ag CONTENTS Preface Acknowledgements H Introduction to Food Science Definitions Functions of Food Food Groups Food in Relation to Health Cooking + Questions * Practicals . Cereals and Cereal Produ: Structure Composition and Nutritive Value Specific Cereals Storage and Infestation Cereal Cookery Fermented Products Unfermented Products Effect of Cooking on Nutritive Value Convenient Cereal Foods Points to Remember while Cooking Cereals Role of Cereals in Cookery * Questions * Practicals Scanned with CamScanner na A Be we Ke BK SAD SA SE SSValue d Oilseeds "Role of Nuts and Oilseeds in Cookery » Questions . © Prachcals S Milk and Milk Products“, Composition and Nutritive Value Physical Properties Milk Cookery Microbial Spoilage Processing Milk Products Milk Substitutes Role of Milk and Milk Products in Cookery + Questions « Practicals 6 Fey Structure Composition and Nutritive Value Quilty of Exe Egg Cookery ‘Buying and Handling Preservation Recipes. Role of Egg in Cookery * Questions * Practicals Se ie RAs 88-104 88 102 103 104 104 105-130 ~“ 105 110 M1 116 7 120 128 129 130 130 131-154 131 133 139 143 144 145 146 153 154 154 Scanned with CamScanneroe Composition and Nutritive Value Poultry Cookery Preservation and Storage Fishy Classification Composition and Nutritive Value Selection Fish Cookery Spoilage Storage and Preservation © Questions « Practicals . Vegetables and Fruits ~~ Vegetables Classification Composition and Nutritive Value Selection Vegetable Cookery Storage of Vegetables Post-Harvest Losses ‘Changes During Maturation Fungi as Food Algae as Food—Spirulina Role of Vegetables in Cookery Fruits Classification Composition and Nutritive Value Post-Harvest Changes and Storage Ripening of Fruits Enzymatic Browning 179 180-221 180, 180. 181 191 192 202 204 204 205 206 208 209 209 209 213 215 216 Scanned with CamScanner11. Foon Science Non-enzymatic Browning 218, Salads 220 * Questions 21 » Practicals : 221 . Sugar and Related Products 222-235 Nutritive Value 22 Properties, 22 Sugar and Related Products 223 Sugar Cookery 226 Role of Sugar in Cookery 230 Artificial Sweeteners 230 + Questions 235 * Practicals 235 . Fats‘and Oils 236-258 Composition and Nutritive Value q 236 Refining and Processing of Fats 238 Specific Fats and Oils 241 Emulsions 245, Rancidity : 241 Effect of Heating “ 249 Role of Fav/Oil in Cookery voy : 251 Unconventional Oils 255 Fat Substitutes : 256 + Questions 258 « Practicals 258 Spices and Aromatics 259-278 General Functions of Spices 259 Specific Spices 261 pets m Role of Spices in Cookery a * Questions 28 . Beverages and Appetisers 279-308 Classification Coffee a ae 5 279 Cocoa and Chocolate 286 Fruit Beverages . ao Soups 297 Vegetable Juices 299 301 Scanned with CamScannera - + 13, Evaluation of Food Quality ‘Sensory Evaluation Sensory Tests Types of Tests Objective Evaluation Instruments Used for Texture Evaluation © Questions +» Practicals 14. Food Adulteration, Food Laws and Standards "Food Adulteration ‘Types of Adulterants Food Laws ‘Voluntary Standards and Certification System Food Standardisation and Regulation Agencies in India, International Standards ‘+ Questions ‘= Practicals 1S, Food Preservation 308 308 309-338 a 314 326 432 Scanned with CamScanner 2141499777 797WTM MMMINTRODUCTION TO Foon SciENcE Civilised man does not eat all the food as it is available in nature, He cuts, crushes, cooks, processes and modifies in many ways before consuming, adding variety to the diet. Food)is defined as anything(Golid or liquidywhich when swallowed, digested and assimilated, nourishes The bod mt SaaS @ Food is a mixture of many different chemical campanents. The study of food science involves an(Ghderstanding of the age that occur in these components during food prepara- tion Whether natural or induced by handling procedures. Many physical and chemical reactions occur uring Tood preparation. These reactions may be a result of the interaction between components, with the medium of cooking, and the environmental conditions like heat, cold, light and air to which they are subjected during cooking, Study of food science also includes Gnderstanding the different foods and methods of preserving them during cooking. This information provides tion of theory and method on which to build the study of food preparation Food additit is defined as non-nuuitive substances added intentionally to food, generally in uantities to improve its appearance, flavour, texture or storage proj Fermented food)is produced by the action of bacteria or moulds whic! prote: sma n carbohydrates and present in foods and hydrolyse them to simpler products yielding predigested foods. Food Technolog))jis the application of principles of food science and engineering to the process ing and preserving large quantities of food. Food fortificatioy is defined as the process whereby nutrients are added to foods in relatively Small quantities to maintain or improve the quality of the diet of a group, a community or a population (wo, fortification js the process of improving nutrient content in crops through breeding or genetic modification. es ie : Food Chemistry ys the discipline that is involved in investigating the composition, structure and Properties of food stuffs and their components, ee a 1 Scanned with CamScannerFoon Science Non-nutrients of food are organic compounds having no nutritional function, They may_he toxins or beneficia substances lke fibre or compounds that may improve palatability or pharma importance, : ; ‘unctional food) provides health, benef bey the nutrient sic ey are eaten phys = Seen, , CPhytochemicalsyre non-nutrient compounds found in plant derived. food that have. biological activity inthe bod) ‘ood safety and Fegulatiomis related to food sanitation in public health and rules and regulations governing it, a Gafosidanks include compounds that protect-hiological systems. aga effects of processes or reactions that can cause excessive oxidations (USDA). FUNCTIONS OF FOO! Foods are classified according to their functions in the body. the potentially harmful This group includes n-cathohudte, ft and pon, ‘One_gram of carbohydiate gives 4 Galories) One gr jen gives 4Galaries) One gram of fat gives.9 calories. This Broup may be Brealy divided im 4 ‘groups: wee Ucaloputen » Stowostyds ote ‘ ‘4 eS ac aloniee + Cereals, pulses, nuts and oilseeds, roots and tubers. + Pure carbohydrates like sugars and fats and oils. Cereals provide in addition to energy large amounts of proteins, minerals and vitamins in the diet, Pulses also give protein and B vitamins besides giving energy to the body. Nuts and oilseeds are ich in energy yielding as they are good sources of fats and proteins. Roots and tubers though mainly provide energy, they al Iso contribute 10 some extent to minerals and vitamins. Pure carbohydrates like sugars provide-only energy (empty calories) and fats provide concentrated source of energy and fat soluble-vitamins. » Body building Foods rich in protein are called body-buiding foods. They are classified into two groups > Milk, egg, meat, fish: They are rich in proteins of high biological value. These proteins have all the essential amino acids in correct proportion for the synthesis of body tissues + Pulses, oilseeds and nuts: ‘They are rich in protein but may not contain all the essential amino acids required by the human body. Protection and regulation Foods rich in protein, vitamins and minerals yave regulatory functions in the body e.g., maintaining the heart eal, water balance, temperature, Protective,foods are broadly classified into two groups. + Foods rich in vitamins and minerals and proteins of high biological value e.g., ilk, ege. fish.) Tivel = “bods rich ___—______, vitamins and minerals only e.g. (green leafy vegetables and fruits? ins a yy n leafy vegetables and Scanned with CamScannerMaintenance of health Food contains certain phytochemicals and antioxidants whi ‘diabetes mellitus: ‘Some examples for functional fonds are whole grains, soyabean, green leafy vegetables, coloured tts and spices IntrooucTion To Fooo Science Wve dis: controll Foods have been classified into different groups depending upon the nutritive value. for the conven ace of planning diets. Food groups like ‘Basic four’, suggested by ICMR can be used for planning Basic four suggested by ICMR 1, Cereals, Millets and Pulses: Cereals and millets: Rice, wheat, ragi, maize, bajra, jowar, rice flakes, puffed rice. Pulses and legumes: Bengal gram, black gram, cow pea, peas (dry) rajma, Ssoyabeans. 2. Milk and Aniinal Products: + Milk, curd, skimmed milk, cheese + Chicken, liver, fish, egg and meat. * 3. Vegetables and Fruits: + Green leafy vegetables: Amaranth spinach, gogu, drumstick leaves, corriander leaves, fenugreek. + Other vegetables: Carrots, onion, brinjal, ladies finger, beans, capsicum, cauliflower, drumstick + Ezuits: Mango, guava, tomato, papaya, orange, sweet lime, watermelon, 4, Oils, Fats and Nuts: + Oils and Fats: Butter, ghee, hydrogenated fat, cooking oils + Sugar and jaggery * Nuts Energy, protein, invisible fat, thiamine fli acid, bofavin, iron and fibre Energy, protein, invisible fat, thiamine riboflavin, folic acid, iron and fibre Protein, fat, riboflavin, calcium. Protein, fat and iron. Riboflavin, folic acid, iron, carotenoids, alcium, fibr Carotenoids and fibre. Carotenoids, vitamin C, ribofla folic acid, iron and fibre Energy, essential fatty acids and fat soluble vitamins. Energy, jaggery has iron, Protein and c-fatty acids Scanned with CamScanner! bi EU od pyramid Foor Science In plam and Sugars spar wises should be taken adequately; fruits and vegetables liberally: anim: Figure 1-a: Food groups suggested by ICMR. ng balanced diets, food should be chose each group in sufficient quantity. Cereals J foods moderately and ealthy population as ry guidelin Figure 1-b: ICMR food pyramid. fot Indians—A manual, 2011, National Institute of Nutrition, Hyderabad. Scanned with CamScannerFOOD IN RELATION TO HEALTH Health is related to the food consumed, To maintain good health; ingesting nutrients in correct amounts is essential A‘ is 0 et containing the which contains different types of food in such quantities and proportions so that the need for calories, proteins, fats, minerals and vitamins is adequately met_and a small provision is made