Visvesvaraya Technological University

“JNANA SANGAMA”, Belagavi - 590014

Technical Seminar on

“4D PRINTING”
Submitted in partial fulfilment of the award of the degree of

Bachelor of Engineering
Presented by

BALAKRISHNA R PATIL
2JI20ME419
For the academic year 2022-23
Under the guidance of

PROF. VINAYAK NANNOJI

Assistant Professor,
Department of Mechanica Engineering
Jain College of Engineering Belagavi

JAIN COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT OF

MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
Academic Year 2022-23
 Jain College of Engineering, Belagavi.
(Approved by AICTE, New Delhi, affiliated to VTU Belagavi & Recognized by Govt. of Karnataka)

Department of Mechanical Engineering

CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that the seminar entitled “4D PRINTING” is submitted by BALAKRISHNA R
PATIL (2JI20ME419) a bonafide student of Jain College of Engineering, Belagavi in partial
fulfilment for the award of Bachelor of Engineering in Mechanical Engineering department
affiliated to Visvesvaraya Technological University, Belagavi during the year 2022-23. It is
certified that all corrections/suggestions indicated have been incorporated in the report
deposited in the departmental library. The report has been approved as it satisfies the
academicrequirements in respect of seminar work prescribed for the said degree.

Internal Guide HOD Principal

Prof. VINAYAK NANNOJI Dr. B.V.HUBBALLI Dr. J SHIVAKUMAR

Name of the Examiners Signature with Date :

1.

2.
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The satisfaction that accompanies the successful completion of this

seminar would be incomplete without the mention of the people who made it
possible, without whose constant guidance and encouragement would have made
efforts go in vain. I consider myself privileged to express gratitude and respect
towards all those who guided us through the completion of this seminar.
I convey thanks to my guide Prof. Vinayak Nannoji for providing
encouragement, constant support and guidance which was of a great help to
complete this seminar successfully.
I am grateful to Dr. B.V.HUBBALLI, Head of the Department for giving
me the support and encouragement that was necessary for the completion of this
seminar.
I would also like to express my gratitude to Dr. J SHIVAKUMAR,
Principal & Director, Jain College of Engineering for providing us congenial
environment to work in.
Balakrishna R Patil
 ABSTRACT

The paper highlights the possible technological evolution in the Lean

manufacturing that concerns 4D Printing. To date there are not case studies of 4D
printing application able to demonstrate the effective use of 4D Printing, and its
results on the production cycles. The purpose of this article is to review the state of
the art of the developments in four-dimensional (4D) Printing, through a literature
review, in order to define the 4D Printing characteristics, to examine its
perspectives for the future application in manufacturing and to identify the potential
benefits and manufacturing advantages.

Research into 4D printing has attracted unprecedented interest since 2013

when the idea was first introduced. It is based on 3D printing technology but
requires additional stimulus and stimulus-responsive materials. Based on certain
interaction mechanisms between the stimulus and smart materials, as well as
appropriate design of multi-material structures from mathematical modelling, 4D
printed structures evolve as a function of time and exhibit intelligent behaviour.
Unlike 3D printing, 4D printing is time-dependent, printer-independent,
predictable, and targets shape/property/functionality evolution. This allows for self
assembly, multi-functionality, and self-repair. This paper presents a comprehensive
review of the 4D printing process and summarizes the practical concepts and
related tools that have a prominent role in this field. Unsought aspects of 4D
printing are also studied and organized for future research.
Table of Contents

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

ABSTRACT

LIST OF FIGURES

1. Introduction
1.1 4D Printing

2 Literature Survey
2.1 Eujin Pei

2.2 Headrick, Dan

3. Processing of 4D printing
3.1 Generic Additive Manufacturing Process

3.2 Current State of Technology

4. Application
4.1 Potential Application of 4D Printing

5. Smart materials and polymer

5.1 List of Smart Materials

5.2 Piezoelectric materials

5.3 Shape Memory polymer

5.4 Magneto Strictive Materials

6. Conclusion and future work

6.1 Conclusion

6.2 Future Work

REFERENCES
 List of Figures
1.1 Schematic of 1,2,3 and 4D concepts

3.1 generic Process of CAD to part

i
 List of Tables
5.1 List of Smart Materials

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4D PRINTING

CHAPTER 1

1 Introduction
4-dimensional printing (4D printing; also known as 4D bioprinting, active origami,
or shape-morphing systems) uses the same techniques of 3D printing through
computer programmed deposition of material in successive layers to create a three-
dimensional object. However, 4D printing adds the dimension of transformation over
time. It is therefore a type of programmable matter, wherein after the fabrication
process, the printed product reacts with parameters within the environment
(humidity, temperature, etc.,) and changes its form accordingly. The ability to do so
arises from the near infinite configurations at a micrometre resolution, creating
solids with engineered molecular spatial distributions and thus allowing
unprecedented multifunctional performance.

