New Astronomy 81 (2020) 101418

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New Astronomy
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/newast

Some bianchi type cosmological models in f(R, ϕ) gravity T

Adnan Malik, Shahzad Ahmed , Saqib Mahmood ⁎

Department of Mathematics, University of Management and Technology, Sialkot Campus, Pakistan

ARTICLE INFO ABSTRACT

Keywords: In this paper, we study three different Bianchi type line elements, like Bianchi type-I (BT-I), Bianchi type-III (BT-
Gravitation III) and Kantowski Sachs space-time in the framework of f(R, ϕ) theory of gravity, where R and ϕ represent the
Anisotropic universe Ricci scalar and the scalar potential function respectively. We find the exact solution of vacuum field equations
Dark energy of f(R, ϕ) theory by taking valuable assumption that the expansion scalar θ is proportional to the shear scalar σ
that is P = Qn . We also see some physical parameters like Hubble parameter H, volume scale factor V, average
scale factor a, the expansion scalar θ and shear scalar σ for each metric. Finally, we analyze that the exact
solution satisfied the present cosmic condition of universe and singularity (Big-Bang) is also justified through our
evaluated solutions.

1. Introduction
It is evident through many observations and theoretical facts that
our universe is undergoing an accelerated expansion (Allen, 2004;
Bennett, 2003; Hogan, 2007). Researchers claimed that dark matter and
dark energy are behind this expansion. Modified theories of gravity
successfully explained the story of the invisible effects of dark matter
and dark energy. Qadir et al. (2017) examined various aspects of
modified relativistic dynamics and recommended that General Re-
lativity (GR) may need to be modified to resolve different types of
cosmological issues. It has been found that our universe contains 76
percent dark energy and 20 percent dark matter (Riess, 2004). Dark
matter is actually an unknown form of matter which cannot be detected
in the laboratory. The current accelerated cosmic expansion is the result
of observations such as cosmic microwave background radiations,
redshift, Supernovae Type Ia and large scale structures. These ob-
servations explained the role of some mysterious forces (that are being
responsible for the present comic expansion) behind this cosmic ex-
pansion for details, please see Capozziello and Laurentis (2011),
Felice and Tsujikawa (2010), Nojiri and Odintsov (2011), Nojiri and
Odintsov (2006), Yousaf et al. (2017a), Bhatti and Yousaf (2017a),
Bhatti and Yousaf (2017b), Yousaf et al. (2017b), Yousaf (2017a),
Yousaf (2017b), Yousaf et al. (2018a), Bhatti et al. (2017), Bhatti and
Yousaf (2017c), Bhatti et al. (2020a), Yousaf et al. (2018b), , Bhatti and
Tariq (2020), Bhatti et al. (2020b), Yousaf (2020),
Yousaf et al. (2020a), Yousaf et al. (2020b).
It is believed that modified theories of gravity are very useful to
explain the present cosmic expansion. Several mathematical models
have been introduced to modify GR with the aim to explore the uni-
verse. The most important modified theories have been proposed in the
last few decades. Some of these are f(R), f(G), f(G, T), f(R, T) theories of
gravity, where R, G, T and ϕ represents the Ricci scalar, Gauss-Bonnet
invariant, trace of the energy-momentum tensor and scalar potential
respectively. Bhattacharya and Chakroborty (2019) predicted the
nonlinear growth of anisotropy by taking BT-I universe in f(R) modified
theory of gravity. By using the same theory, Wang (2005) took Kan-
towski-Sachs space-time and reported some string cosmological models
in the presence of bulk viscosity. Sharif and Shamir (2010) found some
exact solutions of vacuum and non-vacuum field equations of f(R)
modified gravity for BT-I and BT-V universe. Sharif and Kausar (2011);
Bhatti et al. (2019a,b) studied the an/isotropic behavior of matter
configurations in the contest of f(R) modified gravity.
Abbas et al. (2015) discussed anisotropic compact stars in modified f
(G) gravity. Houndjo et al. (2014) took cylindrical symmetries to dis-
cuss the exact solutions of f(G) field equations and concluded that there
exist several types of exact solutions. Shamir (2016) explored the exact
solutions of BT-I space-time in f(G) theory of gravity and also analyzed
two models graphically. Shugoreva and Toporensky (2018) analyzed
various aspects of vacuum Kasner (BT-I) solution in f(T) theory of
gravity. By using f(T) modified gravity, Paliathanasis et al. (2016)
found some exact analytical solutions of isotropic and anisotropic BT-I
universe and also reported a class of Kasner type vacuum solutions.
Shamir and Ahmad (2017) used the Noether symmetry approach to
investigate the anisotropic fluid BT-I universe in the framework of f(G,
T) modified gravity and also discussed the exact solutions.
Harko et al. (2011) introduced a new modified theory in GR which