for extra nutrients 0 withstdad shor duration of leanness. Deficie dent affects health of an individialy Food has not only nutrients but also nutraceuticals which prevent degenerative diseases, “Table 1-1 gives nutrient deficiency symptoms and sources of nutrients and explains how food is related to health. Cee Pees Energy, Protein Fat, sugar cereals, pulses, y Underweight, marasmus, gg, meat. { kwashiorkor Calcium Milk, green leafy vegetables Rickets, osteomalacia, gingelly seeds. tetany Iron eZ Liver, green leaf vegetables, Anaemia rice flakes, jaggery. Vitamin-A ae Liver, egg yolk, butter, green ‘Night blindness leafy vegetable, carrots ‘Thiamine Yeast, outer layers of cereals, _ Pain in the calf muscle, pulses, nuts, weakness of heart muscle Niacin Groundnuts, whole cereals, pulses. Dementia, diarrhoea, dermatitis Vitamin-B, ‘Meat, liver, vegetables, Anaemia, angular whole cereal grains. ‘stomatitis Folic acid Fresh green leafy vegetables, Megaloblastic anaemia lady's finger, cluster beans Vitamin-B,. Yeast, fermented foods Pemnicious anaemia Vitamin-C Citrus fruits, amla, guava Bleeding gums Vitamin-D Eggs, flesh foods, sunlight Rickets, osteomalacia PETAR ser ia Food preparation helps in combining food ingredients in various ways with delicate flavours, textures and colour 1as to be pleasing in appearance and taste so that it is consumed. Understanding food behaviour in Scientific terms helps in choosing best method of cook- ‘ng. Food preparation is an important step in ieeting the nutritional needs of the family Foods like fruits, vegetables and nuts are-eaten raw but most of the foods are cooked to bring about desirable changes, a The process Of subjecting foods to the Action of heat is termed ag cookin; eis TOMS 10 the action of heat is termed ag cookin Scanned with CamScanner CHAPTER 14OBJECTIVES OF COOKING Improves the taste and food quality : Cooking improves natural flavour and texture of food. For example roasting groundnuts, frying onions and papads, cooking rice and roasting coffee seeds improve the flavour. Cooking meat with spices, Tice with spices in making pulav, frying cashewnuts in ghee, addition of turmeric, curry leaves, pepper in pongal, blend flavour with one another during cooking Too much of cooking lowers the flavour as flavouring compounds are volatile. Over-cooked pulav, does not taste as good as well cooked pulav. Destruction of micro-organisms Micro-organisms are present everywhere and some are useful in making curd, cheese and bread Some Trand cause (fection or prod: eg pelostridium Botulinum and solemmella Som roduce toxins. KGpergillus flawed producsy ahatogin TH proudnuts, cereals and spices, ais oe eee se Thi aflatoxin) is @ health hazard. One of the most important methods of protection of food against harmful micro-organisms is by the application of heat. Cooking the required te ye for a required length of time can destroy all harmful microorganisms in FoOXEPS Gasteurised milk “Tapeworm or its larvae which infest pork can be food 7s made safe for consumption. SS Improves digestibility 4 Cooking softens the connective tissues of meat and the coarse fibi tables so and gastroint tract is less subjected to Cooking improves the texture hence it becomes more chewable. Cooking also bursts the starch granules of pulses and cereals so that the starch digestion is more easier, rapid_and complete. When dry_heat is applied 16 starches they are converted to easily digestible dextrins. Cooking increases iy enzymes and improves dig pesenaes warlety By cooking, same food can be made into different dishe¢ For examplp, rice can be made into plain, Pulaw, lemon rice, biryani, or combination with pulses and idi, Wheat ean be made into chapatis, pun, paratha or halwa- Increases consumption of food c Cooking improves the texture and makes the food chewable. Improvement in texture and flavour by Cooking increases the consumption of food to meet our nutritional requirement pecans nen food to Increases avallability of nutrients Raw egg contains avidin which Binds-biotin. making biotin unavailable to the body. By cooking, avidin gets denatured and biotin is available to the body. ‘Trypsin inhibitors present in soyabean and duck e; uured on cooking and availability of protein is improved. Tove sates Tam ea dhl an ai removed be Eto Proper application of heat. By y Boiling it and throwing away Cooking increases the quality of protein by making some aminoacid body, = eo. Scanned with CamScanner*s INTRODUCTION To Foo Science Studies have shown that when iron pans are used for cooking, the iron content of the fovc increases. This iron is available to the body. with greater health benefits, compared to uncooked, 6 \ore-easily- absorbed by the body, Lycopene ~ the pigment prese in fomatoes ~ reduces the risk of some cancers. oo Concentrates nutrients, fy al Thi maybe-ductosemoval of moisture or using combination of foods or due to cooking proce ‘ur eg, sweets.) On Pesticide residue. Pressure cooking, frying and baking minimise the harmful effect of pesticide residue. Boiling milk destroys the pesticide residue. In general heating reduces pesticide residues in all substances. Limitations of cooking + Thiamine, which is heat sensitive, may be lost during cooking? Water soluble nutrients are Jeachec into the water during cooking. Vitam C content may be reduced due to oxidation t * Quality of protein may be reduced due t0 des ‘of-ceitain aminoacids during cookir bread crust fas Tess quality of protein compared to the inside portion bags ON A Maat ea ae) The term us lesctibe the tasks done before or ahead the final preparation of food is preparation. Prelimin Ticludes Cleaning, peeling and siringi sieyjng..soaking. processing, coating, blanching. and fi the term cleaning is applicable to vegetables.~fiyits and many other r Many Foducts may have portions to be discarded, for example) withered or « eaves i green leafy vegetables. ‘aspect of cleaning is washing. This term is applicable to fruits, vegetables, cereals, pulses and non-vegetarian foods“Washing fruits renders them dirt-free. Washing cereals 0 husk, mud and any other unwanted matter-Hard vegetables are scrubbed under col About 75-80 per cent of pesticide residues are removed by cold water washing it water removes most of the contact pesticide residues that no ppea of the vegetab ‘The pesticide residues that are onthe surface of grapes, apples, guavas, mangoes and vegetables like tomatoes, brinjals and ladies finger require 2-3 washings. The green leafy vegetables must be washed with 2 per cent salt water in a large bowl * Insecticides, sprays, chemicals and dirt are removed — * Washing in warm water helps to kill the worms €B.>%vorms in cauliflower Scanned with CamScanner)Both these methods involve the removal of non-edible or fibrous portion of vulls or vegetables € g. peeling of banana and potato, ig of beans, Peeling brings about Ta | of nutrients presentiunder ‘under the surface of food, hence the product shoul the skin * Non-edible or fibrous portion is removed. « Dart aiid chemicals whichis retamed affer cleaning on the skin can be removed. * Appeals better to the eye after peeling and stringing eg., potatoes and-beans-~ Some nutrients might be lost e.g., peeling and exposing fruits can bring loss of vitamin C. * Some edible portion might be removed alongwith peel. This is dividing the food into smaller pieces, thus helping in easy cook- ang. eee terms under this are: v en : To divide into pieces or to shape with knife. , -Chop To cut into no specified shape. . wfince To chop very fine. ' Dice To cut into small uniform cubes. i + Slice To cut into uniform slices | ) Grate To cult finely with a grater. Cutting is a general term which includes all the others. Apart from knife, various other machines are used Jo cut like food slicer, chopper, grinder and vertical cutter. + The product is easily cooked. b = [vis easily consumed. * spoiled portion of the food can be discarded. * Appearance of fhefood Fan be improved, e.g sala + Grating helps in proper blending of the product “sol the size greater the surface area, greglr- the Joss of nutrients, hence suing i prefered to | valing but, however, certain Tecipes need grating. Figures Tan jow standard vegetable cuts and Fig. le shows some decorative cuts. Scanned with CamScannerJulienned Diagonal cuts Figure L-c: Ve oy INTRODUCTION TO Fooo Science Chiffonade Roll cuts table cuttings Scanned with CamScannerfor blending of Fooo Science Julienne Cut to 8 om x 2.5 mm thin strips @ Brunoise Cutto 2mm dice Cut to 5 mm dice Jardinere (Cutt to batons 2 x2 x 15 mm Paytanne (Cut fet 1 1 om tangles ‘Cut fatto 1 om equares Cut fiat o 1 om cree Cut fat to 1 cm edges ener LL Figure 1-d: Standard vegetable cuts, Sieving is done to remove coarse fibres and insects. It is also done in preparing cakes h baking powder. = Y Helps in removal of dirt, worms, fibre and stones from the whole grains. * The shelf life of food products can be improve Te Scanned with CamScannerFigure 1-e: Decorative cuts, Flowers and basket with radish and tomato. Same can and fruits. These enhance presentation value Four becomes fine. * Helps in blending, Scanned with CamScannerScanned with CamScannerCHAPTER 1 Eee ly be pd fh pao q sggot ‘Coating adds colour and flavour to the finished product. * The coat of breading helps in transmission of heat to the food product. + It brings less-fat a tion. * Produces a crunchy texture. » pee the food to retain moisture. ° yy help in binding ir ‘the food substances. 