Geometric Modelling

Prof. Janakarajan Ramkumar

Professor
Department of Mechanical & Design Program
IIT Kanpur, India.
• Understand the various requirements for the information that is
generated during the geometric modelling stage.

• Study various types of geometric models possible and their

applications

• Develop various methodologies used for geometric construction

such as sweep, surface models, solid models, etc.

• Recognize the various types of surfaces and their application as used

in geometric modelling
•
• Understand the solid construction methods including b-rep and CSG
methods

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• The computer compatible mathematical description of the geometry of
the object is called as geometric modeling.

• The CAD software allows the mathematical description of the object to be

displayed as the image on the monitor of the computer.

• A geometric model contains description of the modelled object’s shape.

Since geometric shapes are described by surfaces, curves are used to
construct them.

• Computer geometric modelling uses curves to control the object’s surfaces

as they are easy to manipulate.

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Geometric modelling of a computer mouse
https://www.coroflot.com/MJFellis/Mouse-Design-CAD-Nov-2011
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 There are three steps in which the designer can create geometric models
by using CAD software, these are:
1) Creation of basic geometric objects: In the first step the designer
creates basic geometric elements by using commands like points, lines, and
circles.
2) Transformations of the elements: In the second step the designer uses
commands like achieve scaling, rotation and other related transformations
of the geometric elements.
3) Creation of the geometric model: During the final step the designer uses
various commands to that cause integration of the objects or elements of
the geometric model to form the desired shape.

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https://in.pinterest.com/pin/753860425103945294/?lp=true
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1. Design analysis:

• Evaluation of areas and volumes.

• Evaluation of mass and inertia properties.

• Interference checking in assemblies.

• Analysis of tolerance build-up in assemblies.

• Analysis of kinematics — mechanics, robotics.

• Automatic mesh generation for finite element analysis.

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2. Drafting

• Automatic planar cross sectioning.

• Automatic hidden line and surface removal.

• Automatic production of shaded images.

• Automatic dimensioning.

• Automatic creation of exploded views for technical illustrations.

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3. Manufacturing

• Parts classification.

• Process planning.

• Numerical control data generation and verification.

• Robot program generation.

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4. Production Engineering
 Bill of materials.

 Material requirement.

 Manufacturing resource requirement.

 Scheduling.

5. Inspection and Quality Control:

 Program generation for inspection machines.

 Comparison of produced part with design.

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 Two-dimensional

 Three-dimensional

 The three principal classifications can be

• The line model (wireframe modelling),

• The surface model, and

• The solid or volume model

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Rao, CAD/CAM Principles and Applications, 2010, TMH
Features Line model Surface model Volume model
Automatic view Impossible Impossible Possible
generation (perspective
and orthographic)

Cross-sectioning Manually guided Manually guided Possible, even

automated cross-
hatching is possible
Elimination of hidden Manually guided May be possible Possible
details
Analysis functions Difficult or Difficult or Possible
(Geometric calculations) impossible impossible

Numerical control Difficult or Automatic possible Automatic possible

application impossible

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1. Point definitions

2. Line definitions

3. Circle definitions

4. Arc definitions

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1. Point Definitions

Rao, CAD/CAM Principles and Applications, 2010, TMH

2. Line Definitions

Rao, CAD/CAM Principles and Applications, 2010, TMH

3. Circle Definitions

Rao, CAD/CAM Principles and Applications, 2010, TMH

4. Arc Definitions

Rao, CAD/CAM Principles and Applications, 2010, TMH

 Wireframe Data representation for a Cube 8
Vertex number X coordinate Y coordinate Z coordinate 8 7
1 0 0 0
7
2 10 0 0 5 12
3 10 10 0 5 6
4 0 10 0 6
5 0 0 15 11
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6 10 0 15 4
7 10 10 15 4 3
8 0 10 15 10
1 3
Edge number Start point End point
1 1 2 1 2
2 2 3
2
3 3 4
4 4 1
5 5 6
6 6 7
7 7 8
8 8 5
9 1 5
10 1 6
11 1 7
12 1 8
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Planar surface

• A planar surface is a flat 2D surface.

Curved surface

• Single curved surface: It is a simple curved surface.

• Double curved surface: It is a complex surface generated not by a

straight line but a curved surface.

Ruled surface: Ruled surface is a surface constructed by transitioning

between two or more curves by using linear blending between each
section of the surface.

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https://www.pinterest.co.uk/pin/465207836504089607/
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 Types of surfaces used in Geometric Modelling

Rao, CAD/CAM Principles and Applications, 2010, TMH

 Ruled surface on the left is shown the curves from which the ruled
surface on the right is formed.

