Lesson

Data Collecting Techniques

2
2.1 Sources of Data
There are several methods of gathering data. Basically, the data can be obtained
from two sources namely; 1) primary source and 2) secondary source.
Primary source data can be gathered through any of the following a) one
may ask people question and b) one may observe the behavior of people,
organizations or their products. Primary sources include government agencies,
business establishment, organization, and individuals who carry original data or
who have firsthand information relevant to a given problem.
Secondary source data can be obtained by utilizing available records of
data previously gathered. These are data obtained from secondary source like
newspaper, magazines, journals, and republished materials.

2.2 Methods of Collecting Data

Two approaches had been device to obtain information by asking questions:
1) Indirect or Questionnaire method
2) Direct or Interview method.
The Indirect or questionnaire method
The questionnaire method is one of the easiest methods of data gathering.
It takes time to prepare because questionnaires need to be attractive. It can
include illustrations, pictures and sketches. Its, contents especially the directions,
must be precise, clear and self-explanatory
Advantages of using the questionnaire method;
1. It is less expensive since questionnaire can be administered
personally or by mail.
2. It is less time-consuming since it can be distributed over a wider
geographical area in a shorter time.
 3. It can give confidential responses since the respondents can
answer the questionnaire privately.
4. The answers obtained are free from any influence from the
interviewer.
Limitation of the questionnaire method;
1. It cannot be accomplished by illiterates.
2. It has a high proportion of non- response or non-retrieval.
3. It tends to yield wrong information since answers cannot be
corrected right away.
4. It tends to give incomplete information.

The Direct or interviewed method

The interview method is considered as one of the most effective method of
collecting data. It allows greater flexibility in eliciting information since the
interviewer and the person interviewed are both present when the questions are
asked and answered.
Advantages of interview method;
a. It can give complete information needed in the study.
b. It can yield precise and consistent info. since the interviewer can
immediately clarify any misinterpretation made by the respondent.
Limitation of the interview method;
1. It is more expensive and time consuming.
2. It may yield inaccurate information since the interviewer can
influence the respondent’s answers through his facial expression,
tone of voice, or wording of the questions.
3. The interviewer may cheat by turning in dishonest response if their
expected or desired responses are not obtained.

Questioning is particularly applicable in cases where information is

required on what a person knows, believes or expects, feels or wants,
intends to do or has done; and also concerning his explanations or
reasons for any of the aforementioned factors.
The form of interviews and questionnaires may vary from the rigidly
standardized or structured, in which questions are presented with exactly
the same wording in the same order to all subjects; to the unstructured, in
 which neither the questions to be asked nor the responses permitted the
subject are determined before the interview.
Questions can be constructed in to two forms; 1) fixed alternative
questions and 2) open- ended questions.
The fixed alternative questions limit the subject’s responses to the stated
alternative or choices or responses;
while the open-ended questions permit free response from the subjects by
merely raising the issue without providing any structure for the
respondent’s reply.
Examples of the fixed-alternative questions:

1. How often do you go to the library?

O once a day O when there is assignment
O every day O never at all
O once a week O every other day
2. What is your religion?
O Roman Catholic O Protestant
O Seventh Day Adventist O Christian
O Buddhism O Islam

The following are examples of open-ended questions

1. If you will win the lotto what will you do with your prize?
__________________________________________________
__________________________________________________
2.What are the problems you encounter in studying Statistics?
__________________________________________________
__________________________________________________
Other Methods of Collecting Data
Other ways of collecting data can be done through observation and
experimentation method:
Observation method is used to gathered data regarding attitudes,
behavior, values, and cultural patterns of the subjects under investigation.
An experimentation method is employed to collect or gathered data if the
investigator wishes to control the factors affecting the variable being
studied. An example is when the researcher wants to determine the
different factors affecting the academic performance of the students in
their major subjects.

2.3 Sampling Techniques

Sampling is a process of choosing a representative of a population. The
chosen representative is referred to as the sample. Basically, there are
two kinds of drawing the samples; the probability sampling and non-
probability sampling. The samples drawn by these methods are referred to
as probability sample and non-probability sample, respectively.
Probability Sampling
Probability sampling – is a sampling procedure where every
element of the population is given a non-zero chance of being included in
the sample. There are five kinds of probability sampling, namely; simple
random sampling, systematic sampling stratified sampling, cluster
sampling and multi-stage sampling.