5 Disadval + Battered or ae food cannot be held long, otherwise the product becomes soggy. * Breading may not sick to food. : i maf Break uring fying Blanchi is plunging food into boiling liquid and immersing in cold water. This destroys enzymes reeves fund Thence used as prepardtion for preservation. Food produgis normally blanched are tomatoes, potatoes, almonds, carrots and beans. Advat * Peel can be removed easily. * Itis a preliminary method for canning and freezing. * Mier anisms present on lly removed. . Fe arses eas blac, Bromma be prevented due to inactivation of enzymes. Disadvs * Part of water-soluble nutrients may be Jost. * Long-time bl ling undesirably softens the food. nating is soaking a food in a marinade to add flavour or to tenderize it or both. A marinade is any liquid made up for purpose of marinating. Vegetal \d meats are Tiarinated with Pee ecmnaoes wvour combinations. Meat marinade made up of oil, flavour builders and acid Oil helps to hold natural juices of meat, Acid is used to tenderize by breaking down connective Mssue, Vegetables normally marinated are brinjal, onions, radish, bttergourd, potafoes and chillies Scanned with CamScannerFooo Science advantages v + Prevents browning reaction e.g., in potatoes and apples. + Adds flavour to the food. + Texture of product is improved + Eye imitation due to cutting of onions can be reduced by marinating. Disadvantage: , * Water-soluble nutrients may leach into marinade. _Ghrouting or Germinationy All kinds of grams like green gram, Bengal gram, peas and cere- als like ragi and wheat are generally sprouted. Sprouted pulses are used in making salads and curries. Advani jes: + Digestibility can be increased as complex substances are converted to simple substances €&., starch a=) = * Discomfort due to flatulence can be reduced. + This decreases cooking time as grain becomes tender, ‘Water-soluble vitamins are increased. i | | | i | | | | | + Dehusking is easier + Thickening power of starch is reduced. ng and aminoacids is increased , Eien Femenaion is the process of breaking down of complex matter into simpler ones with aid of enzymes and bacteria, This can be under aerobic og anaerobic conditions. Fermented foods are often tore nutritious than their unfermented counterparts. Some fermented food products faiapietés = Fexture and taste is improved. + Quality of protein is improved as availability of some aminoacids increase. +B vitamins are sthesied By micro-organisms, \ * Shelf life of food product can be prolonged'e.g., milk is converted to curds, * Fermented foods are easily digestible. — * Sometimes unwanted micro-organisms can develop and bring about spoilage of food * Acidity of the product is increased. ty of the product is incre : This includes both wet and dry grinding. Wet grinding includes the grinding idli i batter anid preparations oF chutneys. Dry grinding is grinding spices Tor masala powders and wheat | for wheat flour, Scanned with CamScanner7% IntRopuCTION To Fooo Science acvani : Sa facilitates fermentation in case of idli, dosa and dhokla. , : + Proper blending of flavour is ensured. + There is enhancement in taste and flavour. r | ' I j + This is helpfalin preparing gravy preparations + Extraction of lavouring compounds is better when coffee seed IS ground. Dis wasp rl + Infestation chances are more in flours than in whole food substances. | + Flavour is lost easily e-g., coffee powder. 4 | © Vitamin C content may be reduced due to oxidation. | Drying or dehydrating is removal of moisture from food products. Removal of moisture 4 helps prolong the shelf life of the ‘Codstafis generally dred afe mango and g f | pickles: Cereals, pulses and spices that are normally used are dried products only 4 | AcvantantS ‘ + Dried food rinds easily ‘ + In vegetables like ladyfinger, removal of moisture helps in reducing stickiness 7 Going 1 esis ene dirt, unwanted partich nove moisiure from foodstuff. In the preparation of cottage cheese of panees whey water is extracted. Foodstuffs 4 filtered are coffee, tea, rice, soups, Tru juices and tamarind water. | sapoese ‘ + Removal of dirt and unwanted particles. i * Better extraction of flavour compounds in making tea and coffee + Improves taste, ( Disadvantages: ‘ * Pesaro faniey eae) and tice kanji. This loss can be compensated by utilisin ligiidS for some offer Pirposes rather than discarding them, hhis process should be grouped under actual but certain however demand roasting as preparation. Foods generally rgasted are rava and d vermicelli ‘ 1 ° ee prevel a> * Gives characteristic flavour to.a food product ; * Infestation can be reduced, Scanned with CamScannerx wwe ww wwwwe r»>uwsy Ore Dry heat Boiling Roasting Braising Simmering Grilling/brailin, RGTRSE = Toasting a Baking eseT Satu — is cooking foods by just immersing them in water at({00°G)and m: fi 00°C ning the water at that} ure Bll the food is tender. Water 1s Said Tobe boiling when large bubbles are seen rising stantly on the surface of the liguid and then breaking rapidly Water Teves Heat by sonducton igh the sides of the utensil in which the food is cooked and passes on the heat by convection ts which equalise the temperature and become vigorous when boiling commences. Boiling point of water is 100°C and alter at high altitudes and in the presence of electrolytes. Paagees When foods are cooked by boiling, the fod should be brought to a vigorous boil first and the heat is then turned down, as violent boiling throughout tends 0 break the food. The temperature of the Water Cammot be increased any further after it begins to boil and continued vigorous boilii {5 in excessive evaporation of water and waste of fuel. And foods are likely to get burnt at the botiom and form a dry crust at the, top. Gods may be boiled in anf JigpRl which is bubbling at the surface such as stock, Foods that are Cooked by boiling are rice, eggs, dal with excess amount of water (ERBS, potatoes) or with sufficient water (dal, upma). milk, juices or fantages the most simple al skill and equipment. Scanned with CamScanner; 171198 .. “Intmoouerion 10 Fooo Science Ed « Soluble starches can be removed and rice grains are separated + Protein gets denatured, starch gets gelatinized and collagen gets hydrolysed. + "Uniform cooking can be done, ey Dist + LOS of DAF excess water is used in cooking and thé’ water is discasded 30-70% water iutrients like vitamin C may be lost, To prevent this \pe‘of Jpssqs, cooked water should be used i hal, Some protein may be lost if vegetables-are cooked ii Water containing salt and the cooking water is discarded, There is considerable loss of minerals especially sodium, potassium and calcium due to leaching. — ~/Loss of colour}: Water-soluble pigments, like betanin from beetroot may be lost. Beetroot should Be alongwith the skin to prevent the Toss of colour. « Fime consuming’ Boiling may take time and fuel may get wasted. + (Lass Favour and textur¥ Boiled foods are not considered tasty because flavour compounds are leached into the water. Over-boiling of food may make the ay mushy. Simmering = When foods are cooked in a pan with a well-fitting lid at temperature just below the boiling point 82.99°C of the liquid in which they are immersed the process ts known as simmering. [tis a u method when foods have to be cooked for a long time to make it tender as in the case of cheaper ¢ of meat, fish, cooking custards, Kheer, vegetables anc-cattot halwa. This method is also employed in making soups and stocks. Adypeftages: * Foods get cooked thoroughly. * Scorching oF buming is prevented. * Losses due to leaching is minimum. Disac fages: * There is loss of heat-sensitive nutrients, due to long period of cooking * Takes more time and Poaching This involves cooking in the minimum amount of liquid at a temperature of 80-85°C that is below the boiling point, Foods generally poached are eggs, fish and fruits: For poaching eggs, the addition wre fuel is required. Of little salt o ar 10 the cooking liquid lqwers the temperature of coagulation, Eggs get cooked quickly by poaching. ddan os ie Advantaffes; * Very quick method of cooking. * Easily digestible since no fat is used. Scanned with CamScanner CHAPTER 1Foon Science This is a gentle method of cooking in a pan with a tight-fitting lid, using small quantities of liquid to” cover only half the F004. The food above the liquid is cooked by The steam generated within ie pa The Hauge brought to a boiling point and then the heat applied is reduced to maintain the cooking at simmering temperatt € fe., 98°C) Stewing is a slow method of cook ing taking from 2 to 4 hours t : 7 : t 1 AnTRODUCTION To Fooo Science + There is less chance for burning and scorching ot overcooking + In double boilers sudden increase in temperature in making custards and overflow of mike: avoided. . . Texture of food i: bet fi + Steamed foods have good flavour. Disedygplatés tg : + Special squomet segues Re rice ee Many foods cannot be prepared by this ible ek ebitny (hoe ‘Pressure cooking te of, ater and steam can_be raised ahow Boiling foil hour at 100°Can be reduced to Jef an hour at! 1/4 hour a{ 120°C7Tn practice the reduction in cookiig-Mhie is ap by the pressure-temper relationship Of steam. Above 130-140°C the pressure generated incfeases enormously for very” sir increments in temperature. Above 130°C i massively constructed pressure vessels are required. Hence 120°C is an effective limit. acters cooker is usually constructed of heavy gauge aluminium and the pressure is regulated by weights placed upon a release valve, A safety valve is always fitted to prevent pre inadvertently buildiigsup Beyond the safe and specified level for the vessel construction. A common practice in pressure cooking is to allow a copious flow of steam from the release Valve before cap it with the weights. This ensures that all air isremoved before the cooking process starts. Ever presence of a small quantity Of air with the “Sleain diminishes the heat transfer properties of the steam drastically. Ten per cent of volume of ai wll almost double the cook ging of the enclosed Advante * Iv akes less time to cook. * Different items may be cooked at the same time + Fuel is saved. + Requires less aiention * Nutrient or flavour loss may be less * Food, is cooked RoroOgRTy by this method. * There is ai nication or the completion of cooking * There are Jess chances of scorching or burning, ages: Thorough knowledge of using the equipment is required, Otherwise a : cidents can happen * There may be mising of Mavours, * Food may be undesirably soft Foods cooked in Pressure cooker are rice, al, vegetables and meat Scanned with CamScanner ts #@ @ @® 2S @ 2&2 @& ee 8&8 & @& Bo 424 i ho Aa eae a a a| | ly conducted THOUgI We vurtaces of the food downward, As heating is most superficial, grilled ss are usually reversed or rotated. If the food is above the heater, heat is transmitted to the food convection currents as well as radiations with consequent increased efficiency, Foods cooked » guilling are cob on the com, papad, brinjal, phulkas, sweet potato. Barbecues are also made by