The term 4D printing was first coined by TED professor Skylar Tibbits in his
February, 2013 speech at the MIT Conference.

A definition of 4D printing could be:

The use of a 3D printer in the creation of objects which change/alter their shape
when they are removed from the 3D printer. The objective is that objects made
self-assemble when being exposed to air, heat or water, this is caused by a
chemical reaction due to the materials utilised in the manufacturing process.
Technology has always been amazing us with its beautiful inventions in the
nature by making the life of human simpler to a greater extent. Additive
manufacturing, more popularly known as 3-Dimensional (3D) printing
technology, has been developed for more than 30 years. Recently, 3D printing
has been recognized as a disruptive technology for future advanced
manufacturing systems. With a great potential to change everything from our
daily lives to the global economy, significant advances in 3D printing
technology have been made with respect to materials, printers, and processes.
Now an innovative concept of printing technology known as 4D printing
technology has been developed. Although similar to 3D printing, 4D printing

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technology involves the fourth dimension of time in addition to the 3D space

coordinates. Therefore, one can regard 4D printing as giving the printed
structure the ability to change its form or function with time (t) under stimuli
such as pressure, temperature, wind, water, or light.

1.1 4-D Printing

4-dimensional printing (4D printing; also known as 4D bioprinting, active
origami, or shape-morphing systems) uses the same techniques of 3D printing
through computer- programmed deposition of material in successive layers to
create a three-dimensional object. However, 4D printing adds the dimension of
transformation over time. It is therefore a type of programmable matter, wherein
after the fabrication process, the printed product reacts with parameters within
the environment (humidity, temperature, etc.,) and changes its form
accordingly. light. Figure 1 depicts a schematic of the 1-, 2-, 3-, and 4D
concepts. The concepts of 1-, 2- , and 3D represent line, plane, and 3D space
structures, respectively. For 4D, the concept of changes in the 3Dstructure (x,
y, z) with respect to time (t) is added, as indicated by curved arrows,

FIG. 1.1. Schematic of 1-, 2-, 3-, and 4D concepts. A 4D structure is a structure
(x, y, z) made by 3D changes over time (t). Arrows indicate the direction of
change with respect to time.

CHAPTER 2
2. LITERATURE REVIEWS

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2.1. Eujin Pei aims to review state-of-the-art developments in additive manufacture,

in particular, 4D printing. It discusses what it is, what research has been carried out
and maps potential applications and its future impact. Additive manufacturing
technologies and goes on to describe the state-of-the-art. Following which the paper
examines several case studies and maps a trend that shows an emergence of 4D
printing. The case studies highlight a particular specialization within additive
manufacture where the use of adaptive, biomimetic composites can be programmed
to reshape, or have embedded properties or functionality that transform themselves
when subjected to external stimuli. The state-of-the-art of additive manufacture,
discussing strategies that can be used to reduce the print process (such as through
kinematics); and the use of smart materials where parts adapt themselves in
response to the surrounding environment supporting the notion of self-assemblies.

2.2. Headrick, Dan observes that product design transform may be possible with
4D printing, the convergence of smart materials and 3D printing technology, which
promises to change not only how things get made but what they can do. Change
over time is the fourth dimension in 4D printing: programmable materials
developed for 3D printing applications have the potential to produce adaptive
products whose physical properties alter when triggered by particular stimuli or that
self-assemble or self-modify over pre-programmed periods of time. Researchers
believe this work will stimulate R&D for smart sensors, coatings, textiles, and other
structural components. Researchers hope to develop materials that can be used in
3D printing processes to build products that can transform in programmed ways in
response to specific environmental forces. One team has nearly completed its first
samples of a class of adaptive composite materials that mimic biochemical
processes to alter their shape, physical properties, or functionality multiple times in
response to external stimuli.