⁎
Corresponding author.
E-mail addresses: adnan.malik@skt.umt.edu.pk (A. Malik), shahzad.ahmed@skt.umt.edu.pk (S. Ahmed).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.newast.2020.101418
Received 26 March 2020; Received in revised form 21 April 2020; Accepted 9 May 2020
Available online 12 May 2020
1384-1076/ © 2020 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
A. Malik, et al. New Astronomy 81 (2020) 101418

is known as f(R, T) gravity. Adhav (2012) and Yadav et al. (2020) potential), ∇ξ is the covariant derivative, and fR (partial derivative
f
R
analyzed some exact analytical solutions by considering different types with respect to Ricci scalar R) etc. On contracting the field Eq. (2), we
of models in f(R, T) modified gravity. Yadav and Ali (2018) took two get
models in f(R, T) modified gravity and discussed the exact solution of ; ;µ ;
invariant BT-I space-time by using the Lie point symmetry approach.
fR R 2[f + w ( ) ; ] + w( ) + 3 fR = kT (3)
Yadav (2019) evaluated the exact solution of f(R, T) gravity by using In vacuum, above Eq. (3) follows that
the transition scenario of BT-I universe and also analyzed the solution ; ;µ ;
with the help of energy conditions. Nagpal et al. (2018) examined the
fR R 2[f + w ( ) ; ] + w( ) + 3 fR = 0. (4)
Friedmann Lemaîre Robertson Walker (FLRW) cosmological models Now, one can obtain
with quark and strange quark matter in f(R, T) modified gravity and
fR R 2w ( ) ; + w( ) ;µ ; + 3 fR
concluded that their solutions agreed with the a solution that already f=
;
,
exists in the literature. 2 (5)
Sharif and Nawazish (2017) examined the Noether symmetry in f
which gives the relationship between f(R, ϕ) ≡ f and fR and with
non-minimal coupled gravity and constructed the scalar field models in the help of this relation, one can solve the field equations of f(R, ϕ)
R

