EXTERNAL PAVING AND HARDSTANDINGS
Concrete pavement: a durable,
sustainable and low-maintenance
solution
“Alternative External pavements and hardstandings
pavements to are constructed to protect the subgrade
from excessive deformation, such that
the commonly
used jointed serviceability under vehicular loading is
maintained throughout the operational
un-reinforced life. The design encompasses specifying
pavement quality multiple layers of engineered materials
concrete over for the given subgrade properties –
unbound granular there is a wide choice of materials and
an engineering knowledge is required to
materials can
provide a better ensure future performance.
whole-life cost
BACHAR HAKIM, SCOTT WILSON
and improve
sustainability
of industrial
hardstandings.”
D esigners, users and owners should understand the
expected serviceability level of the pavement infra-
structure in terms of deformation, cracking, profile and
skid resistance. For example, highway pavements require
appropriate skid resistance, minimal cracking/rutting
and good ride quality for high speed vehicle movements;
they should have low maintenance due to the increased
user cost as a result of lane closures and potential nega-
tive impact on safety. Airfield pavements require limiting
foreign object debris (FOD) which can damage aircraft
and cause operational delay. On the other hand, limited
cracking, deformation and poor skid resistance may often
be acceptable on industrial pavements, provided that they
remain durable.
Concrete pavement options
Concrete pavements are typically used for heavy load-
ing and/or where poor subgrade is present; use of asphalt
can lead to deformation under slow moving or stationary
Figure 1: Hydraulically vehicles and damage where diesel fuel is spilled. External
bound material (HBM) pavements and hardstandings are commonly built as
using recycled, jointed but un-reinforced concrete slabs over unbound
marginal and secondary
granular materials. However, alternative options which
materials can improve
sustainability. provide better performance, improve sustainability and
40 SEPTEMBER 2009 CONCRETE
CONCRETE 33-48 SEPT 09.indd 40
reduce whole-life cost should be considered. A wide
range of hydraulically bound materials (HBM – the term
‘hydraulic’ refers to any binder that requires water to initi-
ate a strengthening reaction, so includes cement and fly
ash), are often used for various facilities including small
car parks, distribution centres, highways, airfields, ports
and container yards; these may offer the opportunity to use
locally won aggregates.
An HBM base with asphalt or block paved surfac-
ing can provide a cost effective, sustainable solution for
industrial and port pavements; HBMs (see Figure 1) with
a compressive strength ranging from 10 to 40MPa can
be considered. High strength roller-compacted concrete
can be used without surfacing to provide a durable pave-
ment and eliminate the risk of reflective cracking associ-
ated with an asphalt overlay. Fibre-reinforced concrete is
an alternative option to reduce pavement thickness due to
the apparent increase in concrete flexural strength (though
research shows that fibres really act to improve post-
cracking performance).
Concrete pavement types include jointed un-rein-
forced/reinforced with or without dowel bars, continu-
ously reinforced, and precast/prestressed slabs. Contin-
uously reinforced concrete pavements are commonly pro-
posed for areas with high differential settlement to bridge
any weakness in the foundation support and provide a
long-term durable low-maintenance solution.
The use of a stabilised foundation not only provides
a good construction platform, but also reduces traffic-
induced stresses within the overlying slabs, leading to a
longer life/higher performance. Better load transfer across
joints can be realised with a stabilised sub-base due to the
uniform improved support.
The choice of pavement type is influenced by its future
use, expected performance level, material availability, ini-
tial and life-cycle costs, user costs (delay during construc-
tion and maintenance) and its environmental impact.
Sustainability
The requirement to build sustainable, durable and low
maintenance pavements has become very important in
recent years due to environmental pressures and higher
customer expectation of infrastructure availability.
Design standards permit the use of a range of hydraulic
binders including cement, lime, slag, and fly ash combina-
tions, with marginal, recycled and secondary local aggre-
gates, to provide a more sustainable pavement solution.
However, performance based specifications and end prod-
uct testing should be implemented to ensure that the design
parameters are met during construction. Recent develop-
ments in material testing, such as the Spring Box (Figure
2), assist the designer to optimise the pavement and mate-
rials design and to minimise the use of primary materials.