1. Simple Random Sampling

A random sample is a limited number of the elements determined
from the population. Before the selection is done every element in the
population is given equal chance of being selected in the sample.
The simplest way of drawing a random sample is by lottery of
fishbowl technique. To illustrate this method, consider a population of 5
students. We can write the names of the code numbers of all the 50
students in identical small sheet of papers. These are then put in a
container and jumbled thoroughly. Without looking to the sheet of papers,
draw for example 10 sheets representing the 10 representative students,
the desired sample size. This procedure ensures a representative sample
since each has the same chance of being selected into the sample.
If the population is large lottery is cumbersome. A simple and
practical way is using the Table of Random Numbers. This table can be
generated through the computer or scientific calculator. It enables us to
 select the desires sample on a purely chance basis. The procedures are
as follows:

1. Identify the population size and desired sample size. For instance, let us
define the population to be the 300 students currently enrolled in Math
313. Then draw a random sample of 20 students.
2. Make a list of all the 300 students of population and number them
consecutively from 0 to the last number. So in our example, we start from
000 to 299.
3. Using the Table of Random Number, point any number without looking at
the table. Use this number as the starting point. Since the code number for
each student is composed of three digits, we merely look at the last three
digits of the first pointed number in the table. If this three-digit number is a
number found in the population, then the member of the population with
this corresponding number is selected to be included in the sample. In our
example, if the number is 176 then the student with the corresponding
code is included in the sample. If the number pointed is 456, then it is
disregarded since the population is only 300 students. As alternate way,
can be done by subtracting the population size or multiple of the
population, from the 456 the difference which is 156 can be used as the
next selected member of the sample.
4. Read the table horizontally whether to the left or to the right; vertically,
either upward or downward; or diagonally. Continue recording the
numbers found in the population and ignore those number, which are not
within the set of coded numbers or used the alternate procedure (discuss
tin step 2). Discard duplicates and continue the process until the required
sample size is completed.
https://mathbitsnotebook.com/Algebra2/Statistics/STrandomtable.html
2. Systematic Random Sampling
Systematic random sampling is a process of selecting every nth
element in the population until the desired sample size is obtained. The
member or elements may be arranged alphabetically or in any systematic
fashion. To obtain k, referred to as the random start, we divide the
population size by the desired sample size. Thus, if the population is 250
and the desired sample size is 50, we obtain k by dividing 250 by 50. This
k is equal to 5. If k=5 the every 5th element of the given population is
selected to compromise the sample.
To know where to start from the population list, use the Table of
Random Numbers. Without looking, point at any number in the table and
get its last digit. Suppose the last digit is7, this means the 7th member of
the population is already included in the sample. From the number 7, take
every 5th member in the population. This will include 7, 12, 17, 22, and so
on.

3. Stratified Random Sampling

Stratified random sampling is a process done by dividing the
population into strata or categories and drawing the members at random
proportionate to each stratum or sub-group.
To select as stratified sample, the researcher must first possess a
clear understanding of the problem in order to determine the strata into
which the population should be divided.
For example, if the school administrator wishes to study the
perception of the students regarding the curriculum of Distance Education.
The population of all Distance Education students could be divided
according to their major; drafting, machine shop, foods, garments,
automobile and RAC (refrigerator and air-conditioning).

After the categories or strata have been carefully determined, a random

sample is selected from each stratum, which is proportional to its size.
This is to avoid the error of selecting too few or too many members from
each stratum.
Suppose the college have 3500 students of which 1500 are male
and 2000 are female. A sample of 100 students is desired. To obtain a
sample proportional to the given members in each stratum, compute first
for the proportion of the sample to the population. Divide the sample size
by the population size, 100 divided by 3500. The proportion obtained is
.02857 or 2.857%. Multiply the number of males, 1500 by .02857 and the
number of females, 2000 by .02857. We obtain 43 males and 57 females,
which is equal to the desired sample size of 100 students.
 Finally, we draw the required random sample size 100 students by
simple random sampling or by systematic sampling 43 from the males and
57 from the females.

4. Cluster Sampling
Cluster sampling is a suitable procedure if the population is spread
out over a wide geographical area. It is also a practical sampling
technique to use if the complete list of the members of the population is
not available.
A cluster is an intact group possessing a common characteristic. An
example is a population of all 300 third year CIT students. To illustrate
how the desired sample size of 10 third year CIT students could be
selected given this population, we follow the steps:

1. Prepare a list of the cluster comprising the population and determine the
sample size. Our logical cluster would be all the sections in CIT that are
third year. We then, need to prepare a list of all the sections in third year.
Suppose there are 6 sections of third year CIT students and assume our
sample size is 100 third year CIT students.
2. Estimate the average number of students per cluster (section) in the
population. Assume that the average number of students per section is 50.
3. Divide the desired sample size by the average number of students per
cluster (section) to get the number of clusters to be selected. Since our
sample size is 100 third year CIT students and the average number of
students per section is 50, the number of cluster needed id 100 ÷ 50 or 2.
4. Select the needed number of clusters. By using the simplest method draw
lots, select the 2 sections from the list of 6 sections. Include all the
students in the selected clusters. Since there is an average of 50 students
per section, our sample size of 100 students is completed.