f(R, T) gravity and also checked the viability of these models in the light modified theory.
of cosmological parameters. Shamir (2015) found some exact solutions We take a special kind of space-time which can be deal as Bianchi
of BT-I metric in f(R, T) gravity and examined the solutions by means of Type-I (BT-I), Kantowski-Sachs and Bianchi Type-III (BT-III) universe
physical quantities. Sahoo and Reddy (2018) also investigated BT-I and given by
universe with Bulk viscous fluid as matter content and found the exact
solution of the field equations of f(R, T) theory of gravity. By taking ds 2 = dt 2 P 2 (t ) dr 2 Q2 (t )(d 2 + ( ) d 2 ), (6)
specific constraints, Shabani and Farhoudi (2014) examined the viabi-
where ϖ(θ) is defined as
lity of some cosmological models in f(R, T) modified gravity.
Maurya et al. (2019) studied anisotropic strange stars in f(R, T) mod- 2 when k=0 (Bianchi Type-I metric),
ified gravity and determine the solution by assuming a specific model of ( )= sin2 when k=1 (Kantowski-Sachs metric),
Equation of State (EoS). Yousaf (2018, 2019b, 2019c) examined sinh2 when k=-1 (Bianchi Type-III metric), (7)
spherically symmetric stellar models in modified gravity and discussed
the numerical and analytical solutions. Different Bianchi type space- where, k represents the spatial curvature index and the above models
times were studied by different authors Sahoo and Sivakumar (2015); are Euclidian, closed and semi-closed respectively.
Ahmed and Pradhan (2014); Pradhan et al. (2015) and they also listed a
number of cosmological models with the cosmological constant in f(R, 3. Bianchi type-I space-time (BT-I)
T) theory of gravity. Recently, Shamir and Malik (2019a) found some
exact solutions in f(R, ϕ) modified gravity by taking Friedmann Ro- In this section, we study the BT-I universe and evaluate the exact
bertson Walker (FRW) space-time. They Shamir and Malik (2019b) also solution in f(R, ϕ) modified gravity. Since it is very hard to cope with
investigated the behavior of anisotropic compact stars in f(R, ϕ) theory the solution of field equations, therefore we chose vacuum field equa-
of gravity. tions. Now, the metric element of BT-I space-time is as follows
In literature, it is very fascinating to study the exact cosmological
ds 2 = dt 2 P 2 (t ) dr 2 Q2 (t )(d 2 + 2d 2 ),
(8)
solution in GR. In the present work, we also evaluate the exact solution
using three different types of space-time. We take BT-I metric, here the scale factors P, Q are function of t and the Ricci scalar (R) for
Kantowski Sachs metric and lastly we explored the BT-III space-time. the given metric is given by
For each metric, we take the vacuum field Equations of f(R, ϕ) modified
gravity and solved them by using the assumption that the expansion P¨ 2Q¨ 2PQ Q2
R= 2 + + + 2 ,
scalar θ is proportional to the shear scalar σ. In this article, we proceed P Q PQ Q (9)
as follows: The next Section 2 provides the introduction to the field
where dot (.) represents temporal derivative of the scale factor. By
equations of f(R, ϕ) theory of gravity. In Section 2, we take BT-I metric
using the Eq. (5), the vacuum field equation will become
and evaluate the exact solution vacuum field equation. Section 2, 5
refers to the analytical solution of the Kantowski Sachs metric and BT- fR Rµ fR; µ fR R fR
III space-time respectively. In the last section 6, we overview and = ,
gµ 4 (10)
conclude the final results.
also the above Eq. (10), we have differential equation in terms of f, P
2. Field equations in f(R, ϕ) gravity and Q as
fR Rµµ fR;µµ
In modified theory of gravity f(R, ϕ), the matter Lagrangian Lm Aµ = ,
gµµ (11)
depends on R and ϕ, where R and ϕ denotes the Ricci scalar and scalar
potential function respectively. The action for generalized higher-order where μ is an independent index and also Aµ A = 0 for all values of
scalar-tensor theories is as follows (Lambiase et al., 2015) μ and ν. In particular, A0 A1 = 0 implies
1 f¨R
S= d4x g (f (R , ) + w ( ) ; + Lm), 2Q¨ 2PQ PfR
2K ; (1) + = 0.
Q PQ PfR fR (12)
where gμν stands for metric tensor and its determinant is g. One can
Also, A0 A2 = 0 gives
obtain the field equations of f(R, ϕ) gravity by manipulating the action
S given in Eq. (1) and it yields as P¨ Q¨ PQ Q2 QfR f¨R
+ + = 0.
1 ;
P Q PQ Q2 QfR fR (13)
fR Rµ [f + w ( ) ; ] gµ + w ( ) ;µ ; fR;µ + gµ fR = kTµ ,
2
Now, we give some definitions of physical parameters and solve the
(2) above Eqs. (12) and (13). The average scale factor a and the volume
here we take f(R, ϕ) ≡ f and w is an arbitrary function of ϕ(scalar scalar factor V are given as

2
A. Malik, et al. New Astronomy 81 (2020) 101418

a = (PQ 2) 3 ,
1
V = a3 = PQ 2. (14) Since w depends upon ϕ and further ϕ is a the function of the cosmic
scale factor Q. We also consider
Also, the average Hubble parameter H, the expansion scalar θ and the
shear scalar σ are defined as w ( ) = w0 l (t ), = Qm (t ). (29)

1 P Q P Q 1 P Q
2 After using the assumption that Q = T, w and ϕ becomes
H= +2 , = +2 , 2 = .
3 P Q P Q 3 P Q (15) w ( ) = w0 T ml (t ), = T m (t ). (30)
Since physical conditions play key role in cosmology, we use phy- Now, by putting the values of fR from Eq. (21), R from Eq. (28) and w, ϕ
sical condition and reduce the above Eqs. (12) and (13) only in one from Eq. (30) in Eq. (5) and after some simplifications we obtain
cosmic scale factor. For this, we suppose that the expansion scalar θ is
1
proportional to the shear scalar σ and this physical condition given by f (R, ) = kc1 (n2 + 6n + 5) T 3n 6 c1 w0 m2T ml + 2m 4n 8.
2 (31)
P = Qn. (16)
Since R and ϕ depends upon the cosmic scale factor Q and also Q = T
By using the above Eq. (16), we see that the Eqs. (12) and (13) may take therefore,f(R, ϕ) is only represented in form of T.
the form as fellows

