Abidin drove them out of the valley. Successors of Zain-
ul-Abidin were very weak,and they gave a chance to Chaks for rase their power. A civil war broke out and Gazi Chao by come the first ruler of
Chaks dinisty in 1556 A.D.

The Chaks were shaias and they were very tyrient to the sun I MuslimMuslims and the hindus. In 1580 Yasuf Chak became the king of
Kashmir and he introduce the Charms of Gulmarg. Where was the Yaquab khan was the last ruler of Chaks. Who ascended the throne in 1586
A.D. He was very cruel to the suni's and the Hindus,so they sent their representative to the Akbar,Mutual Empirer to invade Kashmir. Mutual
Empirer promised with them.

Under the Chaks, lovely pool of Terigam once of the most beautiful sences in Kashmir is said to have been constructed by Madam Chak. Their
are some remaining of Cham city in Regipura near Madam chak city. They also construed a fort at Kushipura. This period is notable for
political instability, insecurity and religious fanaticism.

Kashmir under the MUGHALS(1586-1752 A.D.):-

Akbar sent Mir Qasim to visit Kashmir in 1585 A.D. He attacked Kashmir via Rajouri. Mir Qasim deafeted the army of Yaquab Khan and enter
in Srinagar in 1586. Thus Kashmir came under the Mughal occupation. Akbar visited the valley three times. And his first visit in 1587, he
brought with himself his review governed Todar Map who started the review of the valley arrangements from his camp Pata. Akbar also built
his famous and strong fort on the hills of Hari Parbat. And raised the town of Nagar Nagar. His chief built many gardens and houses at this
place.

His son Jhangir loved Kashmir and he was greatly attached to it. When he was asked on death bed at Baramula he wanted any thing, he
replied "only Kashmir ".

Jhangir layer out many pleasure gardens in the valley of kashmir. Under the Mughals their were about 777 gardens in Kashmir. Nishat and
shalmir gardens of Srinagar were built by Jhangir. He also layer out a garden at Daulat-a-Abud. Canal of shalmir and Napa Bal was built by
him. He also built a famous Masjid at Srinagar known as shahi Masjid or Pathar Masjid.

Empires shah Jahan was also great builder of the pleasure places in Kashmir. He layer out the famous gardens such as Chenar, illchi, shadipur
gardens and a magnificent Nasim garden at srinaga. He also built some gardens at Auwantipura and Bijbihara and Shalabar. A garden of
sadiaqabad which is known as Hazrat Bal. Hazrat Bal was one of his chief sadiaq khan. His governor Zufhar khan and Ali mardan were very
kind and just to the people. They built the garden of Zufharabad, Gulshan and Any at garden at Srinagar. Zafhar khan ebloshed many of the
taxes empower by his predessors. He also reduced the taxes on the boat men, and on the wool and sheep. Ali mardan they built the
beautiful seriyes on the Pir Panja to root to India.

Aurangzab Alamgir visited Kashmir only once in his life. He was very religious minded and belongs to "Hanfi sect" of the Muslims. He built
500 Masjid and beautiful garden in kashmir. His brother Bar Shikon also built the gardens of Ghana Ara, Sad a bad, Parimahal,and Paramahal
at Srinagar. The rule of Mughal was some how just and their laws and ordinance were excellent in spirit. Under the Mutual was indeed a
paradise. The entire valley was covered with fertile lands and highly cultivated gardens,meddow and vine gardens, field of Rice weed hump.
Safforns and many sorts of vegetable were available in Kashmir.

Kashmir under the Afghans(1752-1819):-

Mughals ruled over Kashmir by their governors. Some of them were very good. They did a lot for the prosperity for the people. But some of
them were very stern in their attitude towards the masses. When the Mughal Empires became to decay, governors become more powerful
and independent. They began to quarrel among themselves and Kashmir fell once again into wild disorder and eventually Kashmir came the
worse ruler of the Afghans. Among the Afghans, governor Amir khan, Juwan Sher were the best. Amir khan built the Amur kadal bridge, at
the enterence of Srinagar. He also constructed a magnificent palace of Shergarn on the other hand he , he destroyed most of the gardens
built by the Mughals near Whular and Deal lake.

These Afghans are remembered only for their cruelty. The most of their victims were pundits, shias and Bombas tribes of Jhelum. They
proved extremely harsh, cruel and wicked and the people of Kashmir had to suffer very harsh treatment from Afghans. It is said of them that
they thought no more of cutting of off hands than plucking off flowers.
Kashmir under the Sikhs(1819-1846):-

The first attempt made by Ranjit Sing conquer Kashmir in 1818 via Pir Panjal. Ranjit sing himself watching the operation by Ponch. The Sikhs
army was badly deafeted by Afghan governor Adam khan. He again invaded Kashmir in 1819. He sent his army under the command of Diwan
Chand, accompanied by Ghulab sing and they were successful in deafeting Azam khan. Sikhs army entered in the Srinagar on July 4,1819.
Thus Kashmir went into the hands of Sikhs after the rule of five generations of Muslims. Now the Sikhs were the masters of Kashmir but the
change of government did not improve the conditions of the people. They were too cruel and harsh to the people as were Afghans.

