GRAMMAR REFERENCE AD 4

MODAL VERBS.

1. Posibility.

MODAL USE EXAMPLES

CAN OR COULD Theorical – possibility - Can there be life on

mars?
- The wheater could
be better
tomorrow. ( =it´s
possible)

May, might, could + bare Likehood in the present or - He may be in a

infinitive future meeting.
- She might / could
be here already

Could/ may / might + have The possibility that past - His face is familiar.
+ past participle (perfect events happens We may have met
infinitive. somewhere before.
- He´s not in the
office. He might
have finished work
early.
- She could have
been at the party,
but I didn´t

2. Certainly.

MODAL USE EXAMPLES

Must To say that we are sure - You must be pleased

about something in the with ypur exam
present or past results ( =present)
- He must have
touched up the
photograph (=past)

Can´t or couldn´t In negative sentences, to - That can´t be the

 say we are sure something right
isn´t / wasn´t true. answer )=present)
- They can´t have got
lost they had a map
(=past)
- Tom couldn´t have
been the thief (=
past)

3. Ability

MODAL USE EXAMPLE

Can / could To express general ability and
typical behavior of people or
things
- Temperatures can rise to over
30 C in the summer.
- Employers can be unwilling to
employ people over fifty.
- My father could be very
generous (=past)

Can/ be able to For present and future ability - I can understand French but I
can´t speak it very well.
- Will your parents be able to
help you?
- Ilike being able to cook my own
meals.

Can For the future, where there is a - I can come tomorrow if you like.
sense of opportunity - You can practice your French
when you go to Paris.

Could/ couldn´t To talk about general ability in - I could swim before I could
and was able to the past. walk.
- I was able to talk when I was
eighteen months old.
- At the time I couldn´t drive.

Was / wasn´t able To talk about ability in a - Fortunately, he was able to

to specific situation in the past. swim to the shore.

Could / couldn´t + To talk about unfulfilled ability - I could have gone to university,
perfect infinitive. in the past. but I decided not to.
- I couldn´t have been a ballet
 dancer, I was too tall.

2. Relative Clauses.

Relative pronouns

Who (=subject) and whom (=object to refer people.

That to refer to either people or things.

Whose the possessive of who and which

When used after nouns referring to time.

Where used after nouns to referring to place

Why used to refer to reasons.

WATCH OUT: The relative pronoun replaces the subject or the object.
People who (they) live in glass houses shouldn´t throw stones.
The vase, which I bought (it) years ago, is very valuable.
What is not a relative pronoun : The car that (what) I bought was red.

Defining relative clauses

In defining relative clasuses

The relative clause defines or identifies the person, thing, time , place or reason.

Chris is the son of a woman who works in television.

That´s the man whose son is an actor.

Winnter was the time when people tended to get insufficient fresh food.

I know a place where the play is set.

I can´t imagine the reason why he would want to leave you.

2. That can be use instead of who or which.

The girl that (who) lives nect door rides a motorbike.

The sports centre that (which) is opening soon will offer great new facilities.
 3. The relative pronoun can be left out if it is the object of the verb in the relative clause.

The person (who/ that) I spoke to yesterday said it was free.

Sue bought the watch (which / that) she´d seen.

4. No comas are used before and after the relative clause.

Non defining relative clause

Non defining relative clause give extra information which can be omitted. Commas are used before
and after the relative clause. It´s also possible for brackets to be used instead of commas.

The pronoun that cannot be used instead of who or which.

Entrance to the museum, where you can see Roman pottery, is free.

The witness (who refused to be named) said the police has acted unwisely.

Prepositions in relative clauses.

Preposition in relative clauses can come before the relative pronoun or at the end of the relative
clause, depending on wheter the sentence is formal or informal.

The person to whom I spoke told me the hotel was fully booked. (Formal)

Jhon, who I bought the car from has gone abroad (informal)

SO. SUCH, TOO, ENOUGH, VERY

SO AND SUCH: So and such are used to introduce a clause of result, or for emphasis.

SO + ADJECTIVE/ ADVERB/ DETERMINER - My bag was so heavy that I couldn´t

(+NOUN) (+THAT CLAUSE) carry it.
- He has travelled so widely that he´s
forgotten what home is like.
- They had so much money that
theycouldn´t spend it all.
- I t was so hot (=emphatic)

Such + (adjective) + noun (+ that clause) - The taxi took such a long time to come
that I decided to walk instead.
 - We had such a good time! (emphatic)

Too: Too has a negative meaning – the speaker is not happy about the situation.

Too+ adjective/ adverb/ determiner (+noun) - It was too hot to sleep.

(+to infinitive) - You´re speaking too quickly – I ca´t
understand you, I´m afraid.
- That´s too much (money). I can´t
afford it.