f¨R 4. Kantowski sachs metric

2Q¨ Q2 Qf
+ 2n 2 + n R = 0,
B Q QfR fR (17)
In this section, we take the Kantowski Sachs universe, make similar
2
f¨R assumption as we made for BT-I metric and also evaluate the exact
Q¨ Q QfR
(n + 1) + (n2 2n 1) + = 0, solution in f(R, ϕ) modified theory. The metric element of Kantowski
Q Q2 QfR fR (18)
Sachs space-time is expressed as
by adding above Eqs. (17,18) we obtain
ds 2 = dt 2 P 2 (t ) dr 2 Q2 (t )(d 2 + sin 2d 2 ),
(32)
2
Q¨ Q Qf
where the cosmic scale factors P, Q are depends upon t and the Ricci
+ (n + 1) 2 + R = 0.
Q Q QfR (19) scalar (R) for Kantowski Sachs metric is as fallow
To solve the above equation, we need some model. For this purpose we
P¨ 2Q¨ 2PQ Q2 1
take a power law relation between fR and a that is R= 2 + + + 2 + 2 ,
P Q PQ Q Q (33)
fR = kas , (20)
where dot (.) represents the time derivative and also by using the va-
where k and s represent any arbitrary constant and integer respectively. cuum field equation and from Eq. (6) A0 A1 = 0 corresponds as
Also, for the sake of convenient we chose a particular value of s = 3
yields 2Q¨ 2PQ PfR f¨R
+ = 0.
Q PQ PfR fR (34)
fR = kQ n + 2. (21)
and A0 A2 = 0 gives
By using this Eq. (21) assumption, Eq. (19) becomes
P¨ Q¨ PQ Q2 1 QfR f¨R
Q¨ Q2 + + = 0.
+ (2n + 3) 2 = 0. P Q PQ Q2 Q2 QfR fR (35)
Q Q (22)
Now, we also take another function Q = (Q ) Now, we using the assumption P = Qn, the above Eqs. (34) and (35)
becomes
d 2
4n + 6 2
+ = 0. f¨R
dQ Q (23) 2Q¨ Q2 Qf
+ 2n 2 + n R = 0,
Q Q QfR fR (36)
By solving the this differential equation, we have
2 c1 Q¨ Q2 QfR f¨R 1
= , (n + 1) + (n2 2n 1) + = .
Q 4n+ 6 (24) Q Q2 QfR fR Q2 (37)
here c1 denotes the constant of integration. Also, The line element for By adding above Eqs. (36), (37), we get
BT-I universe can be represented in terms of solution given in Eq. (24) is
as fallows Q¨ Q2 Qf 1
+ (n + 1) 2 + R = .
Q 4n + 6 2
Q Q QfR (n 1) Q 2 (38)
ds 2 = dQ Q 2n (t ) dr 2 Q 2 (t )(d 2 + 2d 2 ).
c1 (25) Also we use the assumptions fR = kas and also a =
n+ 2
Q 3 , which implies
Now, we use a transforation (Q = T, r = R, = and = ) that Q¨ Q 1
2

transform the above line element Eq. (25) into new one as + (2n + 3) 2 = .
Q Q (n 1) Q 2 (39)
T 4n + 6 2 Now, we take arbitrary function Q = (Q ) as we considered for BT-I
ds 2 = dT T 2n (t ) dR2 T 2 (t )(d 2 + 2d 2).
c1 (26) metric and we have a differential equation which is given as
By using the above assumptions, some physical parameters also take d 2 4n + 6 2
+ 2 = .
the form as follows dQ Q (n 1) Q (40)
c1 (n + 2) 2
c1 (n 1) 2 c1 (n + 2) By solving the above differential equation, we see that
H= , = , V = T n + 2, = .
3T 2n + 4 3T 4n + 8 T 2n+ 4
c2 1
(27)
2 = + .
Q 4n+ 6 (n 1)(2n + 3) (41)
Also the Ricci scalar becomes
Also, one can used the above evaluated result Eq. (41) and obtained the
R = 2c1 (n2 + 6n + 5) T 4n 8.
(28) new form of the metric element of Kantowski Sachs space-time which is

3
A. Malik, et al. New Astronomy 81 (2020) 101418

2Q¨ Q2 Qf f¨R
1 + 2n 2 + n R = 0,
ds 2 = c2 1
dQ 2 Q 2n (t ) dr 2 Q 2 (t )(d 2 + 2d 2).
Q Q QfR fR (53)
+
Q 4n + 6 (n 1)(2n + 3)

