4-D PRINTING

By

Sonakshi Goyal (1609140151)

Submitted to the Department of Mechanical Engineering

In partial fulfillment of the requirements

For the degree of

Bachelor of Technology

In

Mechanical Engineering

JSS Academy of Technical Education ,Noida

Abdul Kalam Technical University

March 2020
 DECLARATION
I hereby declare that this submission is my own work and that, to the best of my knowledge and
belief,it contains no material previously published or written by another person nor material
which is substantial extent has been accepted for the award of my degree or diploma of the
university or other institute of higher learning except where the acknowledgement has been
made in the text.

Signature

Name Sonakshi Goyal

Roll No 1609140151

Date

ii
 CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that the seminar work entitled, “4-D PRINTING" submitted by "Sonakshi
Goyal" in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the award of "Bachelor of technology " in
"Mechaniacl Engineering " at the "JSS Acdemy of technical Education,Noida " is an authentic
work carried out by her under my supervision and guidance.

Date:

(Seminar Guide )- Mr Shiv Kumar

(Assistant Professor , JSS Academy of technical Education ,Noida)

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 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
I would like to express my deepest appreciation to all those who provided me the possibility to
complete this report.  A special gratitude I give to our final year seminar manager, [Mr Shiv
Kumar ,Mr Suvandhan Saraswat], whose contribution in stimulating suggestions and
encouragement,  helped me to coordinate my seminar work especially in writing this report.

Furthermore I would also like to acknowledge with much appreciation the crucial role of the
staff of A special thanks goes to brother ,parents and friends who   help me to assemble the
content and gave suggestion about the task “4-D Printing ”.  I have to appreciate the guidance
given by other supervisor as well as the panels especially in seminar presentation that has
improved my presentation skills thanks to their comment and advices.

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 ABSTRACT

4-dimensional printing (4D printing; also known as 4D bioprinting,  active origami, or shape-
morphing systems) uses the same techniques of 3D printing through computer-programmed
deposition of material in successive layers to create a three-dimensional object. However, 4D
printing adds the dimension of transformation over time. It is therefore a type of programmable
matter, wherein after the fabrication process, the printed product reacts with parameters within
the environment (humidity, temperature, etc.,) and changes its form accordingly. The ability to
do so arises from the near infinite configurations at a micrometer resolution, creating solids
with engineered molecular spatial distributions and thus allowing unprecedented
multifunctional performance. Stereolithography is a 3D-printing technique that
uses photopolymerization  to bind substrate that has been laid layer upon layer, creating a
polymeric network. As opposed to fused-deposition modeling, where the extruded material
hardens immediately to form layers, 4D printing is fundamentally based in stereolithography,
where in most cases ultraviolet light is used to cure the layered materials after the printing
process has completed. Anisotropy  is vital in engineering the direction and magnitude of
transformations under a given condition, by arranging the micromaterials in a way so that there
is an embedded directionality to the finished print.

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 LIST OF FIGURES
Figures Page no
1. A simple illustration of the concept of 4d printing………………………… ………………2
2. 4-D printing Bases…………………………………………………………………………...3
3. 4D-printed material structures (Digital Materials) (a) Uniform distribution with different
concentrations, (b) Gradient distribution structure, and (c) Special patterns.................................6
4. illustration of a multi-material additive manufacturing system……………………………...6
5. Time line of shape memory tube…………………………………………………………..10
6. The illustration of 1D-to-1D shape-shifting by linear expansion……………………….….11
7.The illustration of 1D-to-2D shape-shifting by self-folding…………………………..……12
8. An illustration of 1D-to-2D sinusoidal shape-shifting by self-bending…………………….12
9. The transformation of 1D strand to 3D wireframe cube by self folding………………..….12
10. 2D-to-2D self-bending in which a rectangular network transforms into a circle. Scale bar,
200 µm…………………………………………………………………………………………...13
11. Multi-shape memory effect from 2D to 3D by self-bending in a smart trestle…………....13
12.Multi-shape memory effect from 2D to 3D by self-bending in an active helix shape……..13
13. Multi-shape memory effect from 2D to 3D by self-bending in an active wave shape….…14
14. Multi-shape memory effect from 2D to 3D by self-bending in a smart insect-like
structure..........................................................................................................................................14
15. An illustration of 2D to 3D shape-shifting by self-folding to make a cube………………..14
16 Helical structures with different degrees of spiral by 2D-to-3D twisting..............................15
17. An illustration of 3D-to-3D self-bending in a bio-printed structure……………………….15
18. Schematic illustration of the unconstrained-hydro-mechanics mechanism in 4D printing 16
19Schematic illustration of the constrained-thermo-mechanism……………………………..17
20. Schematic illustration of the unconstrained-thermo-mechanics mechanism in 4D printing 17
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 21 Schematic illustration of the unconstrained-hydro-thermo-mechanics mechanism in 4D
printing………………………………………………………………………………………….18
22. Schematic illustration of the unconstrained-pH-mechanics mechanism in 4D printing…..18
23. Schematic illustration of the unconstrained-thermo-photo-mechanics mechanism..............19
24: (a) Osmosis effect between two droplets, (b) Macroscopic deformation arising from osmosis
effect…………………………………………………………………………………………....20

25. The differences between 3D printing and 4D printing............................................................24

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 TABLE OF CONTENTS
Declaration ………………………………………………………………………………… ii
Certificate…………………………………………………………………………………. .iii
Acknowledgement………................................................................................................... ..iv
Abstract………………………………………………………………………………….......v
List of Figures……………………………………………………………………………vi-vii
Table of Content………………………………………………………………………… .viii
CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION…………………………………………………………1-4
1.1Definition……………………………………………………………………………..…1
1.2 Base of 4d printing…………………………………………………………………… 2
1.3 Motivation……………………………………………………………………………....3
CHAPTER 2: MATERIALS STRUCTURE…………………………………………… 5-10
2.1Multi-material structures ……………………………………………………………… 5
2.2. Digital materials ……………………………………………………………………..... 5
2.3 Smart Materials………………………………………………………………………......7