this} nethod. —— hie term toasting is used to describe a process by which bread slices are kept under the grill or vetween the two heated elements to brown from both sides of the bread at the same time. This can be adjusted to give the required degree of brownness through temperature control. Advantages: Quick method of cooking. + Less OF iio Tatis required, + Flavour is improved Disadyartfage * Constant attention is required to prevent charring When food is cooked uncovered on heated metal or a frying pan the method is known as pan oroiling, eg), groundnuts and chapatis Improves the colour flavour and texture of.the food. + Reduces the moisture content of the food and improves the keeping quality, &g, rava + [tis easy to powder q cumin sees and corriander seeds after roasting + It is of OF the quick THEMOGS OF cooking foods. Disaaypstaes Constant attention is required. * Losses of nutrients like aminoacids occur when the food becomes brown. food gels cooked by hot air. Basically it iy dry heat method of cooking but the action of dy} neat is combined with that of steam which is generated while the food is being cooked. Foods baked ure generally brown and crisp on the top, soft and porous in the ceniie, €.g., cakes, pudding and oseads. The principle involved jn baking is the air inside the oven is heated by a source of heat eithes Cs ER Scanned with CamScanner‘ init. Foods prepared by baking are custards, pics, Biscuits, pizzas, puts, b 4099 shicken, tandoori meat and fish, ‘+ Variety of dishes can be made. + Uniform and bulk cooking can be achieved ‘The Chinese invented stir frying. Here the food like meat or vegetable cooked by constantly stirring at high fiteThe Chinese often slice vegetables on the diagnol to expose the maximum amount of surface area for quick cooking. This method involves cooking in just enough of cil to cover the base of the asing the pan). The food is tossed occasionally or tured over with a spatula to enable all the pieces to come in contact with the-oitand-get cooked evenly. Sometimes the pan is covered with lid reducing the flame and allowing the food to be cooked nde nis on seam The product obtained in cooking by this method is slightly moist, tender but without any liquid or gravy. Foods cooked by sauteing are generally vegetables used as side dishes in a menu. The heat is transferred to the food mainly by condyction eens et SENN Here the food is cooked in fat or oil but pot enough to cover it_Heat is transferred to the food Partially by conduci¥on by contact with the heated pan and partially by the convection currents of the ‘Toods “THIS prevents Tocal_b g of the food by keeping the-intense heat of the fryit hapat fish, cults and WARIS Te thsi Sst Wal he crispy brown OuSTGeSIAITA tee Tron conten oF FOOT sed N Non-stick coated frying pan can be =— Reslisiyirow Food is totally immersed in hot oj] and cooked by vigorous convection currents and cooking js uniform on al 5 iS Cooking can be rapidly completed in deep fat frying because the temperature us 80-2: In most Yoods, this high temperature results in rapid drying out of the surface and ¥ P surface, brown in colour, The absorption of fat by the food increases the Salorific value of the food. Fats when heaied-¥6-amaKimgpoint decompose to fatty acids and glycerel Scanned with CamScannerFooo Science followed by the decomposition } Which causes irritation to the eyes and nose Generally soi Ofh is absorbed but larger amount of fat is absorbed whe edly. Samosa, papads, chips, muruku, pakoda, bajji and bonda are made by deep fat fryi Taste is improved, alongwith the texture A * Increases the calorific value + Fastest method of cooking : + In shallowfat frying the amount of oi consumption can be controlled ied repeat- LpissAvantages * Sometimes the fand may.become cily.or sagey with too much absorption of oil * More attention is required while cooking and care sh edited while cooking and cares should be taken to avoid accidents. * The food becomes very expensive + Fried-food takes lon st. * Repeated use of heated oils may produce harmful substances and reduce the smoking point Combination of Cooking Methods -Braising Braising is a combined method of roasting: and stewing in a pan with a tight-fitting lid. The meat should be sealed by browning on all sides and then placed on a lightly fried bed of root vegetables Stock or gravy is added which should come to 2/3 of the meat. Flavourin; and allowed to cook gently. igs and seasoning ‘re added Electromagnetic waves from a power source magnetron are absorbed by the food and food becomes hol at once. Thus, microwaves do not require any medium of transfer of heat in cooking ~The microwaves can be absorbed, transmitted or reflected. They are reflected by metals and absorbed by food. When food is kept in the cavity of the microwave oven for cooking, by the magnetron strike the food and the metal walls of the oven. Micro walls are d bounced back so they disperse throughout the oven and heating 5 the microwaves generated waves Cooking with microwaves differs radically from conventional cooking methods because the heat is generated inside the food rather than Being transferred to the exterior of the food by conduction convection or radiation The energy of these electromagnetic radiations excite the water molecule in food which bear a positive electrjcal charge in oné position and negative charge iit her posiWOMOrNse Molecule (dipole) Whet the elected ofthe microwave interact’ with the water dipole, the water molecules begin to vibrate very rapidly in ee a times @ second. This vibration produces friction that creates heat pte od as the OWaves are able to penetrate, — ‘The efficiency of microwave cookery dey cooked. Differ @s heavily upon the constitution of the food being nts of the food will interact with the microwave radiation at varying rates Te Scanned with CamScannerIrroouction ‘The most important {in any food is water. It is the major constijuent of the and many foots on aR ae ech as water, It is the water in cellu! matter that Converts microwaves to heat energy with great efficjency and rapidity whereas ot ponents sich as starch, Gellulo§2 and protéh are nowhere near as efficient Least effective converter is faty tissue WICH normatty-coftains a very small amount of moisture. Microw can be done of on paper dishes, plastics, glass, chinaware and ceramics because these materials the waves yes through them em_without abgorbing them-like water. Alaminiym foi c asisuen’ paper Bags Stain Rvessels, “Raetal WWist tie’, Copventibnal bern ‘ised + Stirrer Waveguide Cooking Cavity Door and Choke Tumtable ri re 1-f: The microwave oven and its After cooking in a microwave oven washing dishes is much easie sides of these vessels and the paper dishes can be thrown away. Cleaning ¢ wiping it dry with a damp cloth: Microwave cooking enhances the flavour of food because it cooks quickly wi and thus preserves the natural colour of vegetables and Truits: Lettovers from_th dinner can be heated a Minute and reused for breakfast or lunch available in Indian markets Tike tikkas, kababs, dals and chicken Cuity can be on The tal Microwave oven can be used for toasting nuts, Tor poaching eggs and { stale chapathig Fresh and 19 make popoori, Aire oil free papads and vadams An essential difference between mic microwave and conventional cooki time rather than temperature in microwave cooking . ~ previou Precooked- proces’ ave oven can be us Practical hints in using microwave oven * Do notuse the oven for home canning or the heat the jacmay explode. le * Small quantities of food or foods with low Moisture content can dry out, burn ng of any closed j Scanned with CamScanner 6 e e ¢ a 4 4 4 4 a q q q 4 4 4 4 ‘ ‘* Do not leave open unaitended while in use D ¢ oven. Cooking oils may burst into flames.. Microwave temperature of the hot oil and could shatter. Ve oven. Pressure will build up and the eggs will explode, Be yolks and whole vegetables must be pierced. before microwave cooking to ing, CANE 600 . “otatges, apple vent bi it vegetables like potatoes cause dehydration and ’ dine grids ean erupt if not mixed with air. Do not heat liquids in microwave oven without first ‘we 1g shows how the whole foods must be pierced ‘ +g: While microwaving foods with skins of ‘membranes must be pierced or have a strip of skin peeled before ‘ooking 10 allow ste 10 escape. Whole yolks and whites, clams, oysters, chicken, livers, whole Potatoes and whole ve tables should be pierced. Who skin peeled before cooking apples oF potatoes should have a I-inch strip of in microwave oven Sor clothes which contain a synthetic fibre woven ato them. 1 bre May cause the wowel to ignite °0 not use paper bags or recycled paper products j Do not heat narrow mouthed containers as Do not use papey ie synthetic the microwave oven oil over even after cooking has stopped id fat affect cooking. Bones may cause imtegularcooking. Meat next to the tips of bones ity OVETCOOK WhITe HEB Positioned under a large bone such as a ham bone may be undercooked smounts of fat absorb microwave energy and the meat next to these areas may get over-cooked. Lbe. pertorated or-otherwise allow for steam to escape to the quantity of the food increases so oes the cooking time. Place th the dish aie Uhick pieces towards the edge. Thin ot even cooking place in the o pattern. ds wrapped, the wrapper shou ent it from bursting Parts towards the centre Pleces cook more quickly than thick pieces “eawal dstanees apart When possible, aang € foods in a circular Wien removing plastic wrap covers, ou to avoid Steamy bus, ~——— a well any glas lids, be careful ta semove them away from Scanned with CamScanner0 nents is minimised. B-carotene and vitamin C are better retained by microwave cooking compared to pressure cooking and saucepan cooking. “+ After cooking in a microwave oven washing dishes is much easier as food does not stick to the sides of the vessels. fruits. E + No fat or low fat cooking can be made. 4 + Fat free cooking Cai Be done Tor papads and vathals. ae to short period of cooking, food does not become brown unless the microwave has a browning —— + Iti5H6t possible to make chapati or tandoori roti in it. It cannot cook soft or hard boiled eggs. Deep frying necessary for puris, jalebis, pakoda, vadas cannot be done in it. * Sometimes unwanted chemicals migrate“to food from plastic cookware or food packages. Only * The short i ma) i of blending of flavours as in conventional methods ‘oven causes physiological abnormalities. * Ifthe. is {0mm the central portion is out of. range of the microwave radiation will only the Process of conduction. It will be relatively uncooked while the lerior accessible to microwave is cooked in minutes or seconds. ¢ and’'feehnology. The Compulype Media, New Delhi Scanned with CamScannerFoon Science Give the ICMR classification of food groups . Define the following, (@ Mince (B) Bind (©) Fold (a) Dredging 3, Way do we cook food? What are limitations of it? 4k Chasity itferent methods of cooking and explain any five methods in detail. S. Define poaching. Bring out the advantages of it | 6 What is the best method of cooking rice? Why is it so? 7. Explain the different dry methods of cooking. . $8. What is the principle of microwave cooking? Explain its construction and superiority, over the traditional methods of cooking. 