(42) Q¨ Q2 QfR f¨R 1

(n + 1) + (n2 2n 1) + = .
Now, we use the same transformation (Q = T, r = R, = and
Q Q2 QfR fR Q2 (54)
= ) which yields By adding above Eqs. (53) and (54), we get

1 Q¨ Q2 Qf 1
ds 2 = dT 2 T 2n (t ) dR2 T 2 (t )(d 2 + 2d 2). + (n + 1) 2 + R = .
c2
+
1 Q Q QfR (n 1) Q 2 (55)
T 4n + 6 (n 1)(2n + 3)
n+ 2
(43) We also take the model, fR = kas and also a = further for s = 3 we Q 3 ,
have fR = kQ n + 2 . We also use this model and the above Eq. (55) be-
Some physical parameters the shear scalar σ, the expansion scalar θ and
comes
the average Hubble parameter H corresponds to Kantowski Sachs space-
time is Q¨ Q
2
1
+ (2n + 3) 2 = .
1 Q Q (n 1) Q2 (56)
c2 1 2
= (n + 2) + , Now, we take another function Q = (Q )
T 4n+ 8 (n 1)(2n + 3) T 2 (44)
d 2 4n + 6 2 2
1 c2 1 + = .
2 = (n 1)2 + , dQ Q (n 1) Q (57)
3 T 4n + 8 (n 1)(2n + 3) T 2 (45)
After some kind of calculations, we get the solution of above differential
n+2 c 1
1
2 Eq. (57) which is
H=( ) 4n2+ 8 + .
3 T (n 1)(2n + 3) T 2 (46) 2
Q =
c3 1
.
Q 4n + 6 (n 1)(2n + 3) (58)
Also, the Ricci scalar for the given metric, take the form as
Also, the line element of BT-III metric take the new form as
c2 (n2 + 6n + 5) 3n2 + 2n 3
R=2 .
T 4n + 8 T 2 (2n2 +n 2) (47) 1
ds 2 = c3 1
dQ 2 Q 2n (t ) dr 2 Q 2 (t )(d 2 + 2d 2).
Now, we take w in terms of ϕ and further ϕ depends upon the Q as in Q 4n + 6 (n 1)(2n + 3)
Eqs. (29), (30). Using Eq. (47) in vacuum field Eq. (5), and after some
(59)
calculation, we get the exact solution of Kantowski Sachs space-time as
Now, we transform this metric into a new form by using the transfor-
kc2 (n2 + 6n + 5) k (3n2 + 2n 3) T n mations (as we used in previous sections), which yields as
f (R , ) = [
T 3n + 6 (2n2 + n 2)
m2w0 c2 m2w0 1
], ds 2 = dT 2 T 2n (t ) dR2 T 2 (t )(d 2 + 2d 2).
2T 4n 2m ml + 8 2(n 1)(2n + 3) T 2 ml 2m
(48) c3 1
T 4n + 6 (n 1)(2n + 3)
here, the final solution of Kantowski Sachs space-time is only depends (60)
upon T because R and ϕ also the function of T in generic function of f(R,
The average Hubble parameter H for BT-III metric corresponds the form
ϕ).
as

5. Bianchi type-III (BT-III) universe

1
n+2 c 1 2
H=( ) 4n3+ 8 ,
3 T (n 1)(2n + 3) T 2 (61)
In this section, we deal with another metric and discuss the exact
solution as we proceed in pervious sections. Also, BT-III space-time is the shear scalar σ turn out be
followed by
2 1 c3 1
= (n 1)2 ,
ds 2 = dt 2 P 2 (t ) dr 2 Q2 (t )(d 2 + sinh 2d 2 ),
(49) 3 T 4n + 8 (n 1)(2n + 3) T 2 (62)
here also, the scale factors P, Q are function of t and the Ricci scalar R while the expansion scalar θ is as follows
for the above line element is as fellows 1
c3 1 2
P¨ 2Q¨ 2PQ Q2 1 = (n + 2) .
R= 2 + + + 2 , T 4n+ 8 (n 1)(2n + 3) T 2 (63)
P Q PQ Q Q2 (50)
Also, the Ricci scalar corresponding to BT-III space-time is take the form
where dot (.) indicates the time derivative. Also, for given metric the as
vacuum field Eq. (9) turns out to be
c3 (n2 + 6n + 5) 3n2 + 2n 3
f¨R R=2 + 2 .
Q¨ 2PQ Pf T 4n + 8 T (2n2 + n 3) (64)
A0 A1 = 0 2 + + R = 0,
Q PQ PfR fR (51)
Since w is represented in terms of ϕ and further ϕ can be represented in
and terms of Q, as we assumed in Eqs. (29) and (30). By using these
equations one can leads the relation as
P¨ Q¨ PQ Q2 1 Qf f¨R
A0 A2 = 0 + + 2 + R = 0.
P Q PQ Q Q2 QfR fR ; m2w0 c3 m2w0
w( ) ; =
(52) T 2m ml + 8
4n (n 1)(2n + 3) T 2 ml 2m
(65)
Now, using the same physical condition as we used in previous sections Also, by using Eqs. (64) and (65), in vacuum field Eq. (5), and after
that is P = Qn, the Eqs. (51) and (52) yield some calculation, we get the exact solution of BT-III space-time as