Maha Raja Ranjit Sing oppoint governor from the Durbar of Lahore to run the affairs of the country. The last two governors were shah gulam
Mohin-ul-Din and his son Imam-ul-Din shakh. Imam-ul-Din opened the gates of Jamma Masjid of Srinagar in 1843, which had been closed
since 1819.Among the Sikh governors Colonel Main Sing was the best who introduced some reforms in Kashmir. He remitted some taxes such
as marriage taxes and boat men taxes and introduced some weights in Kashmir. Under the Sikhs every trade was taxed butchers,bakers,boat
men,venderso of fuels, public lotteries and hunters all paid a sort of corruption taxes and even the Kotwal, the chief officer of justice ,pays a
large amount of 30,000 rupees for his oppointment.

Moorcroff says that the officials were very corrupt and were very tyrent to the peasant every thing in the valley was taxed. The whole of the
land in Kashmir was considered of the ruler. And the peasant have no right of their property.

Kashmir under Dogras(1846-1947):-

Maharaja Gulab Sing was the founder of the state. He was the son of Kishore Sing and was born in 1788 at Jammu. Kishore sing had three
sons Gulab Sing, Dhian Sing and Suehet Sing and four daughters were secretly put to death by their brothers. Gulab sing was employed at
Mangla in Mirpur but he left the job as it was not suiting to him. Then he went to Bhimber and was given a job by Raja Sultan of Bhimber. He
could not stay long at Throchi Jahgir(given by Raja) and left for Jammu. His father sent his two sons Gulab Sing and Chain sing to Lahore for
employment. Misr Chand introduced these brothers to Maharaja Ranjit Sing who employed them on a salary of 3 rupees per head per day at
personal attendant. On the account to their intelligence and hard work they became very close to Maharaja Ranjit Sing.

In 1820 Maharaja Ranjit sing granted Jammu as Jahgir and the title of Maharaja to Gulab Sing. After the occupation of Kashmir and the
imprisonment of Raja Sultan Ali khan of Bhimber, his territory is granted to Dhian Sing when Ranjit Sing was died at Lahore in 1839 Gulab
sing lost his influence at the Darbar of Lahore. And his two brothers was assissinated by Sikhs. And he have to leave Lahore for his survival.

Treath of Amratsar:- (March 16, 1846)

After the death of Maharaja Ranjit Sing, Gulab Sing returned to his native town Jammu. Here he wanted to established his own kingdom on
the hills of Kashmir. He refused to the resistance for Sikhs against the British. He was very successful to conquer Ghilgit and Balitstan. In 1845
Anglo-sikh war broke out and Sikhs were deafeted in the battles of Mudhki on 18 December, Ferozshah on 21 December and decisive battle
of Ali war on 28 January.

Then Gulab Sing was asked to take the charge of Sikh army against the British. He also installed as a Prime Minister at the Darbar of Lahore,
and All sing was deposited for his incapability. Gulab Sing went to the Lahore and tried to compromised between Sikhs and the British. All his
efforts are failed. As a result of it the battle of Subraon was fought on the February 10, 1846. The battle decio the faith of Sikhs. The Sikhs lost
their confidence and independence. The British moved forward and captured Lahore on February 20, 1846. The treaty of Lahore was signed
between Sikhs and the British on March 9, 1846.

According to this treaty, the state of Lahore was handed over to the British and Sikhs state was reduced. The territory which lyes to the river
Satulage and the territory between Jlalandhar Doab and the river Beas were passed to the British. The British demanded from the Lahore
Darbar the payment of one and half corer of rupees indemnification for the expenses of the war. The areas which lyes between the river
Beas and Indas included Kashmir and Hazara were handed over to Maharaja Gulab Sing of Jammu. The Sikhs treasury was empty and Lahore
Darbar was not able to pay the required amount and they paid only 50 lac of rupees to the British. The British sold the above mentioned
areas to Raja Gulab Sing for 75 lac(Naunakshahi) rupees. Thus the Maharaja Gulab Sing was the first founder and the ruler of state. Gulab
Sing acknowledge the supermessy of the British and the British promised to gave it aid to protect his territory from internal and external
enemies. Maharaja Gulab Sing conquer Srinagar with the help of British on November 9, 1846.

In May 1847, Hazara and Kahuta in Rawlpandi district were exchanged with Kheri in Mirpur and Manawar.