To summarize the steps above, we have

Number of section (First year BS Math student, N=6
Average no. of student per section, X = 50
Desired sample size, n = 100

𝑛 100
Required clusters, 𝑌 = 𝑋 = = 2 sections
50
 Suppose, the selected sections are I-B and I-D, then consider all
students in these sections as members of the sample. Probably it would
be more or less 100 students.

5. Multi-stage Sampling
Multi-stage sampling is a more complex sampling technique a
combination of several sampling techniques that we have discussed.
Usually this method is used by researches who are interested in studying
a very large population, say the entire students of the Bulacan State
University.
This can be done in two or more stages. This method involves the
following steps:
1. Divide the population into state. Say, the 5 colleges of Bulacan State
University.
2. Divide each stratum into clusters. Say, the courses offered in each
college.
3. Draw a sample from each cluster using the simple random or systematic
sampling.

Non-probability Sampling

Non-probability Sampling - is a sampling procedure here not all of

the elements of the population are given a non-zero chance of being
chosen for the sample. With these methods, some elements of the
population may be deliberately ignored (that is, giving them no chance to
be included) in the choice of elements for the sample.
1. Quota Sampling
A sampling technique used popularly in the field of opinion
research. Example a research wishes to interview the thrilled avid fans of
the PBA during a championship game. He decided to interview only 100
avid fans. So while watching the championship game at the Cuneta
Astrodome the researcher keep on interviewing the thrilled fans of PBA
until he reached his quota and continue watching his favorite team
compete the game.
 2. Purposive Sampling
Purposive sampling is done when the subject satisfies the criteria
lay down by the researcher. Example, a researcher wanted to find out,
how the drug addicts did able to overcome the treatment they experience
inside the rehabilitation centers. The researcher could possibility choose
to interview only those who have completely recovered or manage to
change their life to become better after coming out from the rehabilitation
center.
3. Incidental/ Accidental Sampling
This method of drawing a sample is very popular in market
research. Example, a certain company who produces a brand of cheese
curl wanted to monitor the acceptance of this product to the buying
customers. The researcher interviewed every customer who happened to
pick the product within a random period of the day. Those who were
interviewed are what we called accidental samples.

2.4 Determining Sample Size

In determining the desired sample size it would depend on the researcher.

His bases will be availability of the resources, specially the budget. The
primary concerned of the researcher is to maximize the precision of the
estimate given the limited resources. All effort are directed to getting the
maximum reliability possible for every peso spent. But if there is limitation
in the budget, it is u to the researcher, he may lower his sample size but
his would possibly minimize the reliability of the estimate. However,
investigator would then choose the appropriate sample size that will
achieve the optimal balance between expenditures and the reliability of
results.
It is expected as the sample size approaches the size of the
population, maximum reliability is expected among the estimates of the
results. However, if the resources are limited the option is left into the
researcher.
In order to determine the optimal size of the sample to be taken from the
population the Slovin’s formula is used. The formula is
𝑁
n= (Formula 1)
1+𝑁𝑒 2

where n = sample size

N = population size
e = margin of error
 To illustrate the used of the formula, suppose we want to find the
average daily allowances of the students in the Bulacan State University.
However, due to insufficient time, only student from selected three
sections were used to estimate the average daily allowance. Obviously,
the result is not the actual average age but just an estimate and thus,
there is error when we used the sample instead of the population.
From the succeeding example, study the procedure of finding the
sample size.
Example 1:
A group of student researcher is conducting a survey to find out the
opinion of the residents of a particular barangay regarding the oil price
hike. If there are 8000 residents in that barangay and the student
researchers decided to use a sample with a 10% margin of error, what
should be the sample size?
Solution:

Given N = 8000 e = 10% or .10, substituting theses values into the formula
𝑁 8000
n = 1+𝑁𝑒 2 = 1+(8000)(.10)2 = 98.765= 99

Example 2:
Suppose in example 1, the student researchers would like to use
only a 5% margin of error, what should the sample size be?