9. How is heat transferred in baking? What are foods normally cooked by baking? 10. Describe the different methods of cooking in which steam is used. 11. Give the advantages of pressure cooking. 12. Explain the methods if, which air is used as.medium of cooking. 13, Compare shallow fat frping and deep fat frying methods. Give suitable examples. 14. Name five preliminary methods of cooking. Discuss advantages and limitations giving suitable examples. PRACTICALS a 1. Grouping of foods—Discussion on nutritive values, 2. Technique in measurements of foodstuff—Use of standard measuring cups and spoons—weight-volume relationships. 3. Survey locally available foods and identify and find the cost of foodstuffs 4. Find edible and non-edible portions of food §, Give the energy and protein value per 100g of food, selecting from all the food groups. Scanned with CamScanner7 CEREALS AND ‘€E PRropucts and bajra. Th The cereal grains are seeds of the grass family. The word cereal is Goddess of grain. The principal cereal crops are rice, wheat, maize or com term cereal is not limited to these but also flours, meals, breads nd alim The ease with which grains can be produced and stored, together with the relatively low cost nutritional contribution has resulted in widespread use of cereal foods. They are the st 00K n diets of most population groyps jowar, n Sues The overall structure of all cereal grains it basically similar differing from one cereal t detail. The percentage of endosperm, germ and bran of cereal are 83 Longitudinal section of wheat grain is given in Fig. 2-a Bran or pericarp: The outer layer, epidermis of the cereal consists of thin-walled long r lar cells, Next to the epidermis is the hypoderm of tears during the ripening of the seed and in the ing hypha-like cells called tube cells ‘The seed coat or testa is a thin single or double layer. The inner layer of deeply pigmented which gives the grain its characteristic colour. Next to testa is a hyalin tissue) which is colourless and devoid of any obvious cellular structure Aleurone cell layer: The endosperm is surrounded by one or mor aleurone. In wheat, the aleurone is a single layer of thick-walled cubicle cells and constitu of grain weight. The cells contain about 20 per cent each of protein, oil and mineral matt ate also rich in nicotinic acid. The aleurone cells also contain tiny grains of phytic aci protein, _ Endosperm: The endosperm itself consists of cells of various sizes, shapes and different Sition. The endosperm cell consists mainly of starch and protein, the starch bei lad ae aang granules or tightly packed together and embedded in in. The 8 pe of the starch granule in the endosperm cells vary from one cer Embryo: The germ or embryo consists of many Which has the function of mobilizing the stored foo M2 and 2%, n varying thickness. The innermost la ure grain they are rep parts. It is separated from endospe od in the endosperm and 27 Scanned with CamScanner Da rAnanaee AAA ADA a @Woy Jo NBT Jo LONI9s foupMIsUO' :w-z aan safe} auljeky eisay 51809 peas sajleo eqn). J0ke} 88019 sunwapodiy stuwapid dueoubg 1199. auosnery (ue1g pue wedsopug usamjaq payoupues) : sake} auoinayy (sajnues6. yoseys: yum) = 190 Ayouerg wads uadsopua {yare1g amen aS PAID 40 UOILOd |e. ne 29 2005 ff Scanned with CamScannerf s i tl Tes ‘embryo when the grain getminates. The germ and scutellum are rich in protein and fat. Most of the vitamins in the grain are present in the scutellum. / COMPOSITION AND NUTRITIVE VALUE Nuwitive value of different cereals is given in Table 2.1. . 7 Pat Energy: Cereals are the main source of energy, contributing #0°§0sperscent of thé requirement Hundred grams give more than 340 keal of energy. Carbohydrates: 80 per cent of dry matter of cereals is carbohydrate. The two carbohydrates present are crude fibre and soluble carbohydrate. The fibre constituents are cellulose, hemicellulose and pentosans which are concentrated in the bran layers. Of the soluble carbohydrate, starch is the most important carbohydrate in all cereals. Small quantities of dextrin and sugars are also present. Free sugars present include simple sugars such as glucose and disaccharides like sucrose and maltose. Of all the cereals, whole wheat, ragi and bajra contain high amount of fibre Proteins: The protein content of different cereals varies. Rice contains less amount of protein com- pared to other cereals. The protein content of different varieties of te same cereal also varies. Proteins are found in all the tissues of the cereal grain. Higher concentrations decur inthe embryo, scutellum and aleurone layer than in the endosperm, pericarp and testa, Within the endosperm the concentration of protein increases from the centre to the periphery. The types of protein present in cereals are albumins, globulins, prolamines (giiadins) and glutelins. The proportion of these proteins differs in different cereals. The gliadins and glutelins are known as gluten proteins. The gluten has unique elasticity and flow properties which are used for baking bread and other products Cereals contain 6-12 per cent protein, which is generally deficient in lysine. They provide more than 50 per cent of protein requirement as they are consumed in large quantities. Among cereals, rice protein is of better quality than the others. Cer-sis, when consumed with pulses, the protein quality improves due to mutual supplementation. Cereals are deficient in lysine and rich in methionine. Pulses are deficient in methionine and rich in lysine. Hence, there is improvement in protein quality of both proteins Fats: Fats are present to the extent of 1-2 per cent in wheat and rice, and 3 per cent in maize. More fats are present in germ and bran than in other parts of the grain. Wheat germ contains lipids 6-11 per cent and bran 3-5 per cent and endosperm 0.8-1.5 per cent. Fat content of maize germ is 35 per cent and the bran contains 1 per cent, The fats are mostly the triglycerides of palmitic, oleic and linoleic acid. Cereals also contain phospholipids and lecithin. Considering the amount of cereal consumed it is estimated that fat present in cereals in our diets ©an meet more than 50 per cent of our essential fatty acid requirement. Cereals together with pulses can nearly meet the essential fatty acid requirement of an adult. Minerals: About 95 per cent of minerals are the phosphates and sulphates of potassium, magne- sium and calcium. A considerable, part of phosphorus in cereals is present in the form of phytin Phosphorus and calcium present in phytin are not available for absorption. Phytates present in cereals eorease the absorption of iron. Unrefined cereals contain mote phytates than refined or polished “ereals, On germination of the grains, the phytate content reduces due to enzymatic breakdown and iton availability is improved Some mineral elements like copper, zinc and manganese are also present in very small quantities in cereals Scanned with CamScanner wCEREALs AND CEREAL Prooucts “iN ‘Spoog yo aimmnsuy [eu Foop Science £0 vz Eo, Ror 100 zo oro Ico Izo Lt 900 Izo 1z0 “zo wo 860, 110 wo Le0 £0 ‘Bu SOTA a PE) ul 61s Le 1 & oEL or sse a +, v6o 99 €& oeL oz oe” eu se 9 ¥8r £0 or z8e we or £90 or 6 OL 87 or vLL o£ vee oz ge os 879 Ur 6 ove €@ OL w99 Vy st 9% o8 a a su Lo 60 “1 ro Sl z9I or Sr) eT CT Tyo AT N 4 901 40d sqwosa9 Jo anqea aaney roe] oer WON FEZ NAEL vee sz ze ore I9¢ Tym) PeaIg TOYA (Pouryas) smoyy way, (210W%) smo way Paysnd aony soyey 20g weig ory pormu’‘mes “Sony, pepunodpuey “mes ‘2ory Porm “pajoqied “ory Popunodpuey ‘pajioqied ‘sory, Bey [rou 10, sepuat “azeW fap ‘sere semog eafeg Scanned with CamScannerPa | The. Fito. Nach i Phos- Iron Cate. flavin Fibre Calcium phorus tene mine the values of wheat are taken as 10) and compared with th Cereals are poor sources of calcium and iron particularly rice is a very poor source of these two elements. The content depends upon the extent of polishing. Ragi is a rich source of caleium and on. Millets (ragi, bajra, jowar) are rich in minerals and fibre. The iron content of wheat is increased during milling where irbn rollers are used. Vitamins: Whole grain cereals are an important source of B vitamins in our diet. Since most of these vitamins are in the outer bran, refining or polishing the grains reduce B vitamin content. Parbo'l ing which includes soaking in water and steaming of paddy results in seeping of vitamins present in outer layer into the grain. Hence, milled and polished parboiled rice retains much of the B vitamin Maida has less B vitamins than whole wheat flour. Cereals do not contain either vitamin A or C except maize which contains small amoun’ of tenes. Oils from cereal grains are rich in vitamin E Nutritive value of wheat and rice is compared in the Fig. 2-b Enzymes: Certain grains contain many enzymes and of these the amylases, proteases, lipases a oxido-reductases are of importance. Upon germination ot amylase activity inc relatively more in the germ. The lipases of the cereals are responsible for the fatty acids ap during storage of the cereals and their products bln ej) ome atte) 5 WHEAT ases. The proteases India produced 72.8 million tonnes of wheat during 2003, Wheat belongs to the genus ‘ritcun 1» there are 30,000 species. The wheat produced in the