2.3. Al Rhodan, N investigated that the possible technological evolution in the Lean
manufacturing that concerns 4D Printing. To date there are not case studies of 4D
printing application able to demonstrate the effective use of 4D Printing, and its
results on the production cycles. The purpose of this article is to review the state of
the art of the developments in four-dimensional (4D) Printing, through a literature
review, in order to define the 4D Printing characteristics, to examine its

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perspectives for the future application in manufacturing and to identify the potential
benefits and manufacturing advantages.

2.4. Tibbits, Skylar J. E stated that the increasing complexity of the physical
structures surrounding our everyday environment -- buildings, machines, computers
and almost every other physical object that humans interact with -- the processes of
assembling these complex structures are inevitably caught in a battle of time,
complexity and human/machine processing power. If we are to keep up with this
exponential growth in construction complexity we need to develop automated
assembly logic embedded within our material parts to aid in construction. In this
thesis I introduce Logic Matter as a system of passive mechanical digital logic
modules for self-guided-assembly of large-scale structures. As opposed to current
systems in self reconfigurable robotics, Logic Matter introduces scalability,
robustness, redundancy and local heuristics to achieve passive assembly. I propose
a mechanical module that implements digital NAND logic as an effective tool for
encoding local and global assembly sequences. I then show a physical prototype
that successfully demonstrates the described mechanics, encoded information and
passive self-guided-assembly. Finally, I show exciting potentials of Logic Matter as
a new system of computing with applications in space/volume filling, surface
construction, and 3D circuit assembly.

2.5. Julien Gardan examined that these technologies have other names such as 3D
printing or additive manufacturing, and so forth, but they all have the same origins
from rapid prototyping. The design and manufacturing process stood the same until
new requirements such as a better integration on production line, a largest series of
manufacturing or the reduce weight of products due to heavy costs of machines and
materials. The ability to produce complex geometries allows proposing of design
and manufacturing solutions in the industrial field in order to be ever more
effective. The additive manufacturing (AM) technology develops rapidly with news
solutions and markets which sometimes need to demonstrate their reliability. The
community needs to survey some evolutions such as the new exchange format, the
faster 3D printing systems, the advanced numerical simulation or the emergence of
new use. This review is addressed to persons who wish have a global view on the

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AM and improve their understanding. We propose to review the different AM

technologies and the new trends to get a global overview through the engineering
and manufacturing process. This article describes the engineering and
manufacturing cycle with the 3D model management and the most recent
technologies from the evolution of additive manufacturing. Finally, the use of AM
resulted in new trends that are exposed below with the description of some new
economic activities.

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CHAPTER 3
3. PROCESSING OF 4-D PRINTING
4D printing similar to current additive manufacturing process (3D printing). The
main difference is the programmable materials or smart materials which are used
for making the product. The 4D printing relies predominantly on four factors — ✓
The basic additive manufacturing process,
✓ Types of stimulus-responsive material, and

✓ Interaction mechanisms.

✓ Smart design.

3.1 GENERIC ADDITIVE MANUFACTURING PROCESS

AM involves a number of steps that move from the virtual CAD description
to the physical resultant part. Different products will involve AM in different
ways and to different degrees. Small, relatively simple products may only make
use of AM for visualization models, while larger, more complex products with
greater engineering content may involve AM during numerous stages and
iterations throughout the development process. Furthermore, early stages of the
product development process may only require rough parts, with AM being used
because of the speed at which they can be fabricated. At later stages of the
process, parts may require careful cleaning and post processing (including
sanding, surface preparation and painting) before they are used, with AM being
useful here because of the complexity of form that can be created without
having to consider tooling. The use of AM processes enables freeform objects to
be produced directly from digital information without the need for intermediate
shaping tools. Most AM processes can support 4D printing as long as the
selected stimulus-responsive material is supported by or compatible with the
printer. Steps involved in process
• CAD

• STL convert

• File transfer to machine

• Machine setup

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• Build

• Remove

• Post Process

Fig. 3.1 Generic process of CAD to part, showing all 7 stages

Step 1: CAD
All AM parts must start from a software model that fully describes the
external geometry. This can involve the use of almost any professional CAD solid
modelling software, but the output must be a 3D solid or surface representation.
Reverse engineering equipment (e.g., laser scanning) can also be used to create this
representation.

Step 2: Conversion to STL

Nearly every AM machine accepts the STL file format, which has become
a defect standard, and nearly every CAD system can output such a file format.
This file describes the external closed surfaces of the original CAD model and
forms the basis for calculation of the slices.