Rao, CAD/CAM Principles and Applications, 2010, TMH

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 Two different ruled surfaces formed between two space curves

Rao, CAD/CAM Principles and Applications, 2010, TMH

• Implicit form and Parametric form

• In implicit form, the curve is represented as

f (x, y, z) = 0
g (x, y, z) = 0

• In parametric form, the curve is represented as

X = x(u)
Y = y(u)
Z = z(u)

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Major curves:

 Line
 Circle
 Ellipse
 Parabola
 Hyperbola

 Bezier
 B-splines
 NURBS

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Major curves:

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• Y=mX+b

• The parametric form for the line can be given as

X = ax u + b x for 0  u  1
Y = ay u + b y
Z = az u + bz

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• (x-h)2 + (y-k)2 = r2

• The parametric form of a circle is given by

X = r cos 
Y = r sin 
Where 0    2
r is the radius of the circle.

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 The parametric form of an ellipse whose centre lies at the origin of the
co-ordinate system is given by

x = a cos 
y = b sin 

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• Implicit form
y2 = 4ax

• One of the parametric form is given by

X = a u2
y=2au

Where 0 ≤ u ≤ ∞

Since parabola is not a closed curve like an ellipse, the value of u needs to be
limited for display purpose.
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• The implicit form of a hyperbola is given by

x2 y2
2
 2 1
a b
• One of the parametric forms of a hyperbola is given by

x = a cosh 
y = b sinh 

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• A Bezier curve is a mathematically defined curve used in two-
dimensional graphic applications.
• The curve is defined by points: the initial position and the terminating
position (which are called "anchors") and middle points (which are
called "handles or control points").
• The shape of a Bezier curve can be altered by moving the control points.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:B%C3%A9zier_3_big.gif
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Bezier curves and the Associated Control Polygon

https://plus.maths.org/content/bridges-string-art-and-bezier-curves Rao, CAD/CAM Principles and Applications, 2010, TMH

Example:

https://plus.maths.org/content/bridges-string-art-and-bezier-curves Rao, CAD/CAM Principles and Applications, 2010, TMH

In the case of Bezier curve, it is a single curve controlled by all the control
points.
• With an increase in the number of control points, the order of the
polynomial representing the curve increases.

B-spline generates a single piecewise parametric polynomial curve

through any number of control points with the degree of the polynomial
selected by the designer.

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 Non-uniform rational basis spline (NURBS) is a mathematical model
commonly used in computer graphics for generating and representing
curves and surfaces.

 It offers great flexibility and precision for handling both analytic

(surfaces defined by common mathematical formulae)
and modeled shapes.

 NURBS is flexible for designing a large variety of shapes by manipulating

the control points and weights.

 Weights in the NURBS data structure determine the amount of surface

deflection toward or away from its control point.

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 Evaluation of NURBS is reasonably fast and numerically stable.

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The three-dimensional geometric construction methods which extend
from the 2D that is normally used are:

• Linear extrusion

• translational sweep

• Rotational sweep etc.

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Geometric Construction Methods

 Extrusion

Rao, CAD/CAM Principles and Applications, 2010, TMH

Geometric Construction Methods
 Linear sweep between two cross sections

 Sweep two cross sections along a guide curve

Zeid, Mastering CAD/CAM, 2004, TMH

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Geometric Construction Methods

 Component Model by Rotational Sweep

Rao, CAD/CAM Principles and Applications, 2010, TMH

 Various Solid-Modelling Primitives

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 Geometric Construction Methods

 Boolean Operators and their effect on Model Construction

Rao, CAD/CAM Principles and Applications, 2010, TMH

 Geometric Construction Methods
 Boolean Operators examples:

Rao, CAD/CAM Principles and Applications, 2010, TMH

 Geometric Construction Methods
 Constructive Solid Geometry (CSG)
• It is a technique used in solid modeling.
• Constructive solid geometry allows a modeler to create a complex
surface or object by using Boolean operators to combine simpler
objects.
• potentially generating visually complex objects by combining a few
primitive ones.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constructive_solid_geometry
Rao, CAD/CAM Principles and Applications, 2010, TMH
Geometric Constraints

Zeid, Mastering CAD/CAM, 2004, TMH

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Geometric Constraints

Zeid, Mastering CAD/CAM, 2004, TMH

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Geometric Constraints

Zeid, Mastering CAD/CAM, 2004, TMH

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Geometric Constraints

Zeid, Mastering CAD/CAM, 2004, TMH

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 Summary

 Geometric Modelling
 Function of Geometric Modelling
 Comparison of different modelling methods
 Free form curves
 Geometric Construction Methods
 Geometric Constraints

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 References

1. Rao, P.N., 2004. CAD/CAM: principles and applications. Tata McGraw-

Hill Education.

2. Zeid, I., 1991. CAD/CAM theory and practice. McGraw-Hill Higher

Education.

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