CHAPTER 3: SHAPE SHIFTING……………………………………………….……...…11-20

3.1Shape-shiftingtypesandDimensions ……………………………………………………11
3.2 . Shape-shifting mechanisms and Stimuli ……………………………………………...15

CHAPTER 4: DIFFENRENCE BETWEEN 3-D PRINTING AND 4-D PRINTING…….21-24

CHAPTER 5: APPLICATIONS……………………………………………….……...…25-27
5.1ApplicationAreaandFuture Development ………………………………………………25
CHAPTER 5: DISCUSSION….……………………………………………….……...…28-29
6.1 Challenges while adopting 4D printing and 3D printing ………………………………28
Conclusion ………………………………………………………………………………… .30
Refrences………………………………………………………………………………. …...31
 viii

CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
It has been more than 30 years since the first patent was issued for Stereolithography Apparatus
(SLA), invented by Charles (Chuck) Hall in 1980´s. Initially known as Rapid Prototyping
technology, with further advancement now called additive manufacturing or 3D printing
technology. (Industry 3. , 2014) Nowadays, 3D printing machine is used not just in industry for
production but also in school, households and offices. As the price for normal desktop 3D printer
has fallen below 1000 euro, affordable price allows unlimited opportunities for individual to
print their own customized toys, household appliances and tools.

However, there is always something more than can be done with the current ongoing technology.
3D printed materials can be more flexible and useful, the structures of the material can transform
in a pre-programmed way in response to any external stimulus. In general, self-changing
structure of 3D printed part after post process is called 4D printing process. (Stratasys, 4D
Printing, 2014)

The term 4D printing is developed in a collaboration between MIT´s Self-Assembly Lab and
Stratasys education and R&D department. In February 2013, Skylar Tibbits, co-director and
founder of the Self-Assembly Lab located at MIT´s International Design Center, unveiled the
technology “4D printing” during a talk at TED conference held in Long Beach, California.
(TED, 2013) 4D technology is still in the early phase of research and development. This
technology has been used only in few labs or prototyping facilities. In current scenario, one can´t
just order and buy “4D printer”. As of 2017, MIT´s Self-Assembly Lab, 3D printing
manufacturer Stratasys and 3D software company Autodesk are the key players in the
development of 4D printing technology.

4-dimensional printing (4D printing; also known as 4D bioprinting, active origami,

or shape-morphing systems) uses the same techniques of 3D printing through computer-
programmed deposition of material in successive layers to create a three-dimensional object.
However, 4D printing adds the dimension of transformation over time. It is therefore a type
of programmable matter, wherein after the fabrication process, the printed product reacts with
parameters within the environment (humidity, temperature, etc.,) and changes its form
accordingly. The ability to do so arises from the near infinite configurations at a micrometer
resolution, creating solids with engineered molecular spatial distributions and thus allowing
unprecedented multifunctional performance.
 1

1.1 Definition

4D printing was initially defined as 4D printing = 3D printing + time (Figure 1), where the
shape, property, or functionality of a 3D printed structure can change as a function of time .
(As the number of studies conducted on this technology increases, a more comprehensive
definition of 4D printing is presented here. 4D printing is a targeted evolution of the 3D
printed structure, in terms of shape, property, and functionality. It is capable of achieving
self-assembly, multi-functionality, and self-repair. It is time-dependent, printer-independent,
and predictable.

Fig 1. A simple illustration of the concept of 4D printing .

1.2 Base of 4-D printing

As mentioned above, 4D printing can fabricate dynamic structures with adjustable shapes,
properties, or functionality. This capability mainly relies on an appropriate combination of smart
materials in the three-dimensional space. Mathematical modeling is required for the design of the
distribution of multiple materials in the structure. There are at least two stable states in a 4D
printed structure, and the structure can shift from one state to another under the corresponding
stimulus .

 Stimulus: Stimulus is required to trigger the alterations of shape/property/functionality of

a 4D printed structure. The stimuli that researchers have used in 4D printing thus far
include water], heat, a combination of heat and light, and a combination of water and
heat. The selection of the stimulus depends on the requirements of the specific
application, which also determines the types of smart materials employed in the 4D
printed structure. Smart or stimulus-responsive material: stimulus-responsive material is
one of the most critical components of 4D printing. The capability of this group of
materials is defined by the following characteristics: self-sensing, decision making,
responsiveness, shape memory, self-adaptability, multi-functionality, and self-repair.
  Interaction mechanism: In some cases, the desired shape of a 4D printed structure is not
 2
 directly achieved by simply exposing the smart materials to the stimulus. The stimulus
needs to be applied in a certain sequence under an appropriate amount of time, which is
referred to as the interaction mechanism in this review paper. For example, one of the
main interaction mechanisms is constrained-thermo-mechanics. In this mechanism, the
stimulus is heat and the smart material has the shape memory effect. It contains a 4- step
cycle. First, the structure is deformed by an external load at a high temperature; second,
the temperature is lowered while the external load is maintained; third, the structure is
unloaded at the low temperature and the desired shape is achieved; fourth, the original
shape can be recovered by reheating the structure.
 Mathematical Modeling: Math is necessary for 4D printing in order to design the
material distribution and structure needed to achieve the desired change in shape,
property, or functionality. Theoretical and numerical models need to be developed to
establish the connections between four core elements: material structure, desired final
shape, material properties, and stimulus properties. These will be discussed in additional
detail in the following sections.

Fig 2 4-D printing Bases

A 4D printed structure can be regarded as a child born from the marriage between a 3D printer
and smart materials. It can walk by being exposed to the external stimulus through an interaction
mechanism, and it learns how to walk properly with the assistance of mathematics.

1.3 Motivations
 Self-assembly: Self-assembly extends from the nanoscale to the planetary scale
.Currently, researchers are interested in macroscale applications . One example is the
transfer of equipment parts to the inside of a human body through a small hole. The
parts can then self-assemble at the desired location for medical purposes. Another
future application of self-assembly will be on a large scale and in a harsh
environment. Individual parts can be printed with small 3D printers and then self-
assembled into larger structures, such as space antennae and satellites .This capability
paves the way for the creation of transportation systems to the International Space
Station . Further applications include selfassembling buildings, especially in war
zones or in outer space where the elements can come together to yield a finished
building with minimum human involvement]. Moreover, some limitations in
 architectural research and experiments can be removed with the capabilities of 4D
printing.