Step 3: Transfer to AM Machine and STL File Manipulation

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The STL file describing the part must be transferred to the AM machine. Here,
there may be some general manipulation of the file so that it is the correct size,
position, and orientation for building.

Step 4: Machine Setup

The AM machine must be properly set up prior to the build process. Such
settings would relate to the build parameters like the material constraints, energy
source, layer thickness, timings, etc.

Step 5: Build

Building the part is mainly an automated process and the machines can
largely carryon without supervision. Only superficial monitoring of the machine
needs to take place at this time to ensure no errors have taken place like running
out of material, power or software glitches, etc.

Step 6: Removal
Once the AM machine has completed the build, the parts must be removed.
This may require interaction with the machine, which may have safety interlocks
ensure for example that the operating temperatures are sufficiently low or that
there are no actively moving parts.

Step 7: Post processing

Once removed from the machine, parts may require an amount of
additional cleaning up before they are ready for use. Parts may be weak at this
stage or they may have supporting features that must be removed. This therefore
often requires time and careful, experienced manual manipulation.

3.2 Current State of Technology

• 4D printing is a novel advancement to 3D printing technology.

• 4D printing is focused on developing materials and newer printing techniques that

could reduce the time taken for assembly of parts, in turn improving the overall
efficiency of the manufacturing processes.

CHAPTER 4
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4. APPLICATIONS

3D printing has been used to create car parts, smartphone cases, fashion accessories,
medical equipment and artificial organs. Manufacturing corporations and aerospace
organizations have saved billions of dollars by using 3D printing for building parts.
3D printing has also helped save lives. One of the best ways to learn about what 3D
printing can do is by researching real
life applications on the technology. Other applications include:

Rapid prototyping

3D Printed Organs

Personal printing

In the Automotive Industry

In the Aerospace Industry

4.1 Potential Applications of 4D Printing

Though, even if these examples are not characterized by great complexity, we can
foresee great potential in this technology.

Self-repair piping system

One potential application of 4D Printing in the real world would be pipes of
a plumbing system that dynamically change their diameter in response to the flow
rate and water demand. Pipes that could possibly heal themselves automatically if
they crack or break, due to their ability to change in response to the environment’s
change. The error correct and self-repairing capability of 4D manufactured products
show tremendous advantages with regard to reusability and recycling. Self-healing
pipes and self-healing hydrogels are some of the potential applications of 4D
printing. Self-healing of polymers can be achieved by a few categories of reactions,
which include covalent bonding, supramolecular chemistry, H-bonding, ionic
interactions, and π-π stacking. Self-healing materials have also been shown to have
great potential for producing soft actuators with enhanced durability, due to their
ability to self repair damage ranging from bulk cracks to surface scratches. The use
of self-healing hydrogels as inks for additive manufacturing has been successfully
demonstrated .

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Self-assembly furniture
Since 3D printing furniture is limited by the size of the printer, 4D printing
could allow to just print a flat board that will curl up into a chair by just adding
water or light to it. A future

application can be on a large scale and in a harsh environment. Individual parts can
be printed with small 3D printers and then self-assembled into larger structures,
such as space antennae and satellites. This capability can be exploited for the
creation of transportation systems for complex parts to the International space
station. Further applications include self
assembling buildings, this is especially useful in war zones or in outer space where
the elements can come together to give a fully formed building with minimum
work force. There is also the added advantage that some limitations in construction
can be eliminated by the use of 4D printing. Rigid materials can be can be 3D
printed along with smart materials to create specific areas of a part that act as joints
and hinges for bending. Revive et al argue that construction must be made smarter
and solve problems of wasting large amounts of energy, materials, money and time
for building. These issues can be solved using design programs and software to
embed information into the materials that makes the material and construction more
accurate. Self-assembly may not be efficient for every purpose, which implies
different sectors and applications must be identified that benefit most from self
assembly

Self adaptability
4D printing allows the integration of sensing and actuation directly into a
material rendering external electromechanically systems unnecessary. This
decreases the number of parts in a structure, assembly time, material and energy
costs as well as the number of failure prone devices, which is associated with
electromechanics al systems. This technology is finding use in self-adaptive 4D
printed tissues and 4D printed personalized medical devices such as tracheal stems.