Enough: Enough has a positive meaning – the speaker regards the situation as possible.

Adjective/ adverb + enough (+to infinitive) - He´s rich enough to buy up the whole
town.
- You´re not doing that work carefully
enough.

Enough + noun (+ to nfinitive/ + for + noun) - There´s enough time for a coffe.
- Have you got enough money to get a
taxi?

Very : Very is used for emphasis in either a positive or negative statement. It is sometimes use
when we wish to avoid using a negative word.

Very + adjective/ adverb/ determiner (+noun) - It´s very difficult but I think I can do it
- He´s working very hard – he´s bound
to pass
- Very few people agree with her.

REPORTING VERBS

STRUCTURE VERBS EXAMPLES

VERB + INFINITIVE AGREE, WE AGREED TO THE

DECIDE,OFFER,PRMISE,REFUSE, MEETING0
THREATEN
 VERB + OBJECT+ INFINITIVE ADVISE, BEG, ENCOURAGE, SHE ADVISED ME TO GO TO
INVITE, PERSUADE, REMIND, THE POLICE.
TELL, WARN

VERB + (+THAT) + CLAUSE ACCEPT, ADMIT, CLAIM, SHE SAYS (THAT) WE SHOULD
EXPLAIN, RECOMMEND, PAY FOR HIS TICKET.
SAY,SUGGEST

VERB+ OBJECT (+THAT) + PROMISE, REMIND, TELL, HE TOLD US (THAT) HE

CLAUSE WARN WOULD BE ON TIME

VERB + -ING ADMIT, DENY RECOMMEND, HE ADMITTED TAKING THE

SUGGEST MONEY.

VERB + PREPOSTION + -ING APOLISE FOR, INSIST ON SHE APOLOGISED FOR BEING
LATE

VERB + OBJECT + Accuse (of), blame (for), SHE DISCOURAGED ME FROM

PREPOSITION + -ING congratulate (on), discourage GOINNG FOR THE
(from) COMPETITION

VERB + WH- WORD + DESCRIBE, EXPLAIN, KNOW, SHE EXPLAINED WHAT TO DO

INFINITIVE WONDER

VERB + OBJECT + WH – ASK, REMIND, TELL THEY TOLD US WHO TO SEE

WORD + INFINITIVE

● SOME VERBS CAN BE USED WITH MORE THAN ONE STRUCTURE

She recommended visiting the castle

She recommend that we should visit the castle

REPORTED STATEMENTS

FORM

Reported statements are formed from a reporting verb (+that) + a clause containing the
statement.

He work in television, she said.

She said (that) he worked in television.

I took the money, she admitted.

 She admitted (that) she had taken the money.

CHNAGES TO VERB FORMS AND PRONOUNS

DIRECT SPEECH REPORTED SPEECH

PRESENT SIMPLE/ I like your shoes, Kate, Said PAST SIMPLE/ Jack said (that) he liked
jack. Kate´s shoes.
CONTINOUS CONTINOUS
I´m enjoying the party, said Tom Said (that) he was
tom. enjoying the party.

PAST SIMPLE/ I saw that car advertised on PAST PERFECT Kate said (that) she had
TV, said Susie. SIMPLE/ seen that car advertised
CONTINOUS CONTINOUS on TV.
I was hoping to win the
prize, Tom told me.

Tom said (that) he had

been hoping to win the
prize.

PRESENT PERFECT I´ve bought a hat, Helen PAST PERFECT Helen told me (that) she
SIMPLE/ told me. SIMPLE / had brought a hat.
CONTINOUS CONTINOUS
I´ve been working in Chris said me (that) he´d
Geneva, said Chris. been working in Geneva.

WILL I´ll take you there if you WOULD Luke said (that) he would
want, luke said take me there if I wanted.

MUST(OBLIGATION) You must buy a ticket HAD TO He said (that) we had to

buy a ticket.

CAN I can speak Spanish, said COULD Mel said (that) he could
Mel speak Spanish.

When the verb doesn´t change

The verb doesn´t need to change when:

- The situation being reported is unchanged.

BANANAS ARE A GOOD SOURCE OF ENERGY, SAID THE DOCTOR

THE DOCTOR TOLD US THAT BANANAS ARE GOOD SOURCE OF ENERGY

THE CASTLE IS 800 YEARS OLD, SAID THE GUIDE

THE GUIDE TOLD US THAT THE CASTLE IS 800 YEARS OLD

- The sentence being reported contains the modals WOULD, COULD, MIGHT, OUGHT ANS
SHOULD OR MUST FOR LOGICAL DEDUCTION.

I OUGHT TO BUY A NEW CAR , SHE SAID

SHE SAID SHE OUGHT TO BUY A NEW CAR.