country belongs to tritictum aestiver (9S p ‘riticum durum (4 per cent) and triticum dicoccum (1 per cent) species which are used for bak: 4nd traditional products. The kernel of wheat is usually 1/8 ~ 1/4 inch long. In some kinds of w ‘ip of each kernel is covered by stiff hairs called the brush, Wheat grains are ovoid in shape 'nboth ends. Along one side of the grain there is a crease, a folding of the aleurone and all coverin | ES meres Scanned with CamScanner aud adSevvv Vv vvvVvVvVuVvVwevuv~ Fooo Science Composition hydrate: Disvibution of carbohydrate in wheat fraction is given in Table 2.2. Vable 2.2: Percentage distribution of carbohydrate in wheat oN ana a) Starch 95.8 Bits ee nae Su 1 36.4 16 ellulose 03 168 35.2 Jemicellutose 24 153 43.1 4 Manay N, and Shadakshara Swamy M., 1987. Foods—Facts and Principles. New Age iernational Publishers, New Delhi Proteins: Its content depends on the variety grown, climate and soil conditions. Proportion of different proteins in wheat grain as percentage of total protein are: bumin 5-10 e 40-50 jute 40-50 mic acid and low in tryptophan, Glutamic acid and aspartic acid in 4s glutamine and aspar: The high concer ide ig impor ran and germ proteins have a higher content endosperm proteins. Thus, the biological value ¢ Jetermin characteristic of the gluten. The b tial amino acids than the inn endosperm nieins is much less than that of the whole wheat protei . arbose, an ol charide present in wheat is a competitive inhibitor of sucrase and pancre se. Il lowers the postprandial blood glucose rise Milling of wheat Wheat is consumed mostly in the form of flour obtained by mill ing the grain while a small quantity pnyerted into breakfast foods such as wheat flakes and puffed wheat. Indian wheats are hard and the moisture content is usually 8-10 per cent, Distribution of nutrients in different parts of wheat n in Table 2.3, Table 2.3: Percentage composition of nutrients in different parts of wheat kernel ree ie ome a Protein 10-15 8 19 Thiasnine 3 64 3 Riboflavin 32 6 2 acin 2 . 2 Pyridoxine 6 21 Pantothenic acid 3 . Scanned with CamScanner-- i arious types of impurities its of straw and other coarse méferials and second screen removes ‘impurities in the wheat. The streafh of gait ig ditected across screens ucks off the dust and lighter particles. era en ‘+ Disc separator: After the aspirator it moves into a disc separator consisting of discs revolving on a ‘horizontal axis. The surface of the discs indented to catch individual grains of wheat but reject larger or smaller material. CHAPTER 2 Srereremmene niece Figure 2-¢: Milling of wheat ‘The chart is greatly simplified. The sequence, and complexity of different operations vary in diff Source. From Wheat to Flour, 1965, Wheat Institute, Chicago, Iinots. ferent mills Scanned with CamScannerFoon Science Scourer: The wheat then moves into the scourer, a machine in which beaters attached to a central shaft throw the wheat violently against the surrounding drum, buffing each kernel and breaking off the kernel hairs Magnetic separator: The stream of wheat next passes over a magnetic separator that pulls out iron and steel particles contaminated during harvesting Washer stoner: High-speed rotators spin the wheat in the water bath, Excess water is thrown out by centrifugal force. Stones drop to the bottom and are removed, Lighter material float off leaving only the clean wheat. Fi , Tempering: Wheat is tempered, before the start of grinding, the process in which moisture is added. Tempering aids in separation of the bran from the endosperm and helps to provide constant controlled amount of moisture and temperature throughout milling. The percentage of moisture, length of soaking, time and temperature are three important factors in tempering with different requirement in soft, medium and hard wheat, Dampened wheat is held in a bin for 824 hours. The outer layers of wheat tend to be brittle and tempering toughens the bran coat to permit more complete separation of endosperm. Within the kernel tempering also mellows or conditions the endosperm so that floury particles break more freely in milling. * Whole wheat Wheat flakes Wheat germ Bulgur wheat Figure 2-d: Wheat and its products + Entoleter: Discs revolving at high speed in the scourer aspirator hurl the wheat against finger like pins. The impact cracks down any unsound kernel which are rejected. « Grinding bin: The “first break” rolls of a mill and are corrugated rather than smooth, break into coarse particles. + Sifter: The broken particles of wheat and bran go into a box like sifter where they are shaken through a series of cloth or screens to separate larger from the smaller particles. Larger particles are shaken off from the top by leaving the final flour to shift towards the bottom. + Purifier: The top fractions and particles of endosperm graded by size are carried to separate purifiers In a purifier a controlled flow of air lifts off bran particles while cloth or screen separate and grade coarse fractions by size and qualities + The down purifier: Four or five additional break rolls with successively final corrugations and cach followed by a sifter are usually used to rework the coarse stock from the sifter and reduce the wheat particles granular middlings as free from ran as possible. Germ pasticles being somewhat plastic will be flattened by a later passage through the smooth reduction rolls and tend to be easily separated : “The process is repeated over and over again. Sifters, purifiers reducing rolls until the maximum amount of flour is separated consisting of atleast 72 per cent of wheat Scanned with CamScannerProducts of wheat CEREALS AND Cerzar Prooucts Whole wheat Nour: It contains the finely ground bran, germ and endosperm of the whole err Whole wheat products have a distinetive flavour and coarser texture;than those made fro) » Because of the higher fat content of the germ, whole wheat flour is more difficult t© keep an. times becomes rancid in storage under poor conditions. Wheat flour is fortified with defatted soya flour ‘Poushtic atta’ maximum upto 10 per cent. Th not only improves quantity and quality of protein but also improves fi moisture retention and less oil absorption in the end product. Iron fortified wheat flour has been successfully used to prevent iron deficiency anaemia. T conducted at NIN revealed that ferrous sulphate is a cost effective and good source of iro: process of wheat flour fortification M: be stored in an air-tight container in a refrigerator ae characteristics suc la: The bran and germ are separated in making white flour or maida. Maida bak uniformly into a loaf of a greater volume and it is more bland in taste and mor The nutritive value of maida or refined wheat is much lower than whole wheat as shown in Table 2.4. Table 2.4: Differences between whole and refined grains Bran per cent 4 Germ per cent 25 Total dietary fibre per cent B Insoluble dietary fibre per cent ns Soluble dietary fibre per cent Li Protein per cent 14 Fat per cent 27 ‘Starch and sugar per cent 70 Total minerals per cent 18 Selected minerals Zinc g/g 29 Iron pe/g 35 Selenium yg/e 0.06 Selected vitamins Vitamin B, mg/g 15 Folic acid mg/g 057 Phenolic Compounds ~ Phytochemicals Ferulic acid mg“%g BHtocotrienol s/s 32.8 Phytate Phosphorus mg/g 29 8 02 Whole grain gives the benefits of entire grain like phytochemicals, vitamins, minerals and fibre Source: Cited from Slavin et al., 1999, Plausible Mechanisms for the Protectiveness of Whol Amer. J. Clin. Nutr. Scanned with CamScanner -e@@ee@@eainea tie » ee @ =Foon Science Semolina: tt is coarsely ground endosperm and its chemical composition is similar to that of vite flour. It is used in the manufacture of macaroni products. It is roasted before storing to save it trom insects and worms, Macaroni products: These products are also called pasta (comes tion the Ralian word for paste) or alimentary pastes. These prod- uss wnelucle macaroni, spaghetti, vermicelli and noodles. The main ent in the oup of products is a special durum nacaroni gi 1: of high-gluten content, Durum wheat is used because of its yellow-amber colour, nutty flavour and also because they hold their pe and firm texture when"cooked. The starchy endosperm of Wheat is Coarsely ground into semolina which is made with water mio a thick dough The dough is placed in a cylinder, the lower cnd of which 1s fitted with a dise perforated with openings and as h openings various shapes are formed. isa be either tube or rod, ver i oodles are flat strips. Pasta products are wailable in the shapes of shell and alphabets. Usually not less cent by weight of egg solids a All macaroni products are cooked gently in salted water to a standard called “al dente” ie., to the tooth. They are quickly drained and not rinsed, Strands of macaroni should be tender, firm and dhistinet, not starchy, mushy or matted, Di sodium phosphate is added idded to noodles. Figure 2-e: Macaroni foods spaghetti, macaroni and to cook macaroni faster and it increases alkalinity which enables the nobilles-are made in larch (o gelatinise faster. Onions, celery, garlic, bay leaf are added many interestin as fl ents. Sometimes, they are also enriched with B seal eaaiteas farfalle and linguini are used as soups, side dishes, salads and d different forms of dishes, Popular dishes include veg upma and vermicelli payasam. Fried noodles ickening agent. serts oy . kesari, table noodle ¢ added to soups as They can be prepared quickly and easily accordin or ready to heat-and-eat form. Pasta products are digested slowly as the Different kinds of wheat 8 10 recipe or purchased in convenient precooked dense structure impedes enzymatic hydrolysis are used for different purposes. For cakes and breads soft wheat, for aroni hard wheat are used. In India, Punjab wheat is used for making chapati and samba wheat i used for rava (upma) purpose. Maida is used for making sweets and snacks Malted wheat: The process of malting consists of the following steps od quality grain is steeped in cold water for 36 hours in warm climate with two or three cha he steeped grain is spread on wire mesh trays of 2-3 thickness which are kept in a stand. The sination is allowed to proceed for 3 days in a warm climate. During germination amylases and proteases are activated Germinated