4D printing in extreme conditions

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4D Printing: Surface to Sine Wave from Self-Assembly Lab, MIT. 4D

Printing would be even more useful in big scale projects. For example, in extreme
environments, such as space, it can have very promising applications. In space,
currently, the 3D printing process of the building causes some issues related to cost,
efficiency, and energy consumption. So, instead of using 3D printed materials, 4D
printed materials could be used to take advantage of their transformable shape.
They could provide the solution to build bridges, shelters or any kind of
installations, as they would build up themselves or repair themselves in case of
weather damage.

Medical industry
On the other hand, imagine 4D printing being applied to a very small scale,
in sectors such as the medicinal one. 4D printed proteins could be a great
application, as the self reconfiguring protein example illustrated in the following
video. Another special material researcher is working on is self-folding protein. 4D
Printing: Self-Folding Protein from Self Assembly Lab, MIT. Another application
of 4D printing in the medical field could be designing sent. Programmed stents
would travel through the human body, and when they reach their destination, they
would open up.

Fashion
4D printing could also change the face of fashion. Self-Assembly Printing
Lab from MIT is studying potential applications of 4D technologies. One of the
ideas is that clothing could change accordingly to the weather or the activity. For
instance, shoes could change their shape when you start running to provide you
with better comfort and amortization.

Fundamentals of 4D printing
3D printing technology has been used to make static structures from digital data in
3D coordinates, 4 D printing adds the concept of change in the printed
configuration over time, dependent on environmental stimuli. The key difference
between 3D and 4D printing are the smart design and smart materials as 4D printed
structures may transform in shape or function. This implies that the 4D printed
structures should be fully programmed in detail by accounting for any anticipated

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time-dependent deformation of the object. 4D printing was firstly introduced by a

research group of Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) and defined as the
fabrication of 3D printed structures with adaptable and programmable shapes,
properties or functionality as a function of time. Intelligent materials are able to
sense stimulus from the external environment and create a useful response. Thus,
intelligent materials can be seen as those which provide a means of achieving an
active intelligent response in a product that would otherwise be lacking and have
the potential to yield a multitude of enhanced capabilities and functionalities. Three
key aspects must be fulfilled for 4D printing to take place. The first is the use of
stimuli responsive composite materials that are blended or incorporate multi-
materials with varying properties being sandwiched layer upon layer. The second is
the stimuli that will act on the object causing it to animate. Examples of these
stimuli include heating, cooling, gravity, ultraviolet (UV) light, magnetic energy,
wind, water or even humidity. The last aspect is time for the simulation to occur,
and the final result is the change of state of the object.

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CHAPTER 5
5. SMART MATERIALS AND POLYMERS
5.1 List of Smart Materials

5.2 Piezoelectric materials

Those materials capable of generating electric charge in response to applied
mechanical stress are piezoelectric materials. Not all the smart materials do exhibit
a shape change but they do carry significant properties such as electro and
magneto theological fluids. Those fluids can change viscosity upon application of
external magnetic or electric field. Naturally occurring crystals like quartz and
sucrose, human bone, ceramics, Polyvinylidene fluoride (PVDF) are known to
have piezoelectric characteristics. Followed by the automotive industry and
medical instruments, global demands for these materials have huge application in
industrial and manufacturing sector. Researchers from University of Warwick in
UK have developed new micro stereolithography (MSL) 3D printing technology
that can be used to create piezoceramic object. Piezoceramics are special type of
ceramic materials that can

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create electrical response and responds to external electrical stimulation by

changing shape. These are very useful materials and applicable all around, sensor
in airbag systems, fuel injectors in engines, electric cigarette lighter and electronic
equipment.

5.3 Shape Memory polymers

Shape memory alloy or polymers are emerging smart materials that have
dual shape capability. Shape memory alloys go transformation under predefined
shape from one to another when exposed to appropriate stimulus. Initially founded
on thermal induced dual shape research, this concept has been extended to other
activating process such as direct thermal actuation or indirect actuation. The
applications can be found in various areas of 41 our everyday life. Heat shrinkable
tubes, intelligent medical parts, self-deployable part in spacecraft are few used
areas with potential in broad other applications. The process in shape memory
polymer is not intrinsic, it requires combination of a polymer and programmed
afterwards. The structure of polymer is deformed and put it into temporary shape.
Whenever required, the polymer gains its final shape when external energy is
applied. Most of the shape memory polymers required heat as activating agent.
The material used in tube is poly demethylate polymer. Initially the shape was
programmed to form flat helix, using heat energy ranging from 10 degree to 50-
degree centigrade, flat helix transformed into tube shape structure.