 Multi-functionality or self-adaptability: Adaptive infrastructures are another

application of 4D printing. 4D printing can integrate sensing and actuation directly
into a material so that external electromechanical systems are not necessary . This
would decrease the number of parts in a structure, assembly time, material and energy
costs, as well as the number of failure-prone devices, which is usually utilized in
current electromechanical systems
 Self-repair: The idea of self-assembly can be utilized for self-disassembly. The error-
correct and self-repairing capability of 4D manufactured products show tremendous
advantages with regard to reusability and recycling. Self-healing pipes and self-
healing hydrogels are some of the potential applications.
 4

CHAPTER 2
MATERIALS STRUCTURE

Details of material types are discussed in the next section. In this section, material structures are
classified and generally referred to as smart materials and conventional (non-smart) materials. In
additive manufacturing, material structures are divided into single-material and multi-material
structures. Multimaterial structures can be further classified into discrete multiple materials,
composite materials, and porous materials. For the 4D printing process, a new classification is
introduced in this review paper, and the multi-material structure can be categorized as uniform
distribution, gradient distribution, and special patterns. Based on different perspectives, the
material structure can also be classified as a structure with or without joints and hinges.

2.1 Multi-material structures

In 4D printing, multiple materials usually need to be inserted into a single and one-time printed
structure. This multi-material structure can be a mixture of different smart materials or a
combination of smart materials and conventional materials. The single-material structure in 4D
printing should always be fabricated with a smart material. In addition, it needs to be based on
the structure with a gradient distribution of materials. The gradient distribution of a single
material means that the density of the structure is different at various locations. This anisotropy
can generate shape-shifting behaviors such as bending and twisting, which is beyond linear
expansion and contraction. Most of the previous studies on 4D printing focused on multi-
material structures. In this review, the concept of digital material is introduced. Based on this
concept, all material structures involved in 4D printing can be generalized into three categories.

2.2 Digital materials

The digital concept was first introduced in the fields of communication and computation. This
digital concept can be similarly expanded into material structures. The element that enables us to
move from analog materials to digital materials is the physical voxel, which is defined as the
fundamental and physical bit that occupies 3D physical space. The physical voxel can be of any
size and shape. In nature, biological structures usually consist of fundamental building blocks
that can be considered physical In 4D printing and associated multi-material structures, the
physical voxel can be similarly defined. Digital material is defined as an assembly of various

physical voxels. The spatial arrangement of voxels plays a major role in determining the features

of a 4D-printed structure. In digital materials, each voxel contains only one material. Adjacent
voxels can be composed of different materials. Each voxel has its own properties and the
collection of different voxels results in the multi-material structure.

Multi material structure in 4d printing

(a)uniform distributions with different concentration

b) Gradient distributions

(c) special distributions

Figure 3. 4D-printed material structures (Digital Materials) (a) Uniform distribution with different concentrations, (b) Gradient
distribution structure, and (c) Special patterns.

To model the material structure in various length and time scales for digital materials, Myres
developed a software called the Digital Material . Popescu proposed a new manufacturing
process for digital materials that is reversible for disassembly and can reuse the building blocks
of the structure. Huang demonstrated an approach for ultrafast printing of shape-shifting
materials. reported that there are several limitations to the current 3D additive manufacturing
process.
 6

Fig 4 . An illustration of a multi-material additive manufacturing system

For example, printers with inkjet nozzles can only print materials with certain viscosities and
curing temperatures. The fused deposition modeling (FDM) process is relatively slow and has
limited options for its minimum nozzle size. The several new techniques for digital material
production using mask-image-projection-based stereolithography. Ge provided an approach for
printing multi-material shape memory polymers (SMPs) with a high resolution (up to a few
microns). This approach is enabled by a high-resolution projection microstereolithography
(PμSL) additive manufacturing system with an automated material exchange mechanism .In
order to enable 4D printing for biomedical applications, multi-material additive manufacturing
systems that can print from aqueous mediums needs to be developed.

2.3 Smart Materials

Global competition among technological giants and demand for new generation of industrial,
commercial, medical, automotive and aerospace applications has fueled researchand studies
focused on advanced materials and smart structures. Researchers are developing ultimate
materials which can be applied in multipurpose scientific and technological applications. Those
smart materials or intelligent materials features fibrous polymeric composite materials capable of
sensing external command in the form of heat, light, electricity, magnet, water and many other
agents. Diverse application and structures of smart materials will certainly revolutionize the
current generation. Starting from wooden and stone materials from the Stone Age to copper
followed by bronze and Iron Age, human mankind have developed a new age and we can call
them Smart Material Age.

Human civilization has been directly influenced by materials technologies and those materials
has given mankind to become superior among other living beings in this planet. The timeline of

human civilization such as Stone Age, Bronze Age and Iron Age depicts the progress of
materials choice and selection. The current synthetic materials featuring plastics and composites,
biomaterials represents the new age of materials. Various innovation in diverse field of science
including manufacturing, nanotechnology, material science, automation featuring smart materials
sill significantly impose positive impact on civilization. The current generation of innovation has
already seen some classes of materials such as executing specific functions autonomously in
response to changing environmental stimuli, embedded sensory capabilities in order to comply
with programmed shape.