grain is allowed to slow dry during which the amyla S act on starch, hydrolysing them. ‘as much of the enzyme activity as possible tes and nitrogen (peptones and peptides) increase. The haraotristie mal flavour is developed. The malt is dried to a moisture content of about 13 per ent, Figure 2-e shows the process of making malted wheat, The drying should be at a low temperature to conserve During drying, the water-soluble carbohydrat Scanned with CamScannerolid concentration of 45 g made oked in 100 ml of water to a soupy consistency. This the weaning child a Jpw visdosty, yet high enerey 4 ur is inexpensive and can be made at home een a commercially. Malt is used - jp brewing and in the preparation of malt extract for pharmaceutical purposes and in the preparation ‘of malted milk powder. ‘Glutamic acid: It is derived from wheat, A familiar compound of glutamic acid is “mono sodium tamate”, a salt-like product generally available and used to bring out the flavour of other foods or ‘seasonings, ‘Wheat germ: Wheat germ is about 2-3 per cent of wheat grain. It has @ high nutritional quality ‘comparable to animal proteins. Presently this germ is not separated during milling, as it has @ poor Shelf life of only a few days and is lost in bran fraction. Commercial germ samples contain 35-30 per cent protein, 9-11 per cent oil, 10-15 per cent sugdys. Toasting o steaming of the germ jncreases the shelf life: Germ can be used in bakery products And in weaning foods. Wheat bran: It increases the stool weight by increasing the water holding capacity of the bran Wheat bran prevents constipation and may lower the risk of colon cancer. Triticale: It is a hybrid cereal from a cross between wheat (Triticum) and rye (Secale). The hybrid cereal has the productivity and disease resistance of wheat with the vigour and hardiness of rye The protein of triticale has a higher lysine content than that of wheat protein The grains have 14-18 per cent protein as against 12-15 per cent in wheat. The flour is suitable only for biscuit making bread making quality of tritcalé could be considerably improved by blending with equal Goantty of maida. Chapatis are acceptable upto a 50 percent level of incorporation of triticale Flour RICE Rice contributes to 43 per cent of total food grain production and 46 per cent of total cereal produc: tion, The consumption of rice in India is around 84 million tonnes in 2002-03. Rice is a staple diet for more than half of the world’s population. It is principally consumed in Asia Composition Its influenced by genetic and environmental factoys. The germ, the peristp and aleurone layers which are richer than endo’ ulrients like protein, minerals and vitamins are separated from te in dei ae A wdrates The major carbohydrate of rice is s ich is 72-75 per cent. The amylose content of starch varies according t Tonger grain and superior Types containing upto 17 unplelelytevor-ort Onin rice cos alnST-epely_ol-amylopes free sugars like glucose, sucrose, dextrin: binose and xylose fructose and raffinose. The fibre of rice is the hemicellulose made up of pent sn wheat, rice has higher glycaemic index that is glucose is released into the blood faster. Brown rice and basmati rice and parboiled rice have slightly lower glycaemic value which is 4 favourable one. Proteit, The protein content of rice is 7 per cent, It is much lower than that of the whea Which is also known as oryzenin is the principal protein of rie. Rice also contains small quanti: of albimin, globulin and prolamines, The proteins of polished rice have a lower biological value but Scanned with CamScanner it. Glutelin CHAPTER 2Fooo Science higher digestibility than those of rice bran and rice polishing. Parboiling has no effect on the biological value or digestibility of the proteins. The nutritive value of rice protein is of high order being superior to.that of the wheat and other cereal produits” The Tice proteins remove Ach i-arginine compared 10 other cereal proteins, Rice is deficient in lysine and threonine. The biologi ne 80 w wheat protein has 66 and maize protein has 50. “Minerals In its mineral content, rice resembles other cereals, Most of the minerals present inghe rice are Tocated in the pericarp and germ. Polished rice is poor in calcium and iron. Coloured of rice contain more iron Tha the Whe rice. The phosphorus content is high’ about 4 pef c which is present as phytic acid. Rice contains some trace éleiiients, Vitamins: Unpolished and parboiled rice are good sources of B vitamin either vitamin A or vitamin C al value of rice protein i ns. Rice does Rice contains amylases, proteases, lipases, oxidases, peroxidases and phenolases. On the oxidase activity of rice remains constant but the amylase, lipase, peroxidase activities tease. The activity of the alpha amylase in fresh ice is probably respomisible for its Sticky consistency after cooking. This enzyme gets inactivated during storage and cooked grains get separated easily ‘PigsitentsColoured rice contains anthocyanins and carotenoids ured Tice contains anthocyanins and « GOLDEN RICE” Nutritional genomics has been applied to-rice for the development of golden rice by biofortfication, Golden fice Has enhanced Prcarotene, iron Rin particularly | amin waLIsaine. Golden rice would reduce The meh Tee Malnuiition globally. ¥ | Figure 2-f shows hand pounding of rice. This process retaing many nutrients. Figure 2-f Scanned with CamScannerFor best milling yield of rice, per cent. Before milling, addy is ¢ Z and milling coarse outer layer of bran and germ.are removed, Paddy on milling yields hulis 20 per cent, bran 8 per cent, polishing 2 Per centand tice 70 per cent Paby ac ini a in India vither by ho ng or in meghanised tice mylls. In home pounding there are more broken rice. Storage life js short as the fain the br ag Cevelops randidity The steps involved in the process of milling is sh F g.' jown in Figr { L__ Paddy Y Cleani BO agrenre pay) { foreign material Cleaned Paddy a | 1 Soa in cola Sheling innubberron Water or 10h ‘sheller (dehusking) 7 ’ \ ‘Atmospheric eo) ‘steaming (30 min) Brown rice t- jeep) we eed im [preboied ped} Polishing in horizontal er poleher Pind 23% 4M 8.0% | Milled rice with different degree of polish’ | Figure 2-g: Steps involved in milling. Seurce: Shobana, §. etal, 2011, Nutritional and sensory profile of two Indian rice varieties with different seorees F Polishing. International journal of food science and nutrition, * Rice is passed through tw: scs rotating at different speeds and by shearing actior on the grain, the hull is pulled away. Th ie whole kernel from which the hulls have bes known as brown rice. en Temov ame rom which the hulls have bee * This is then milled in a machine called pearler to f p emove coarse outer layers of bran and germ by a Process of rubbing; resulting in unpolished milled rice, Some amount of yecur thi gated ed ee, Some amount of breakage of ce breakage of rice oc * polished tee is Mable to develop rancdity ando itis next polished in a emcee Setrone layer and yields "polished rice ars Scanned with CamScannerRice products ow ree: Teas unpolished whole gr ain which contains 100 per cent bran, germ and endosperm snstments Brown rice is nutritionally superior to hand-pounded rice, under milled and fully ¢ ed white rice, Brown tice has higher amounts of protein, dietary fibre, vitamins, minerals and "yzanol compared to white tice, Due to the presence of bran, it takes long time to cook | Henee wis prudential to replace white rice with brown rice in the diet. This single d tion alone could reduce the incidence of diabetes etary modifi- ganic brown rice cooks faster than ordinary brown rice Nutritive value of parboiled brown rice is given in Table 2.6 : ‘able 2.6; Nutritive value of parboiled brown rice per 100 g Ua ae Moisture 7 Protein 1a Total fat 2.2 » Minerals 12 Available Carbohydrate 71.5 Total Dietary Fibre c 5.2 Dr. Mohan’s Health Care Products Pvt. Ltd. Chennai - 600 086. Mice starch: Rice starch granules are quite small and are embedded in a protein matrix. To sepa- san from protein, broken rice is steeped for 24 hours in 5 times its weights of 3 per cent caustic caustic Soda treated granules are washed, dried and, ground into flour ‘T ith about tet he flap is then Limes its weight of caustic soda solution. This removes gluten. After 24 hours, the starch is used in puddings, ice-creams let. I forms a tender opaque gel : Rice bran: Bran includes several sublayers within white rice kernel during milling also results in sm: ‘at settles down is removed, washed and dried. Rice custard pow the pericarp and the aleurone layer. Breakage all fragments of the endosperm becoming part Primarily starch and normally contain 10-12 bran fraction. These broken fragments are per oan Ifthe bran is subjected to a short term high temperature after milli snd stabilized bran of edible grade is produced. Bran produced fro does not require any further stabilization treatment >tabilized or parboiled food grade rice bran is normally bland flavour and can be used in preparation like bread, nice bran is a very rich source of dietary fil Bran is also good source of antioxida ing, the lipase activity is destroyed m parboiled rice is already stable finely granulated light tan in colour and it snacks, cookies, and biscuits, In addition bre so it is an effective stool bulking agent. ints, Nutritive value of rice bran is given in Table 2.7 ‘Table 2.7: Nutritive value of rice bran per 100 g Ta en NE on rey (kcal) 393.0 . Protein (g) 13.5 s Carbohydrate (g) 48.4 Fat (g) 16.2 Thiamine (ng) 27 Riboflavin (mg) 0.48 ‘Niacin (mg) 298 Calcium (mg) 610 Iron (mg) 35.0 Fibre (g) 43 eee Scanned with CamScanner‘salt water to sturato about 20 per cent. ng rice in sand heated to a high: in iron or earthen pan. ‘and swell. Then the contents of the pan are removed and sieved to {rice from sand. Parboiled rice is used in making parched rice. Parched rice is a oi product with a greyish to brilliant white colour and is sold either salted or unsalted. It is eaten ‘gs such or mixed with buttermilk and then consumed. | Parched paddy or puffed rice: Sun ripe paddy is filled in earthen jars and is moistened with hot ‘water. After 2-3 minutes, the water is decanted and the jars are then kept in an inverted position for '§-10 