5.4 Magneto strictive Materials

Similar to piezoelectric and electro strictive materials magneto strictive
materials uses magnetic energy. They convert magnetic energy into mechanical
energy or other way. Iron, terbium, Naval Ordnance Laboratory (NOL) and
dysprosium (D) are most common magneto strictive materials. Those materials can
be used as transducers and actuators where magnetic energy is used to cause shape
change. The application includes telephone 42 receivers, oscillators, sonar
scanning,
hearing head, damping systems, and positioning equipment. The development of
magneto strictive material alloys with better features will certainly help the 4D

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printing technology.

Composites in 4D printing

Ge et al used a multi-material 3D printer to print an active composite

material. The printed active composite (PAC) consisted of a glassy polymer fiber
embedded in an elastomeric resin. The glass fibers exhibited a shape memory
effect with a shape fixity ratio of approximately 80% whereas the elastomeric
resin was not capable of shape shifting and had a shape fixing ratio of 0. This
bilayer laminate comprising a pure elastomer lamina and a PAC lamina with a
prescribed fiber structure which includes the shape, size and orientation was
printed, heated, stretched, cooled and realized. Upon release of the deformation
stress, the laminate turned into a complex temporary shape due to the mismatch in
the shape fixity ratio between the elastomer lamina and the shape memorizing
PAC lamina. Depending on the fiber properties complex 3D configurations can be
produced including bent, coiled, twisted, and folded shapes. This PAC laminate
can be integrated with other structures or functional components to create active
devices. For an example the PAC laminate could be used to enable active origami
as a means to creating 3D structures.

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CHAPTER 6
6. CONCLUSION AND FUTURE WORK
6.1 Conclusion
Emerging Market Potential:
4D printing technology is expected to significantly increase the efficiency of
the manufacturing process and increase the capability to produce complex parts and
products for different industrial sectors. Expected to create a large number of
potential applications in diverse industrial sectors (for example, aerospace, defense,
automotive, health care, infrastructure, manufacturing, packaging)

Evolving Ecosystem:
4D printing technology is expected to be adopted by a range of industrial
sectors. Research laboratories, universities, and companies are also expected to
increase their 4D printing research activities, further enabling convergence
between industries and increasing the breadth of applications of 4D printing
technology.

Technology:
4D printing technology (software, hardware, 4D printing materials) is still
in early phase of S- curve. Dominant hardware/software architecture yet to be
established. IP on 4D printing smart materials is building up. 4D technology will
be getting increasingly popular as the trends toward its integration with the giant
industries like manufacturing and healthcare, have increased.

6.2 Future Work

Although not commercially available, self-assembly is just a beginning of a
whole innovative world of manufacturing with minimum energy. As environmental,
economic, human and other constraints continue to fluctuate, we will eventually
need dynamic systems that can respond with ease and agility.
4D Printing is the first of its kind to offer this exciting capability. This is
truly a radical shift in our understanding of structures, which have up to this point,

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remained static and rigid (think aerospace, automotive, building industries etc) and
will soon be dynamic, adaptable and tuneable for on demand performance.

REFERENCE
1. Kurfess, T., Cass, W.J.: Rethinking additive manufacturing and intellectual
property protection. Res. Technol. Manag. 57(5), 35–42 (2014)

2. Pei, E.: 4D printing—revolution or fad? Assembly Autom. 34(2), 123–127 (2014)

3. Pei, E.: 4D Printing: dawn of an emerging technology cycle.

Assembly Autom. 34(4), 310–314 (2014)

4. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Four-dimensional_printing

5. Ge, Q., Dunn, C.K., Jerry, H.Q., Dunn, M.L.: Active origami by 4D printing.
Smart Mater. Struct. 23(9), 1–15 (2014)

6. Al Rhodan, N.: Programmable Matter: 4D Printing’s Promises and

Risks. Georgetown Journal of International Affairs (2014)

7. Hoskins, S.: 3D Printing for Artists. Designers and Makers. Bloomsbury

Publishing, London (2013)

8. www.asme.org/engineering-topics/articles/manufacturing-design/4d-
printing Advances-additive-manufacturing

9. https://www.sculpteo.com/en/3d-learning-hub/best-articles-about-3d-
printing/4d printing-technology/

10. Ge, Q., Dunn, C.K., Jerry, H.Q., Dunn, M.L.: Active origami by 4D
printing. Smart Mater. Struct. 23(9), 1–15 (2014)

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