Smart materials incorporates with actuators and sensors and are highly integrated within the
structure functionality. Characteristics like signal conditioning, signal power amplification and
highly integrated control logic in a materials are influenced by mechanical, thermal, optical,
magnetic or electric source as shown in Table 1. Light influence smart materials are capable of
changing its color, shape and mechanically smart materials are capable of altering mechanical
states such as positon, velocity, stiffness or damping. The transition of laminated materials
technology which are built up from smaller constitutive elements helps expanding the active
element within the structure. Smart ply or piece of composite material can be developed with the
capability of carrying actuators, sensors, processers and inter connections. The development of
microelectronics, switching circuitry, fiber optic technology and information processing
techniques has further advances evolution of smart materials.Table 1 represents classification of
smart materials along with the input force they require and output.
 Table 1 Classification of Smart Materials

 Piezoelectric materials

Those materials capable of generating electric charge in response to applied mechanical stress

are piezoelectric materials. Not all the smart materials do exhibit a shape change but they do
carry significant properties such as electro and magneto theological fluids. Those fluids can
change viscosity upon application of external magnetic or electric field. Naturally occurring
crystals like quartz and sucrose, human bone, ceramics, Polyvinylidene fluoride (PVDF) are
known to have piezoelectric characteristics. Followed by the automotive industry and medical
instruments, global demand for these materials have huge application in industrial and
manufacturing sector.

Researchers from University of Warwick in UK have developed new microstereolithography

(MSL) 3D printing technology that can be used to create piezoceramic object. Piezoceramics are
special type of ceramic materials that can create electrical response and responds to external
electrical stimulation by changing shape. These are very useful materials and applicable all
around, sensor in airbag systems, fuel injectors in engines, electric cigarette lighter and electronic
electronic equipment

 Light responsive self-changing materials

3D printing technology has a capability of printing objects with multitude of materials. However,
these objects are usually fixed geometrically structured, static and not helpful for multifunctional
use. 4D printing with light responsive smart material is effective and suitable because light is
available easily to work, wireless source, easy control and light energy has ability to create rapid
changes in material.
In order to continue with 4D printing process, it is really important to know about the smart
materials and their behavior. The relationship between chemical composition of shape changing
polymer and its physical properties such as thermal, mechanical, optical and electrical properties.

It is important to understand polymers composition and extrusion process parameter changes the
mechanical properties of the object after extrusion process. Altering the extrusion parameters
such as temperature, flow rate, cooling time and measuring its properties after extrusion process.
The difference between the changes before and after extrusion needs to be analyzed properly.

To measure thermal and optical properties of polymer, processes like UV-Vis spectroscopy,
differential scanning calorimetry, and polarizing light microscope are used. Using standard
testing bar, stress/strain relationship and hardness measurement can be performed. As the main
goal is to identify and study about shape changing behavior of material. Various external sources
or energies are applied over the extruded object. Varying thermal energy, magnetic field,
electricity, different levels of light intensity and exposing directly towards printed object changes
the bending angle, speed, percentage volume contraction, reversibility and mechanical output.

Those measuring data helps to gain knowledge in developing 4D printing process.

 Shape Memory polymers

Shape memory alloy or polymers are emerging smart materials that have dual shape capability.
Shape memory alloys go transformation under predefined shape from one to another when
exposed to appropriate stimulus. Initially founded on thermal induced dual shape research, this
concept has been extended to other activating process such as direct thermal actuation or indirect
actuation. The applications can be found in various areas of our everyday life. Heat shrinkable
tubes, intelligent medical parts, self-deployable part in spacecraft are few used area with
potential in broad other applications.

The process in shape memory polymer is not intrinsic, it requires combination of a polymer and
programmed afterwards. The structure of polymer is deformed and put it into temporary shape.
Whenever required, the polymer gains its final shape when external energy is applied. Most of
the shape memory polymers required heat as activating agent.
 Fig. 5. Time line of shape memory tube.

The above figure shows the time series of shape memory tube. The material used in tube is poly
dimethacylate polymer. Initially the shape was programmed to form flat helix, using heat energy
ranging from 10 degree to 50 degree centigrade, flat helix transformed into tube shape structure.

10
 Magnetostrictive Materials

Similar to piezoelectric and electrostrictive materials magnetostrictive materials uses magnetic

energy. They convert magnetic energy into mechanical energy or other way. Iron, terbium, Naval
Ordnance Laboratory (NOL) and dysprosium (D) are most common magnetostrictive materials.
Those materials can be used as transducers and actuators where magnetic energy is used to cause
shape change. The application include telephone receivers, oscillators, sonar scanning, hearing
head, damping systems and positioning equipment. The development of magnetostrictive
material alloys with better features will certainly help the 4D printing technology.
 11

CHAPTER 3
SHAPE SHIFTING

The shape-shifting behaviors considered in 4D printing include folding, bending, twisting, linear
or nonlinear expansion/ contraction, surface curling, and the generation of surface topographical
features. These features include wrinkles, creases, and buckles. The shapes can be shifted from
1D to 1D, 1D to 2D, 2D to 2D, 1D to 3D, 2D to 3D, and 3D to 3D. It should be noted that a
structure that shows 1D-to-1D shape-shifting over time is also considered to be a 4D printed
structure. This is because this structure is initially 3D printed and then evolves over time. Before
reviewing the shape-shifting types and dimensions in 4D printing, some relevant definitions are
presented first.

3.1 Shape-shifting types and dimensions

 1D-to-1D expansion/contraction:
 The linear expansion/contraction from 1D to 1D through a 4D printing process.is shown
in Figure 6. The stimulus is water and the 4D printed structure contains alternating layers
of rigid discs and active hydrogels. After the structure is immersed in water, the hydrogel
parts will swell while the rigid discs remain the same. By adjusting the ratio of
expandable hydrogels to rigid discs, the structure can show linear shape-shifting behavior
with a desirable final length .

Fig 6: The illustration of 1D-to-1D shape-shifting by linear expansion/contraction adapted

 1D-to-2D Folding:

This is a demonstration of 1D to 2D shape-shifting by self-folding mechanism (Figure 7). There

are two types of materials involved in the structure: rigid and active. The active material is a
hydrogel that can swell when immersed in water while the rigid parts remain intact. This
difference provides a stress mismatch and enables the overall shape to be changed toward a
specific direction. The position and volume of the active and rigid materials in the structure can

12

be designed to achieve different shape-shifting directions.