hours. The paddy is exposed to sun for a short time and then parched in hot sand 190-210°C for 40-45 sec. During parching, the grains swell and burst into soft white product. The parched grains are sieved to remove sand and winnowed to separate the husk. Flaked rice: Flaked rice is made from parboiled rice. Paddy is soaked in water for 2-3 days to sofien the kemel followed by boiling water for a few minutes and the water is drained off. The paddy is heated in a shallow earthen vessel or iron pan till the husks break open. It is pounded by an iron pestle or use iron roller which flattens the kemel and removes the husk. The husk is separated by winnowing. Flaked rice is thin and papery and of white colour. Advantages of parched rice products: + Easily digestible and hence good for children and old people + Readily available to eat due to faster cooking. * It adds variety in the diet. + Since iron pans are used, iron content is increased. + Improves flavour and texture Basmati rice: Basmati rice has its origin in the foot-hills of the Himalayas. When cooked, it is onsticky and soft. Basmati grain quality components are intermediate amylose content, intermediate fel consistency, and gelatinisation temperature. Kernel elongation without significant increase in breadth ‘and possess pleasant aroma which are ideal for making pulav. Aromatic rice: Aromatic rice varieties contain acetyl 1-1 pyrroline as the major aroma principle while cooking. Non-aromatic rice varieties can be flavoured by adding one or two fresh leaves of Pandanus latifolius while cooking as they contain 2acetyl 1-1 pyrrole. Figure 2-i shows pandan leaf blades. These leaves are commonly used in rice dishes of Malay, ‘Thai and Indonesian cuisines. Ageing Figure 2-i: Pandan leaf blade. Freshly harvested rice cooks to a sticky lumpy mass, swells but a little and yields a thick gruel; these ‘drawbacks tend to disappear as the rice is stored for a few months. Scanned with CamScanner CHAPTER 2Fooo Science * Sometimes the poiishied rice is further treated in a device known as trumbol to give a coating of | sugar and tale to produce a brighter shine on the grains. — + Rice is separated from the broken kernels. Large kernels are. called as sec ‘ads. medium ones are called screenings, shiattest ones are called the brewers rice rr Most varieties of coarse rice are not highly polished. As the Indian Government regulations the extent of polishing should not exceed S per cent. If rice is milled beyond 10 per'cent then most of the thjamine is lost. The percentage of losses of different nutrients during milling are Protein 15 per cent, fat 82 per cent, thiamine 85 per cent, riboflavin 70 per_cent, pyridoxine (vitamin B6) 50 per cent | The ears of nTing detemnines he amid of nutrients removed. ~ aro: Losses during milling can be compensated by the following processes. By under-milling or unpolishing tice, the loss of nutrients can be reduced. Rice that are under- milled do not have the customary white lustre and they are more subject to inséct infestation and flavour deterioration than white rice is. a + A Second method is that of increasing vitamin retention by processing the_rough rice prior to milling-This is Gone by parboiling which is commercially knowiay Converted rice) 5 © Anether means of remedying the losses occurring in the milling of rice Ts the a#ttfiGial enrichment of the grain. A premix has been developed in which the rice is wetted with a solution of thiamine and niacin, then dried.A second coating of iron pyro phosphate is distributed on the rice. The premix is highly resistant to washing, cooking and storage losses Af Parboiling 2X rice It is originated in India. Half of India’s rice crop is parboiled. Parboiling is particularly good in the case of coarse and medium rice of soft structure because such rices suffer excessive bregkag milled raw. Parkoiling involves soaking paddy in water far a short time followed b: twice in. and drying before milling. when e following steps: + or 3 days in large cement tanks 2. Steaming of the soaked paddy for 510 ihifiutes and 3. Drying in the. sun. During soaking of paddy in cold water for 2 or 3 days, fermentation sets in and off flavour develops in the grain. The moulds present in the grain also grow and ma metabolites For example aflatoxin maybe produced from aspergillus flavus. Brown roe Latig-gin roo Short -grain ce | Figure 2-t: Some varieties of rice, Longer grains nd unpolished grains have better glycaemic index values. Scanned with CamScanner= ‘ a oe CEREALS AND Crea, Pa: Hot soaking process) The hot soaking process, developed al the Cental I f Research Institute, Mysore consists of the following steps Soaking of paddy in eral fr 34 hours. Draining of water aiid Steaming of Soaked paddy Ti the same vessel for S-10 minutes. a 3 Drying of the paddy in the sun or in mechanical driers, During parboiling, the milled rice becomes slightly shorter and broader ee Avantages of parboiling a + Dehusking of parboiled rice is easy + Grain becomes tougher resulting in reduced losses during milling. This benefit is all kernel defects like cracks and chalkiness by parboiling. By this, parboiling elimunat completely + Milled parboiled rice has greater resistance to insects and fungus + Loss of nutrients due to the removal of husk and bran in milli the vitamin and mineral present in hull (outer covering of the and seeped into the endosperm, Part of the scutellum and germ which a fixed to Me Grain and hence losses of B vitamins are iat Losses of water-soluble nutrients due to washin During harv are decreased 22 PP PPP PPP PPP 9229228828 raw fice + Parboiling improves digestibility and Protein Efficiency Ratio + Parboiled rice will not turn into glutenous mass when cooked + Parboiled rice swells more when,cooked to the desired + Parboiling stabilises the oil content of the bran. The discrete oil globules in the the native rice grain are ruptured into a band by parboiling. Disadvantages of parboiling: + Sometimes, it has an unpleasant smell and change in colour and hence not p methods of parboiling have eliminated this problem. By controlling soaking and stea and cooking quality can be maintained ne me Rama at a met me Hand pounded rice Parboiled vice! Thiamine 320 15 66 Riboflavin 156 35 8 Niacin 4600 37 85 Folic acid 36 22 60 ource: Achaya, K.T., 1998, Food Processing and Nutrition from Textbool Aehar SA i a fextbook of Human Nutrition, Oxford & Scanned with CamScannerFoon Science i Phe ageing process is characterised by an initial increase followed by steady decrease in the power of hydration. This 1s due to a slow but steady decrease in the solubility of amylose. starch and provein and in the physical loss of solids during cooking, a slow but steady increase in the gelatinisation cmperature a decrease in the intrinsic viscosity ofthe starch and in the settling rate of a rice-flour suspension, an initial inetease followed by a steady decrease in paste viscosity and a steady increase in aundness and decrease in stickiness of cooked rice , esuilts Suggest that the rice grain or its constituents become more organised or reinfogced as The cell walls are disrupted earlier in new rice during cooking. The ageing process is hastened iv total insoluble amylose content, by a high storage temperature, by exposure to light and by ig and vice versa. Hhanges in fat and fatty acid composition also occur. The rice lipids are liable to oxidation and/or | ‘lysis during storage and thereby contribute to the flavour characteristics of aged rice. Total satu- sty acids increase steadily and unsaturated fatty acids decrease during storage. ATS Avena Sanva is one of the most nutritious cereals. The chief oats-producing countries in the are USA, Russia and-Canada. In India, the small quantity of oats being produced which is ved as green fodder, The most cultivated variety in India is A. by a. Table 2 uve value of oats. Table 2.8: Nutritive value of oats in percentage , en inn ‘ Moisture 100 Carbohydrate 628 Protein 13.6 Fat 16 Ash 18 igure 2-j shows oats and its products. e 2+}: Outs and its products. Oats Oat bran Foked oats | ~ Scanned with CamScanner‘Stabilisation reduces moisture content and facilitates the,subséyuent shélling ¥f the oats. The kilr- «dried oats are then shelled resulting in the splitting of the Kusk The ‘sfelied groats dre polished an after removal of “oat dust”, they are transversely cut so that each’kernel gives about four or five pieces which is called pinhead meal, This is subjected to further grinding when oat meal is obtained. ‘The average yield of oat meal is $7 per cent. Oat flakes or rolled oats are manufactured from pinhead meal or from whole uncut groats by cooking the pinhead meal in a steamer, rolling the cooked product while hot, moist and plastic, betwee heavy rollers and drying the flakes so formed. In oats there are significant amounts of f-glucans located in thickened layers below the aleuror layer. Oat products like oat bran are rich in soluble dietary fibre which reduces serum cholestero’. B-glucans chelate with bile acids and steroid materials and excreted by the body or cholesterol synthesis may be reduced. The B-glucans which form viscous dietary file reduce the efficiency of enzy! hydrolysis and slows the rate at which glucose enters the blood stream and thus oats have low glycae! index Oatmeal is consumed by mixing with hot water as porridge which is used as breakfast cereal Oatmeal is processed, precooked and available in ready-to-eat products. Some fine flours are used in infant cereal mixes Oat bran is used as dietary fibre. Oats are whole grains. Neither the bran nor germ is removed in different forms of oats and hence all forms are nutritious. CHAPTER 2 RYE Rye belongs to the genus Secale. This is an important food crop in eastem Europe. Rye crop is ; grown in India over a very limited area in the north-westem Himalayan area. The nutritive value of ' rye is given in Table 2.9. Table 2.9: Nutritive value of rye in Percentage Moisture 110 Carbohydrates n2 : Protein 24 : Fat 7 1 | Fibre 20 i ee 18 i eee roe in Be Contain relatively little gluten and only produce satisfactory loaf volumes i Imb structures when mixed with wheat; often as little as 25 7 es eg | improvement. er cent wheat results in a substantial 3 3 4 4 = Scanned with CamScanner