PHYSICS LAB REPORT 8 – AC DC

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ELECTRONICS

SCHOOL:
NICE

VENUE:
Lab (SNS)

SUBMITTED BY:

Group No # A5

 Haider Khan
 Hussain Ahmed
 Aadam Baluch
 Muhammad Usman
 Musa Mughal

Group No # B5

 Ahmed Ebadullah
 Ahmer Khan
 Husnain Arshad
 Ossam Sikander
 Danyal Hasnat

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EXPERIMENT # 1
Abstract:
Resistance is the opposition offered by a conductor to the movement of charge carriers.
Resistance is a very important variable in operation of electrical circuits. In this experiment
the variable observed is equivalent resistance. Equivalent resistance is total resistance of the
combination and in this experiment we measured the equivalent resistance both
theoretically and experimentally. After that, we calculated the percentage error in the value
of Req. We used an electronics lab board, resistors and wire leads, D-cell battery and digital
multimeter.

Theory:
Equivalent Resistance:

Equivalent resistance is the total resistance of the circuit. It is the single value of resistance
which may replace the number of the resistors in the circuit without changing current and
voltage in the network.

Combination of Resistors:

There are mainly two types of circuits:

• Series Combination
• Parallel Combination

Both series and parallel circuits consists of more than one load. Resistors can be connected
both in series, parallel or a combination of both.

 Series Combination:

In series circuit electrons travel only in one path. Here the current will be the same which
passes through each resistor. The voltage across resistor in a series connection will be
different. In series connection if one resistor is broken or any fault occurs, the entire circuit
is turned off. Series circuits do not overheat easily. The design of series circuit is simple
compared to parallel circuits.

Consider three resistors R1, R2, R3 which are connected in series. Here the charge first flows
through R1 and enters R2 and finally reaches R3.

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Combination of three resistors in series:

By ohm’s law, the potential difference across

R1 =V1= I R1

The potential difference across

R2 = V2 = I R2

The potential difference across

R3 =V3 = I R3

Thus, the potential difference V across this series connection of resistors

V = V1 + V2 + V3

= I R1 + I R2 + I R3

= I (R1+ R2+ R3)

Thus, in case of series connection, the equivalent resistance is

Req = V/I = (R1+ R2+ R3)

For n number of resistors connected in series, the equivalent resistance

Req = R1+ R2+ R3…………………Rn

In a series connection, the total resistance of a circuit is determined by adding the resistance
of each individual resistor.

 Parallel Combination:

In parallel circuit, electrons travel through many branches in it. In this case the voltage
remains the same across each resistor in the circuit. Here the current in the circuit is divided
among each branches and finally recombines when the branches meet at a common point.
A parallel circuit can be formed in many ways, which means resistors can be arranged in
different forms. It can be used as a current divider.

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In most cases the circuits are connected in parallel. This is because if one resistor is broken
or damaged, it won’t turn off the entire system. But due to this effect, it is difficult to detect
the failure if anything goes wrong in the circuit and thus it can be dangerous at certain
times. It is easy to connect or disconnect a new resistor or other component without
affecting the other elements in the parallel circuit. But it uses a lot of wires and hence
becomes complex. Mostly in buildings and houses we use parallel connection.

Consider three resistors R1, R2, R3 which are connected in parallel. The charge splits into
three and flows through R1, R2 and R3.

Current I = I1 + I2 + I3.

The potential difference applied to R1

V = I1 R1

The potential difference across R2

V = I2 R2

The potential difference across R3

V = I3 R3

Thus

I = I1 + I2 + I3

= V/ R1 + V/ R2 +V/ R3

=V (1/ R1 +1/ R2 +1/ R3)

If this parallel combination is replaced by an equivalent

resistance, Req Then

I = V/ Req

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1/ Req = 1/ R1 +1/ R2 +1/ R3

Thus, for n number of resistors in parallel:

1/ Req = 1/ R1 +1/ R2 +1/ R3…………………….1/ Rn

So, in a parallel connection, the total resistance of a circuit is determined by adding the
reciprocal of the resistance of each individual resistor.

Percentage Error:

The actual resistances of the resistors are measured using a digital millimeter. These values
are compared with the resistances calculated from the color code. And the percentage error
is calculated using the following formula:
𝑴𝒆𝒂𝒔𝒖𝒓𝒆𝒅 𝑽𝒂𝒍𝒖𝒆−𝑻𝒉𝒆𝒐𝒓𝒆𝒕𝒊𝒄𝒂𝒍 𝑽𝒂𝒍𝒖𝒆
Percentage Error = × 𝟏𝟎𝟎%
𝑻𝒉𝒆𝒐𝒓𝒆𝒕𝒊𝒄𝒂𝒍 𝑽𝒂𝒍𝒖𝒆

Data analysis:
Find theoretical Req in parallel combination:

I1=0.004mA

I2=0.12mA

I3=0.12mA

V=1.341V
V
Req =
I1+ I2+ I3

Req = 5.5kΩ

Find experimental Req in parallel combination:

R1=332kΩ

R2=10.92kΩ

R3=10.86kΩ
R1xR2xR3
Req =
R1R2+R1R3+R2R3

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Req = 5.36kΩ

Percentage Error in Req: 2.61%

Conclusion & Discussion:

 In parallel the net resistance of the circuit decreases.
 Net resistance is calculated by 1/R=1/R1+1/R2+1/R3+.....
 Experiment shows the theoretical and experimental values are very close.
 The resistance of connecting wires account for possible error in the measurement.

EXPERIMENT # 2
Abstract:
In this experiment the variable observed is current. Current is the rate of flow of charge
carriers through a conductor. We changed the resistors and measured the values of those
resistors along with the amount of current passing in the circuit for that particular
resistance. We observed Ohm’s Law in this experiment by drawing a graph of current
against resistance.

Theory:
Ohm's Law deals with the relationship between voltage and current in an ideal conductor.
This relationship states that:

The potential difference (voltage) across an ideal conductor is proportional to the

current through it.

The constant of proportionality is called the "resistance", R.

Ohm's Law is given by:

V=IR

Where V is the potential difference between two points which include a resistance R. I is the
current flowing through the resistance.

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Data analysis:
Sr. No. Resistance Voltage Current

k𝛀 V mA

1. 0.99 1.341 1.35

2. 10.93 1.341 0.12

3. 220 1.341 12.62

4. 55.2 1.341 0.0238

5. 0.150 1.341 8.61

6. 149.8 1.341 0.0007

Draw graph between ‘I’ and ‘R’ by taking current along y-axis and resistance along x-axis.

Graph:

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Result:
Ohm law holds i.e

V=IR

Conclusion & Discussion:

 Ohm’s law states that current in a circuit is directly proportional to the voltage applied.
 Mathematically, it is stated as, V=IR where R is the resistance in the circuit.
 For accurate measurement take several readings.