Fig 7. The illustration of 1D-to-2D shape-shifting by self-folding

 1D-to-2D Bending:

A linear strip structure with alternating sections of the rigid and active materials. This structure
can transform into a precise sinusoidal shape when immersed in water (Figure 8). This is a
demonstration of 1D-to-2D shape-shifting using the self-bending mechanism.
 Fig 8. An illustration of 1D-to-2D sinusoidal shape-shifting by self-bending
 1D-to-3D Folding:

A single strand structure that can transform into a 3D-cube wireframe when subjected to water
(Figure 9). The structure contains the same two materials described above. This is an illustration
of 1D-to3D shape-shifting by self-folding mechanism.

Fig 9. The transformation of 1D strand to 3D wireframe cube by self folding

 2D-to-2D Bending:

As shown in Figure 10, a rectangular network could be bent into a circle. This shape-shifting
behavior is based on the differences in osmolarity of the droplets. The droplets with higher
osmolarity swell and the droplets with lower osmolarity shrink. The shape continues to change
until the osmolarity gradient becomes zero.

13

Fig 10. 2D-to-2D self-bending in which a rectangular network transforms into a circle. Scale bar, 200 µm
 2D-to-3D Bending:

Multi-shape memory effect for 2D-to-3D transformations in various structures, such as the active
trestle (Figure 11), active helix shape (Figure 12), active wave shape (Figure 13), smart insect-
like structure (Figure 14).Heat was the stimulus and these shape-shifting behaviors were
achieved in the usual shape memory cycles with well-known programming and recovery steps.
 Figure 11: Multi-shape memory effect from 2D to 3D by self-bending in a smart trestle

Fig 12: Multi-shape memory effect from 2D to 3D by self-bending in an active helix shape

14

Fig 13: Multi-shape memory effect from 2D to 3D by self-bending in an active wave shape
 Fig 14: Multi-shape memory effect from 2D to 3D by self-bending in a smart insect-like structure
 2D-to-3D Folding:

As shown in Figure 15, a 2D flat plane that can be folded into a closed-surface cube, which
presents 2D-to-3D shape-shifting behavior based on self-folding. This shape-shifting behavior is
enabled by a stress mismatch between rigid and active materials due to their different swelling
behaviors under water.

Fig 15. An illustration of 2D to 3D shape-shifting by self-folding to make a cube

 2D-to-3D Twisting:

In figure 16 it is illustrated that helical structures with different spiral degree patterns by
twisting a 2D sheet and converting it to 3D shape.

15

Fig 16. Helical structures with different degrees of spiral by 2D-to-3D twisting
 3D-to-3D Bending:
3D-to-3D self-bending in a bio-printed structure, as illustrated in Figure 17. This shape-shifting
behavior is triggered by dissolution of an appropriate material into a suitable solvent.

Fig 17. An illustration of 3D-to-3D self-bending in a bio-printed structure

3.3 Shape-shifting mechanisms and Stimuli

A 4D-printed structure can alter its shape, properties, or functionality based on one or more
stimuli. However, an interaction mechanism needs to be identified for which the printed smart
structure can respond to stimulus in an appropriate way. The mechanisms can be divided into
various categories. Two types of mechanisms in 4D printing: hydro-mechanics and thermo-
mechanics. In this section, other mechanisms from the literature are organized and summarized,
including unconstrained-hydro-mechanics, constrained-thermomechanics, unconstrained-thermo-
mechanics, unconstrained-hydro-thermo-mechanics, unconstrained-pHmechanics,
unconstrained-thermo-photo-mechanics, osmosis-mechanics, and dissolution-mechanics.

1 Unconstrained-Hydro-Mechanics

In this mechanism, a smart printed structure consists of an expandable hydrophilic active

material and a rigid material. Water is utilized as the external stimulus so that the structure can
undergo shape-shifting under water and so that it can return to its original shape after being
dried. This mechanism is driven by the different swelling ratios between the active and rigid
materials. The expansion of the smart material generates a force that leads to the shape change.
When the expandable material is appropriately arranged with the rigid material, complex shape-

16

shifting behavior can be achieved. The magnitude and direction of the shape change depends on
the spatial arrangements of the two materials. The mechanism is illustrated in Figure 18 and the
entire cycle is unconstrained.
 Fig 18. Schematic illustration of the unconstrained-hydro-mechanics mechanism in 4D printing. The green parts represent expandable
materials.

2 Constrained-Thermo-Mechanics

Two levels of temperature and one external load are required in this mechanism, as illustrated in
Figure 19. One temperature is higher than the critical temperature of the smart material, such as
its glass transition temperature or crystal-melt transition temperature (𝑇𝐻 > 𝑇𝐶). The other
temperature should be lower than the critical temperature (𝑇𝐿 < 𝑇𝐶). In this mechanism, the
printed structure is heated to 𝑇𝐻 and the cycle starts at 𝑇𝐻 in the following order. First, the
original structure is stretched at 𝑇𝐻 with a certain amount of strain depending on specific
applications. Then, under external stress, the structure is cooled to 𝑇𝐿 while the strain remains
unchanged. Next, the external stress is removed at 𝑇𝐿 , and the desired temporary shape is
obtained at the end of this step. Finally, the structure can be reheated to 𝑇𝐻 in a free stress
condition to recover its original shape. In this mechanism, temperature is the external stimulus.

17
 Fig 19 : Schematic illustration of the constrained-thermo-mechanism

3 Unconstrained-Thermo-Mechanics
Unlike the previous mechanism, the external load is not included in the cycle of this
mechanism. Only the two temperatures are required. One is higher than critical temperature
of the active material involved in the structure (𝑇𝐻 > 𝑇𝐶), and the other one is lower than the
critical temperature (𝑇𝐿 < 𝑇𝐶). As shown in Figure 20, the printed structure is first heated to
𝑇𝐻. The cycle then starts at 𝑇𝐻 and proceeds in the following manner. First, the original
structure is cooled to 𝑇𝐿 , where the desired shape is achieved at the end of this step. Then,
the structure can be heated to 𝑇𝐻 to recover its original shape. In this mechanism, the
external stimulus is temperature.