The Spring Box characterises stiffness and deformation
resistance of unbound and weakly bound materials as well
as providing an indication of durability. The implemen-
tation of performance based testing with both Light and
Falling Weight Deflectometers (Figure 3) is necessary to
ensure compliance.
Pavement quality concrete with high strengths of 50,
60 and 70MPa can be specified for heavy traffic to reduce
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pavement thickness or increase its design life. Environ-
mental advantages of thin but strong pavements include;
reducing aggregates and cement production (crushing,
processing and transportation); reducing the energy used
for mixing, transporting, laying and compacting the con-
crete, leading to reduced fuel cost and CO2 emissions; and
reducing project time, resource requirements and disrup-
tion to the public.
Potential benefits to the environment from using con-
crete materials can be expected as a result of a number of
factors, including long service life, reduction in the use of
premium aggregates, and potential for recycling. Once the
concrete pavement has reached the end of its useful life, it
can be downgraded to a good quality stiff foundation and
incorporated into new construction (where finished levels
permit). For example, the old concrete can be cracked and
seated before applying a new asphalt overlay or treated as
a cemented sub-base before constructing new concrete
slabs; for these options the designer needs to carry out a
detailed evaluation of the existing paved areas.
Low-maintenance durable construction
Whole-life cost includes the initial cost of pavement con-
struction or rehabilitation, all the costs of routine mainte-
nance and planned strengthening over the pavement life,
and the value of the asset at the end of its life. Other fac-
tors include user delay costs as a result of maintenance or
increases in operating cost as a result of loss of serviceabil-
ity. Therefore, where the cost of disruption during pave-
ment maintenance and strengthening is high, constructing
a strong, low maintenance, durable pavement has a major
advantage.
Pavements may deteriorate faster than expected due
to a higher traffic level/heavier loading and/or deteriorat-
ing foundation support (eg, due to high moisture content
caused by inadequate drainage). Therefore, it is crucial for
the facility owner to implement a Pavement Management
System to routinely monitor, test, assess and record any
defects/deterioration in order to plan future maintenance
treatment and re-value the asset. Hence, the impact of
treatment on operations, traffic delay, user costs and avail-
CONCRETE 33-48 SEPT 09.indd 41
EXTERNAL PAVING AND HARDSTANDINGS
able funding can be planned and managed. Figure 2 left: The
Well designed and constructed concrete pave- Spring Box test is used
to assess the stiffness
ments should require little maintenance during their life. and deformation
Premature distress is commonly associated with inad- resistance of unbound
equate structural design and materials specification, poor and weakly bound
materials.
construction quality, or increased operational loading.
Design details are crucial for successful pavements – these Figure 3 above: End
include consideration of joint types and spacing to account product performance
testing using the Light
for the expected traffic pattern and aggregate thermal and Falling Weight
properties; reinforcement type and positioning; and edge Deflectometers.
or transition details. Additionally, the interaction with
other design elements such as drainage should be consid-
ered, particularly when considering the need for sustain-
able systems imposed by planning regulations.
A reach stacker carrying a 40-tonne container can
apply up to 90-tonne wheel load when dynamic factors are
considered (Figure 4). Therefore, one heavy load applica-
tion may generate stress in excess of the concrete strength,
crack every slab as the vehicle passes and precipitate
failure. Therefore the pavement thickness and concrete
strength should be designed to carry the expected loading
in terms of magnitude and number of applications during
its life.
Concluding remarks
Alternative pavements to the commonly used jointed
un-reinforced pavement quality concrete over unbound
granular materials can provide a better whole-life cost and
improve sustainability of industrial hardstandings.
HBMs and higher strength concrete help to optimise the
pavement and materials design and meet the some of the
above requirements. Implementing performance testing
during construction, careful consideration of joint details Figure 4: Reach
stacker carrying heavy
and drainage systems, as well as considering a pavement container can cause
management system, are keys to successful pavement significant damage to
performance. ■ pavements.
CONCRETE SEPTEMBER 2009 41
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