I THINK HE MUST BE COMING, SHE SAID

SHE SAID SHE THOUGHT HES MUST BE COMING

THE SENTENCE BEING REPORTED CONTAINS THE PAST PERFECT

HE HAD ALREADY BEEN GIVEN A PRIZE, SHE SAID

SHE SAID HE HAD ALREADY BEEN GIVEN A PRIZE.

- Time expressions may also change in reported speech as follows.

DIRECT SPEECH REPORTED SPEECH

TOMORROW THE NEXT DAY, THE DAY AFTER, THE

FOLLOWING DAY

YESTERDAY THE DAY BEFORE, THE PREVIOUS DAY

LAST WEEK THE WEEK BEFORE

HERE THERE

THIS MORINING THAT MORNING

TODAY THAT DAY

NEX FRIDAY THE FOLLOWING FRIDAY

AGO BEFORE0
 REPORTED QUESTIONS AND IMPERATIVES

REPORTED QUESTIONS
REPORTED YES/ NO QUESTIONS

When there is no question word in the direct speech question, we use if/ wherter.Word
order is the same as in the statement. The verb tense and other changes are the same for other
types of of reported speech.

COULD I BORROW YOUR BIKE? SHE ASKED

SHE ASKED IF/WHERTER SHE COULD BORROW MY BIKE

REPORTED WH QUESTIONS

The wh word is followed by statement word order (subject followed the verb). All tense ans other
changes are the same as for other types of reported speech.

WHY DID YOU LEAVE THAT JOB? SHE ASKED HIM

SHE ASKED HIM WHY HE HAD LEFT THAT JOB?

WHERE IS THE SWIMMING POOL? HE ASKED HER.

HE ASKED HER WHERE THE SWIMMING POOL WAS.

REPORTED IMPERATIVES

VERB + OBJECT + INFINITIVE WITH TO

PLEASE OPEN YOUR SUITCASE, SAID THE CUSTOM OFFICIAL

THE CUSTOM OFFICIAL ASKED ME TO OPEN MY SUIT CASE

DON’T WALK ON THE GRASS SAID THE OFFICIAL

THE OFFICIAL TOLD THEM NOT TO WALK ON THE GRASS

VOCABULARY
PHARSAL VERBS

GET ON WELL: HAVE MOVE OUT:LEAVE PUT YOU OFF -ING: THROW STUFF OUT:
A GOOD THE HOUSE YOU ARE MAKE YOU NOT
RELATIONSHIP LIVING IN ORDER TO WANT TO DO
BE INDEPENDENT SOMETHING

TOOK ON A STUDENT LET ME OFF: GET RIID BUILD UP: INCREASE LIVE ON
LOAN: BORROW SOMETHING BY
MONEY PUTTING IT IN A BIN
OR GIVEING IT TO
SMEONE

EXPRESSIONS OF SPECULATION

i´M NOT ABSOLUTELY IT COULD BE THE OTHER ONE THE HOTEL LOOKS
CERTAIN SEEMS TO HAVE QUITE LUXURIOUS

APEARS TO BE IT WOULD DEFINETLY IT MUST BE I´D IMAGINE THE

BE LESS TREEHOUSE

DESCRIBING PLACES

THE MOST DRAMATIC/ STUNNING/ SPLENDID/ IMPRESSIVE VIEW I´VE SEEN MAGNIFICENT-
INSPIRING

A/ AN ISOLATED/ SECLUDED/ INACCESIBLE /OUT OF WAY PLACE I´VE BEEN TO IS - REMOTE

I FIND .. A TRANQUIL/ CALM / SOOTHING / RELAXING PLACE TO BE

I THINK HAS A WEIRD / STRANGE / CURIOUS / UNUSUAL ATMOSPHERE - MYSTERIOUS

VISITING WAS AN UOLIFTING / MOVING/ STIMULATING / SPIRITUAL EXPERIENCE - INSPIRING

TRAVEL: COLLOCATIONS AND PHRASAL VERBS

A DOMESTIC/ DIRECT/ LONG - DISTANCE FLIGHT

A SEASON/ ONE WAY / DIRECT / RETURN / RETURN TICKET

A SIGHTSEEING / PACKAGE /GUIDED TOUR

A CAMPING / SHOPPING /TOURIST EXPEDITION

A TOURIST / WEEKEND / SIGHTSEEING EXCURSION

A BUSSINESS / DAY / ROUND / DIRECT TRIP

SET OFF : TAKE PUT US UP: PROVIDE GET AWAY: HAVE A HELD US
(SOMEBODY - A BED HOLIDAY
SOMETHING) TO A
PLACE AND LEAVE
THERE

CHECK IN: REGISTER HAD LEFT DROPPED ME OFF TURNED UP

SOMETHING BEHIND:
LEAVE