4
A. Malik, et al.
kc3 (n2 + 6n + 5) k (3n2 + 2n 3) T n
f (R , ) = [ 3n + 6
+
T (2n2 + n 3)
m2w0 c3 m2w0
+ ].
2T 4n 2m ml + 8 2(n 1)(2n + 3) T 2 ml 2m
(66)
Since R and ϕ depends upon the cosmic scale factor Q and also Q = T
therefore, f(R, ϕ) is only function of T.
6. Conclusion
In this article, we discussed the exact solution of the field equation
of f(R, ϕ) modified theory. We take three different metrics and found
the exact solution for vacuum field equations which are listed as
Bianchi type I (BT-I), Kantowski Sachs and Bianchi type III (BT-III)
metrics. First of all, we consider the field equations of f(R, ϕ) modified
gravity and then contracted these equations. For simplicity, we assume
a vacuum field equation for f(R, ϕ) modified gravity. Initially, the field
equations seem to be complicated and depend upon three different
parameters as P, Q and fR, where P, Q are cosmic scale factor and the
latter one is the partial derivatives with respect to R (Ricci scalar). In
order to manipulate these equations, we have to adopt a suitable phy-
sical condition that makes them easier. In this physical condition, we
consider that the expansion scalar θ is proportional to the shear scalar σ
and that is P = Qn . After that, we get a differential equation which is
looked to be complicated and we solve it by taking the other assump-
tion that we picked another variable ξ in terms of Q (that is Q = (Q ) ).
Not only we get the solution, but we also represent the line element in
terms of the newly evaluated solation. Since the viability of the solution
can be analyzed in the light of physical parameters, so we also evaluate
some important physical parameters against each metric. Lastly, we see
that f = f (R, ) is only be represented in the form of T (time) as we
considered that the Ricci scalar R and ϕ are only be the functions of Q
(Q = T ).
Although, the contraction of the field equations of f(R, ϕ) gravity
theory is the same as the contraction of the field equations of f(R)
modified theory of gravity the finals results are different. If we ignored
the second term ϕ, the final results seem to be similar which already
exists in literature.
Although it is very fascinating to analyzed and justified the eval-
uated solution using different techniques in this article, we can not
check this solution much precisely. We only evaluate the exact solution
for 3 different type of space-times. A lot of work is still going to be done
and one maybe works on it by analyzing (investigating) these solutions
precisely in the light of physical conditions and will get valuable results.
By the analysis of the evaluated solutions (as in eq. 31, eq. 48 & eq.
66), one can be observed that the singularity is also a part of the gen-
eralized solution and in each case, the singularity appears at T = 0 . In
other words, solutions are undefined at that point and also some phy-
sical parameters show this undefined behavior. The expansion scalar θ,
Hubble parameter H and the shear scalar σ becomes undefined at T = 0 .
On the other hand, the volume scale factor V and the average scale
factor a attains the zero value at that point. It is also worth noticing that
the generalized solutions in terms of T clued that, after a very long time
the expansion of the universe will be stopped and isotropy achieve
achieved by it. As per the literature, the isotropy conditions can be
defined in terms of the expansion scalar θ and the shear scalar σ which
2
is approaches to zero as well as T approaches to zero. This ob-
servation clearly indicates that at T = 0, there is a singularity that
clearly refers the big bangs time. And also, the issue of the accelerated
universe can be explained by using these models. Since no one clearly
predicts the future of the universe but with these solutions, one can
predict and conclude that after a very long time (at T → ∞) the
New Astronomy 81 (2020) 101418
expansion will be completely stopped.
Declaration of Competing Interest
The authors have no conflict of interest regarding its publication in
New Astronomy.
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