Fig 20. Schematic illustration of the unconstrained-thermo-mechanics mechanism in 4D printing.

4 Unconstrained-Hydro-Thermo-Mechanics

In this mechanism the 4D printed structure undergoes two steps in the shape-shifting cycle. It

18
first swells freely in cold water, and then deswells freely in hot water, as shown in Figure 21.

This cycle can be repeated continuously. The swelling and deswelling processes are free and
there are no constraints from external load. In this mechanism, both water and temperature are
required as stimuli.

Fig 21: Schematic illustration of the unconstrained-hydro-thermo-mechanics mechanism in 4D printing

5Unconstrained - pH - Mechanics

In this mechanism, a 4D-printed, pH-responsive hydrogel can linearly swell at a specific pH

level and then shrink at another designed pH level (Figure 22). This cycle is mainly conducted in
an aqueous environment and is therefore suitable for the shape-shifting of hydrogels.

Fig 22. Schematic illustration of the unconstrained-pH-mechanics mechanism in 4D printing

6 Unconstrained -Thermo-Photo-Mechanics

In this mechanism, fibers were considered to be photo-responsive materials and the matrix was

19
considered to be a thermo-responsive material. They showed that the application of light, heat, or
a combination of both stimuli could yield printed structures with various morphologies. In their
study, the gel has a lower critical solution temperature and shrinks at a high temperature. The
spiro benzopyran (SP) chromophores functionalize elastic fibers, which can be converted into a
hydrophobic form when subjected to blue light, and recover its hydrophilic form in dark
environments. Different behavior under exposure to light or heat is a result of local and global
response. Light can be used to noninvasively enable local shape-shifting behavior in specific
regions of the structures. The original composite (Figure 23 (a) shrinks like an accordion (Figure
23(b)) when heated freely (unconstrained) and bends like a caterpillar (Figure 23 (c)) when
subjected to blue light. Figure 23(d) shows the behavior of the composite when both heat and
blue light are applied.

Fig 23. Schematic illustration of the unconstrained-thermo-photo-mechanics mechanism

7 Osmosis-Mechanics

In this mechanism with a lipid interface bilayer, which joins two picoliter aqueous droplets with
two different osmolarities. Water is the stimulus in this mechanism. The droplet with the higher
osmolarity swells and the droplet with the lower osmolarity shrinks until they reach the same
osmolarity (Figure 24(a)), which enables self-bending and is similar to the nastic movements of
plants. At the macroscopic level, water flows through a network of droplets and causes the
network to bend in a predetermined way, as shown in Figure 24(b). The final configuration of the
network is determined based on the original geometry, the spatial arrangement of the droplets,
and the ratio between their osmolarities.

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Fig 24: (a) Osmosis effect between two droplets, (b) Macroscopic deformation arising from osmosis effect

21
 CHAPTER 4
DIFFENRENCE BETWEEN 3-D PRINTING AND 4-D
PRINTING
Difference between 3D printing and 4D printing
The following are the differences between the two types of printing:

●          Manufacturing techniques

The 3D printing technology involves new manufacturing techniques, such as FDM (Fused
Deposition Modeling) and SLA (Stereolithography), as opposed to conventional manufacturing
methods, such as CNC machining, casting, plastic injection, etc. These 3D techniques produce
objects whose shape is permanent and will remain unchanged after production.
Although 4D printing technology also uses the techniques of 3D printing, the objects so created
with advanced materials and customized designs have the capability for structural
transformation. However, exposure to external stimuli, such as water, heat, current or light, is
needed to commence the deformation phase.

●          Materials
The types of materials used for layer upon layer process differs between the two types of
printing. In 3D printing, the end product can either be rigid or flexible, that is, capable of
regaining shape once the load is removed from it. This is much like a rubber band that can be
stretched, but comes to its original form, when at rest.

In 4D printing, the smart material transforms itself under exposure to stimuli. The smart structure
can be of two types – the rigid materials can be wholly made from expandable materials or may
be connected with expendable elements. Once these expendable elements get exposed to certain
stimuli, they change shape by moving or rotating, thereby transforming into a new shape. Such
smart materials include hydrogel, which is capable of absorbing a large quantity of water and
expand, and polymeric material that can return to its original shape from a deformed state.

●      Size of the object created

The size of the object created with the help of 3D printer depends upon the size of the printer.
However, in 4D printing, the size of the object can exceed the printer’s dimensional limitations.
To understand how this takes place, imagine flat cardboard and a folded cardboard. In 3D
printing, you will need to directly print a folded cardboard, whereas, through 4D printing, you
only need to produce a flat object that later transforms itself into a folded cardboard.

 Time Factor

Time is an element for extra dimension in 3D printing that makes 4D printing. In order to get
final structure, it takes time to transform from initial shape. 3D printed object also requires

22
 some time in order to heal or cooling time. However, 4D printed parts starts acting only after
exposed to external energy. In general, 3D printed parts are ready to use after printed
whereas, 4D printed parts are not completely ready for its motive even after print in done.

 Hardware

After material selection, hardware has the key role in printing process. Depending upon
technology and requirement, there are various 3D printing machines available in the market
both for home use and production. Form 1+ printer, which is based on Stereolithography
process and Mojo from Stratays operates using Fused Deposition Molding technique. Current
3D printers are capable of processing single material. Stratasys' Connex multi-material 3D
printer has added capability of embedded transformation from one structure to another. This
multi material processing technology allows researchers to map multiple material properties
into single structure carrying features of parent material with water absorbing properties to
activate self-assembly process. Water acting as external activating factor, this technique
promises broad possibilities for embedding programmability for non-electronic based design.
Similarly, RoVa4D Full color Blender 3D printer from ORD solutions allows affordable full-
color multi material desktop printing.

 Software

Need to say that current software tools are behind hardware capabilities. The new
advancement in the field of printing industry has forced researchers and engineers to develop
new types of software tools with capabilities that go beyond CAD, CAM, Solidworks or
other modeling software. With the emerging new idea such as bio-printing, multi material
printing, 4D printing and electronics printing, there is a demand of software which can
incorporate all those processes. Intelligence Lab and Monolith multi material voxel software
are some of the software that makes multi-material 3D printing easier. The complexities are
growing with the need to control smart material and stimulate deposition of programmed
matter for precise transformation. 4D printing requires further advancement modeling
software than the one used for 3D printing.