Given N = 8000 e = 5% or .05, substituting to the formula

𝑁 8000
n = 1+𝑁𝑒 2 = 1+(8000)(.05)2 = 380.95

n = 381

It is very clear from example 1 and 2 that as the error margin decreases
the sample size increases. In some instances researchers wanted to
delimit their sample size due to budget and time constrain, with their
desired sample size researchers would like to estimate their margin of
error. With algebraically manipulating the Slovin’s formula the margin of
error can be estimated as follows;
𝑁−𝑛
𝑒√ 𝑛𝑁
Example 3:
From a population of 8000, a researcher of limited resources
decided to use only a sample of 50 respondents, estimate her amount of
margin of error.
Solution:
𝑁−𝑛 8000−50 7950
𝑒√ 𝑛𝑁 = √50 (8000) = √400000 = √. 019875 = .1409 or .14

This would mean that a population of 8000 if the researcher can

afford only a sample of 50 respondents, she would it have a margin of
error of about 14%.

2.5 Criteria for Choice of Sampling Technique

The choice of technique for getting a sample depends primarily on the

nature of the problem, the cost and time factors involved, and the desired
precision or reliability of the results. There is no single principle which
would lead the investigator to choose a particular sample scheme to
exclusion of others. His choice is modified by the availability of resources
and materials, and by certain statistical and administrative considerations.
In many instances the research problem under consideration, by its
very nature along with the objectives pursued, automatically eliminated
one or several possible sampling scheme. The researcher must then
weigh the advantages and disadvantages of the remaining techniques and
choose and one that would best meets his budget, time and precision
requirements.

The selection of techniques is further complicated by the fact that in

practically all surveys, the study is not limited to the consideration of one
item. Many characteristics, some closely interrelated and others not at all,
must be considered in the data collection and estimation procedures.
Each of these items may call for a different sampling plan and sample
size, thus, necessitating compromise on the art of the investigator as to
which design to use and how large a sample to obtain. In such instances,
only those items which are essential to the study should enter into the
consideration of sampling techniques.
A characteristic which is present throughout the population with
reasonable frequency of occurrence can be adequately investigated by
means of a random sample of sample size. Another item, also widespread
in the population but not occurring frequently maybe more suitably studied
by a large random sample. Thus, for example, if the researcher wishes to
study the characteristics of recent mothers, he must recognize that
although births occur throughout the population (i.e. in most families), only
4-5 families 100 will have had a birth in a given year.

In contrast, if the characteristics is sparely located in some parts of the

survey area but concentrated in others, a stratified sample would be in
order or best results. Systematic sampling, for its convenience, would
however be preferred in those cases where there is no periodic variation
on trend present in the population. It is relatively easier and less subject to
error to draw a sample by systematically going through a record of the
population elements (for example, an alphabetical list) than by employing
any of the other techniques.
In planning the survey design, the researcher must take into
consideration, not only the nature of the problem, but also the probable
costs involve (in terms of money, time and effort) and how precise the final
statement must be. The researcher who is not faced with the stumbling
block of cost is lucky indeed, because many problems that arise in
choosing a proper sampling technique are insignificant or nonexistent for
him. The size of the sample can be made as large as needed to obtain the
desired standard of precision. And this large sample will pose no great
problem in the subsequent steps of data processing and analysis because
of the availability of a high-speed computer system for instance, the rental
of which may deter others for whom cost is the problem.

However, even here one has unlimited resources there may be other
kinds of problems. Too extensive a sample may prove unwieldy and slow
up to work. Large operations are generally be set by a greater possibility
of errors and biases creeping in unless overall supervision is rigidly
maintained in all spheres of activity. Hence the need to make periodic
checks on the work.
The more common situation that occurs, however, is that there
exists for the study an allotted budget which cannot be exceeded. The
primary concern of the researcher in this case then is to maximize the
precision of the estimates given the limited resources available. All efforts
are directed to getting the maximum reliability possible for every peso
sent. The researcher then has to ascertain whether given the research
problem at hand and the type of sampling needed, the objectives of the
study can actually be fulfilled within the stipulated budget. This is, the
investigator must determine whether the resources available will permit
the precision of different sampling techniques he may decide that if such
level of precision is to be met, no alternative is left than to abandon the
proposed survey completely until such time as ore funds are available.

If, however, instead of cost being fixed beforehand, the organizers or

sponsors of the survey specify the level of precision desired in the results,
the task of the investigator is to attain the specified precision at minimum
cost. The relative information are then compared. The investigators then
choose the one which will achieve the optimal balance between the
expenditures and reliability of results.