GROUP ASSIGNMENT

SESSION: 2020-2024
Department: Electrical Engineering
Subject: Applied physics
NAME: ROLL NUMBER:
Faryal Naeem ...............................................20013122-001
Ambreen Zahra.............................................20013122-022
Moeed Zeb.....................................................20013122-039
Haroon Ali.....................................................20013122-014
Muneeb Tariq................................................20013122-035
Subhan Fiaz....................................................20013122-029
Submitted to: Mam Maryam Muneer
Title:
“Experimental verification of Malus Law”

Abstract:
The aim of this experiment is to verify the Malus law. The method consisted of measuring the
intensity of light that had passed through a fixed polarizer and an analyzer that was turned
through an angle θ. This law describes how intensity I of polarized light with an initial intensity
Io having passed through an analyzer filter, depends on angle of rotation of the filter .This shows
that I is proportional to cos2θ which means this experiment verified the law of malus. The
intensity of light is measured by using a light sensor.

Purpose:
a) To verify the Malus Law

Introduction:
Malus law is named after Etienne-Louis Malus, who in the year 1808 discovered that natural incident
light could be polarized when it was reflected by a glass surface. He used calcite crystal for his
experiment .After observing the results, he further put forth a concept that natural light consisted of the
s- and p-polarization and that they were perpendicular to each other. Today, this law is used to define
the intrinsic connection between optics and electromagnetism as well as demonstrate the transverse
nature of electromagnetic waves. Malus’ law states that “The intensity of plane-polarized light
that passes through an analyzer varies as the square of the cosine of the angle between the
plane of the polarizer and the transmission axes of the analyzer”

For un polarized light, the electric and magnetic field components of light waves oscillate in random
directions having more than one plane. In our modern life, we could have unnoticed polarized light from
some electronic devices, such as calculators, computer screens and digital watches. The liquid crystal
displays of these electronic devices emit energy in the form of polarized light. For most LCD screens, the
polarized light is tilted 45° from the horizontal. When we observed the LCD display of these electronic
devices through a polarizer, the intensity of polarized light decreases and increases as we rotate the
polarizer. The intensity of polarized light will become minimum when the polarization axis of the
polarizer is perpendicular with the emitted polarized light. With this knowledge, polarization plane or
axes of an unknown polarizer could be easily determined by observing the linear polarized light from
these electronic devices.

According to Malus’s Law, when completely plane polarized light is incident on the analyzer (a polarizer),
the intensity I of the light transmitted by the analyzer is directly proportional to the square of the cosine
of angle between the polarization axis of the analyzer and the polarization axis of the polarized light, θ.

The law can be stated mathematically as

I = Io Cosθ

The law helps us quantitatively verify the nature of polarized light. Let us understand the
expression for Malus’ law.

Point 1 – When Un polarized light is incident on an ideal polarizer the intensity of the
transmitted light is exactly half that of the incident un polarized light no matter how the
polarizing axis is oriented.

Point 2 – An ideal polarizing filter passes 100% of incident un polarized light, that is polarized in
the direction of filter’s (Polarizer) Polarizing axis.

From point (1) and point (2) we can assume I = Io cos2 ϕ

The average value of I (< I >):

We know that <I˃ = <IO˃ <Cos2θ˃

< cos2θ˃ = ½

This satisfies point (2) mentioned above

To show point (1), let us consider θ=0

That implies cos2θ = 1

I=I0

To determine the direction of polarization we need one polarizer which is known as analyzer
oriented making an angle (p) with the polarizer Since the intensity of an electromagnetic wave is
proportional to the square of the amplitude of the wave, the ratio of transmitted to incident
amplitude is cosθ , so the ratio transmitted to incident intensity is cos2θ

A Transmitted amplitude
Cosθ= =
Amax Incident amplitude

Cosθ=
A
Amax
=
√
I
Imax

Then, I/IMAX =cos2θ

I = Imax cos2θ

Therefore, I ∞ cos2θ. This proves law of Malus.

When θ = 0° ( or 180° ), I = I 0 cos20° = I0 That is the intensity of light transmitted by the

 analyzer is maximum when the transmission axes of the analyzer and the polarizer are
parallel.

When θ = 90°, I = I0 cos290° = 0 That is the intensity of light transmitted by the analyzer is
minimum when the transmission axes of the analyzer and polarizer are perpendicular to
each other.

Apparatus:
1) Analyzer
2) Polarizer
3) Light source
4) Light detector
5) Malus unit
6) Digital multi meter
7) Power supply

Diagram:

Procedure:
 1) Adjust all the apparatus as shown in diagram and keep the source, polarizer, analyzer,
and window of photocell at same height.
2) Switch on the source and the power supply of the photocell. Adjust the polarizer and
analyzer parallel to each other so that the micro meter shows maximum reading. This
means that the angle between plane of polarizer and analyzer is equal to zero.
3) Rotate the polarizer or analyzer in the steps of 10 degrees and record the corresponding
value of current in micro ammeter.
4) Calculate the values of cosθ, cos2θ and I/cos2θ. Plot the graph of I against cos2θ.

Observation:
Sr.No Angle through which analyzer is Current Cosθ Cos2θ I/cos2θ
rotated θ degree I(μ A)
1 0 8.5 Cos0=1 1 8.5
=8.5
1
2 10 7.7 Cos10=0.984 0.9682 7.7
=8
0.9682
3 20 6.5 Cos20=0.9396 0.8828 6.5
=¿
0.8828
7.3
4 30 5.7 Cos30=0.866 0.7499 5.7
=7.6
0.7499
5 40 4.5 Cos40=0.7660 0.5867 4.5
=7.67
0.5867
6 50 3.7 Cos50=0.6427 0.4130 3.7
=9
0.4130
7 60 2.5 Cos60=0.5 0.25 2.5
=10
0.25
8 70 1.7 Cos70=0.3420 0.1169 1.7
=14.54
0.1169
Calculation:
For observation 1:

I =IoCos 2θ

Io=I /cos 2θ

Io=8.5

For observation 2:

I =IoCos 2θ

Io=I /cos 2θ
Io=8

For observation 3:

I =IoCos 2θ

Io=I /cos 2θ

Io=7.3

For observation 4:

I =IoCos 2θ

Io=I /cos 2θ

Io=7.6

For observation 5:

I =IoCos 2θ

Io=I /cos 2θ

Io=9

For observation 6:

I =IoCos 2θ

Io=I /cos 2θ

Io=10

For observation 7:

I =IoCos 2θ

Io=I /cos 2θ

Io=14

Conclusion:
Intensity of transmitted light through analyzer varies cosine square of angle between optic axis
and polarizer.
Precaution:
1) Never to look into the beam.
2) Do not work close to the light path with reflecting tools.
3) Check the lasers for damage before use.
4) Use laser protection glasses or laser adjustment glasses where necessary

References:
www.brittanica.com

www.researchgate.com

www.sciencedirect.com

www.quora.com

www.byjus.com

www.laplace.ucv.cl.com

www.id.didactic.de.com

www.electronictutorial.com

www.niser.com

www.iitrac.ac.in