Product designs in industrial sector are constrained by limitations of the machines. Although
the process inside production facility is faster and quicker in comparison to 3D or 4D
printing technology. However, 3D printing technology has capability to create complex
shape design with a small change in code and allow designers to carry the best part without
any huge change. Design freedom with the ability to shape lift physical object from one
shape to another leads a step beyond static 3D object. As 3D printing allows material
selection process efficiently by selecting the place where it is needed. Selective material
placement helps saving excess use of material reducing weight such as creating bone like
structures. And with the added dynamics and performance capabilities of material itself 4D
printing guides the part to adapt their structure as per the external stimulation.

 Simple Manufacturing

23
 The products are directly built from standardized digital file and all the computer controlled
processes helps reducing time for expertise as well as human interaction required to create
object. While the object is being printed, the process often remains unmonitored allowing
objects to be built overnight without human interference. Similar to the process, 4D printing
processes are becoming even simpler than 3D printing technology. Simple looking structure
can be printed and then with the help of external activating agent, it can transform into
complex, large functional structure. Furthermore, self-assembly structure senses and reacts
physically with the surrounding environment itself without any human involvement.

 Mass production and customization

3D printing technology enables effective design and manufacture of personalized products.

Either producing one of a kind design or mass production, the production cost remains
relatively similar. The products produced can be customized as per the choice of user with
few or no additional cost helps transit mass production to mass customization. Similarly,
personally customized items with normal price can be particular positive step for 4D printing.
User responsive products, environmentally adaptive structures, weather adjusting products,
spare parts and printable consumer electronics proves superiority of 4D printing over 3D
printing.

The concept of the products design can be designed and printed anywhere in the world with
3D printer and materials. The Internet bridges and eliminates any gap between the distances
to move the digital file within the world. Instead of carrying products increasing logistics
cost, design files can be sent immediately from one pole of the earth to another pole and can
be printed exactly the same 3D object.

The large piece of final product such as building structure or vehicles can be produced with
3D printing technology in a single process eliminating the cost and time of assembling
hundreds of parts produced from traditional manufacturing process. The parts are usually
assembled and shipped from various parts of the world that may possibly have been
manufactured from external suppliers. This technology eliminates supply chain and assembly
line thereby increasing productivity.

 Prototypes and Functioning products

With the improved material properties and effective design prototypes, 3D printing industry
has evolved from basic testing idea to fully functional testing of fabricated parts. Creating
tooling for molding and casting and finally end user part. Moreover, those end user part
created and embedded with dynamic features will inherently boost innovation. Design and
fabrication of smart products will dominate production industry enabling users to taste new
development that is beyond what exists today. Engineers and developers will no longer be
limited to their design limitation due to existing traditional technology. Elimination of
limitation will enhance boosting innovations and disruptive industries along with other
application areas will be profound.

24
The rise of 3D printing and 4D printing is likely to change the field of manufacturing
industry. Reinvention of many old products and customization of products into individual’s
choice will change the consumers’ interest over traditional printing process. The
representation of physical object with digital file fuels rapid global distribution of products
transforming the whole product distribution sector. The very long producer and consumer
relationship in industrial production methods including ongoing direct relationship between
software engineers and new products has increased interest in the field of production design.
Any researchers, engineers and students can imagine the level of multifunctional, multi-
material components and then advanced material programming leading into the era of next
generation material processing technology. An entirely new field of smart material engineers
and material processing researchers may emerge offering current generation entirely different
intelligent and smart physical models. Even though it’s still too early to predict, but if the
current development continues in such a way that we expect it into, a perfect 4D printing
technology will show the world a massive shift in the way objects and structures are designed
and manufactured.

Fig 25. The differences between 3D printing and 4D printing

25
 CHAPTER 5
APPLICATIONS
5.1 Application Area and Future Development

4D printing technology has the potential to change the current business environment. Future
advancement of this mechanism depends and remains focused on variety of capabilities. For
example, current process that allows 4D printed structure to expand when exposed to water
and when structure is allowed to dry, it tends to unfold and regain its original shape.
However, when similar process is repeated again and again, the material degrades over time
and process is not infinitely repeatable. To control directionality and reversibility process,
further research and development need to be conducted. This development points towards
changing future of education and science. With the study of existing self-changing structures
and models, new experiment with new material properties and functional behaviors can be
tested.

The self-changing ability of material leads to range of applications in various industries. It is

essential for any business to reduce manufacturing cost and increase profit to stay in fierce
competitive environment. The concept of 4D printing technology along with 3D printing
provides platform for new business ideas that can adapt and compete current market trend by
lowering capital requirement, time efficient, less space for holding inventory and increasing
efficiency of the business. 4D printing promotes maintaining sustainable environment as the
self-transforming capability of 4D printed item allows after use disposition, changing back to
original shape.

 Medical Research

University of Michigan developed a 3D printed stint that gets absorbed into the body over
time. For the patient with weak cartilage in walls of bronchial tubes, the stint was used to
open airways for two or three years, which is enough time for bronchial cartilage to form
back to the shape. This biomedical splint which was printed using 3D printing technology
changes shape and conform over time as the body moves or grows. There has been successful
implants of those 4D printed structure, which needs to be biocompatible with patient’s
immune system and able to adapt the external surrounding tissues within the body.

The process started with virtual model of trachea through CT scan of patient and designing
model of virtual stint with medical imaging software called Mimics. Polycaprolactone (PCL),
a biomaterial was used to print the stint with the help of Formiga P100 3D printer.Most
likely, upcoming future of 4D printing technology will include all types of implants and
reconstructive surgery. Beyond helping patients with respiratory issues, researchers are

26
 exploring their use to correct human skeletal deformation such as facial reconstruction,
rebuilding ears.

 Aeronautics and Robotics

MIT Research Scientist Skylar Tibbits and Emerging Technology and Concept team from
Airbus collaborated together to develop special air inlet component. This collaboration with
Airbus developed new air inlet which adjusts automatically to control air flow which is used
to cool the engine. As the current air ventilation inlets are static and air flow varies with
speed of an airplane. Designing roots requires ability to develop responsive and highly
sensitive parts. 4D printing will allow those machineries far more advanced adaptive and
dynamic ability to perform complex task effectively.

A team of researchers at MIT and Harvard University developed origami robots, which is
reconfigurable robots capable of folding themselves into arbitrary shapes and crawling away.
The prototype robot was made up of printable parts entirely.

 Military applications

Programmable matter will have a vast application areas in military sector. US army and Navy
are developing three dimensional printed spare parts in the field and developing
programmable elements that forms into full building with all the necessary components such
as electricity, plumbing and other technical structures. As the technology allows the materials
to change its shape, military equipment, cars and fabrics could enable them to alter its
camouflage. Military advancements with 4D printing technology would develop coating
material in automobile that changes its structure to cope with humid environment and
corrosion. Similarly, transformation of tires depending upon road and weather condition.

 Furniture and House appliances

People are much more familiar with IKEA furniture which comes in parts and packed. It
takes lots of time and effort for normal customer to assemble and make ready. However, one
could imagine the relief when those flat packaged furniture self assembles and the furniture is
ready to use without any hassle. Similarly, self-disassembling of furniture while moving from
one location is comforting. Along with the time saving, it could help people get rid of
complex assembling process and mistakes.

 Fashion

The idea of clothes and trainers adjusting their shape and function in response to external
 27

environment and comforting the user, sounds fascinating. Fitting perfectly upon pressure
being applied or gears becoming water proof itself when raining.

Massachusetts based design studio Nervous System have developed 4D printed wearable
which is composed of thousands of unique interlocking component and the dress responds to
the wearer's body. Experiments involving 4D printing have been few and limited to the date
as there are only few major players actively in the field of research. Nevertheless, this
technology has been taken seriously because of its constructive and disruptive capability. As
the incoming of wide ranges of technologies, new programmable materials, software and
design tools, 4D printing mechanism certainly has the potential to become magical and
opening new possibilities that were assumed science fiction and seen only in movies.

These technology can be formulated into action for manufacturing and construction idea at
extremely large scale and complex environments. Printing small materials and transforming
into gigantic shapes in extreme locations such as radiation zone, deep trench, space, war
zone. Building materials that are capable of adjusting fluctuating environment, self-healing,
maximum shock absorption and mediating moisture, sound, pressure, temperature varying
the thickness.

A good example of the potentially inevitable revolution of 4D printing in the field of

construction can be smart water pipes, which have the ability to adjust and assemble
themselves as per the changing water pressure and temperature. As the pipes adapts and
adjust independently, no need of any digging preventing internal damages, this mechanism
will help in easy and cost effective maintenance.
 28

CHAPTER 6
DISCUSSION
6.1 Challenges while adopting 4D printing and 3D printing

 Safety

Fully functional guns and weapons can be printed with the help of 3D printer. The first 3D
printed gun was developed and successfully fired by the group called Defense Distributed. It
is absolutely incredible but concerning as well. These 3D printed weapons can easily fall into
hands of criminals, children, mentally ill person and convicts which will arise the question
regarding public safety and security problems. Health risk related to 3D printed food,
printing of human body parts that could impose health risks but also ethical issues concerning
testing of those products.

 Intellectual Property

Currently, it seems no fixed regulations and recommendations regarding manufacturing

implications in 3D printing. Anyone can buy 3D printer and print anything according to their
wish. Intellectual properties includes copyright, patents, trademarks, blueprints, design rights.
One can design and build exact replica of another product with the help of this technology. In
order to avoid intellectual property related issues, there is a need of regulatory framework
which could enforce the standard.

Programmable matters or Smart matters brings special concern regarding patenting and
intellectual property law. Responsibility debate arises particularly over artificial intelligence
and robotics. The key players inside these technologies are manufacturer, programmer,
material developer and user. For instance, if any 3D or 4D printed parts fails causing huge
loss, which party takes the responsibility? Those concerns need to be integrated into
regulatory guidelines and standards.

 Resources

Before processing any task, it is essential to primarily secure enough resources. Most of the
3D printing companies recommend to use their own genuine product and their availability is
limited in the market. Also the compatibility of material hinders choosing random product. It
is essential to develop mechanism with global standard with materials available globally. The
lack of resources causes potential slowdown in research and shortage of supply.
 Material Selection

Not all materials are smart materials with the feature of shape changing capabilities. In order

29

to reach its full potential, 4D printing process needs to be able to print nano scale models to
mega structures that can undergo more complex transformation. The structure should have
ability to change its shape repeatedly and reversing back to its original form. Continuous
repetition of transformation degrades the functioning quality of material. Those issues
questions about potential problem with long term durability of smart materials. The smart
materials or objects required or created during 4D printing process are made up of multi-
material components which are not easily available and hard to duplicate at home.
 CONCLUSION

The actual technology resides upon existing contributions over the years. 3D printing
technology has been around the field for more than 30 years. From Charles (Chuck) hull's
first Stereolithography apparatus (SLA) machine in 1983 to Skylar Tibbits from the MIT
self-assembly lab proves the consistent research and contribution on material processing
technology over the years. (Industry 3. P., History of 3D Printing, 2016) There has been vast
developments in existing 3D printing process with multi-material printing capabilities. With
the introduction of 4D printing, the technology will take over wide range of application such
as home appliances and consumer goods that can adapt to heat and moisture for added
comfort and functionality. Pre-programmed self-deforming materials in health care sector
including biocompatible implants inside human body such as cardia tubes will certainly bring
revolution in medical research. The introduction of many new companies and competition,
quality of the printing has improved surprisingly and price becoming cheaper. The result of
priorities and personal choice are forcing developers to work much harder as there are lots of
room for improvement. In coming years, it is most likely that those printers will become
increasingly available with very low price.
 31

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