Journal of Retailing and Consumer Services 49 (2019) 305–315

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Journal of Retailing and Consumer Services

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A pilot study of circulation layout based on perceived retail crowding T

Soobeen Park, Shaoqing Zhang ∗

Department of Interior & Environmental Design, Pusan National University, South Korea

ARTICLE INFO ABSTRACT

Keywords: Traditional marketing strategies are considered to have barely addressed the core challenges of retail crowd
Retail crowding management with regard to maximizing density without triggering the negative effects of crowding. Circulation
Circulation layout layout deals with consumer experience and events that might reduce crowding but not effect population and
Consumer experience spatial density; however, the effects of circulation layout have not been confirmed through academic research.
Crowd management
This study simulates shopping events in three virtual malls with different layouts: radial, linear, and annular. The
Virtual roaming
crowding level differed significantly between the malls: the radial form exhibited the most apparent crowding.
This paper provides empirical evidence regarding how circulation layout can shape retail crowding. In a de-
parture from previous views of retail crowding as a one- or two-dimensional construct, three fundamental retail-
crowding factors are extracted: social, space-size, and shopping-convenience restrictions.

1. Instruction
Retail crowding is an important environmental factor in consumers'
evaluations of the shopping experience, and has been proved to sig-
nificantly affect consumers’ shopping outcomes, including consumer
satisfaction (Kwon et al., 2016; Machleit et al., 2000; Eroglu et al.,
2005a; Song and Noone, 2017), patronage intentions (Mehta et al.,
2013; Pan and Siemens, 2011; Kim and Runyan, 2011), behavioral
responses (Hui and Bateson, 1991; Pan and Siemens, 2011), and the
evaluation of product quality and store reputation (Mehta, 2013).
Retailers located in malls or otherwise trying to control crowding
generally face an interesting dilemma. On one hand, retailers want to
pay as little rent costs as possible, while hoping to make their mall
location look more spacious. On the other hand, operators expect the
mall to have a substantial customer flow without wanting its customers
to feel crowded (Mehta, 2013). Some studies suggest crowding can be
mitigated through marketing strategies, e.g., adjusting the prices of
items and the length of any promotion in order to avoid excessive
crowds showing up at the same time; separating employees from con-
sumer channels to reduce contact between them (Mehta et al., 2013);
and providing social support, like a shopping guide (Lucia-Palacios
et al., 2018). But the randomness of consumer access renders these
marketing strategies rarely applicable. Correspondingly, other research
suggests crowding can be controlled through interior decorating
methods, e.g., adjusting the lighting (Adams and Zuckerman, 1991;
Areni and Kim, 1994; Boyce, 2014; Şener Yılmaz, 2018), background
music tempo (Eroglu et al., 2005b; Spielberger, 2004), reducing aisle
tables or kiosks (Lee et al., 2011; Kim and Runyan, 2011), and adding
greening (Brengman et al., 2012). However, whether using marketing
strategies or interior decoration methods can only resolve partial and
temporary problems, and the results are unavoidably affected by per-
sonal preference. More importantly, such methods do not touch the
core issues of crowd management, such as to how to maximize eco-
nomic benefits without triggering the adverse effects of crowding
(Mehta, 2013).
Focusing on these limitations of existing retail crowd management
methods led us to ponder how to stably control consumers' crowding
perception for a long time, under the premise of not reducing the
number of goods and consumers or the size of the mall unit. As the core
of spatial organization, circulation layout has a bearing on customer
experience. Circulation is proposed as a concern related to crowding (Li
et al., 2017; Liu et al., 2018), because there may be a risk of privacy
violations at circulation intersections. Although there is a large body of
knowledge predicting that the architectural spatial organization affects
the crowding experience (Li et al., 2017; Liu et al., 2018; Dogu and
Erkip, 2000; Lee et al., 2011; Mehta, 2013), these arguments have not
been adequately demonstrated or given any detailed instructions in the
literature regarding retail space. Moreover, it is important to point out
that the experimental methods used in crowding-related studies, espe-
cially those using slides or video playback to conduct research on retail-
crowding perception, are unlikely to accurately reflect the subject's
perception of the entire retail space, because of the lack of experimental
immersion and controllability (Mehta, 2013). As these shortcomings
have not been resolved, this study diverges from traditional research

∗
Corresponding author. Department of Interior & Environmental Design, Pusan National University, Busan 46241, South Korea.
E-mail address: shaoqing@pusan.ac.kr (S. Zhang).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jretconser.2019.04.008
Received 29 December 2018; Received in revised form 5 April 2019; Accepted 7 April 2019
Available online 17 April 2019
0969-6989/ © 2019 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Table 1
Empirical studies on the antecedents of retail crowding.
Author Key words
Harrell et al. (1980) Shopper density, Crowding,
Adaptation strategies
Eroglu and Machleit Perceived density; Time
(1990) constraint; Crowding;
Satisfaction
Adams and Zuckerman Lighting level; Personal space
(1991) requirements
Areni and Kim (1994) In-store lighting; Shopping
behavior; Retail density
Eroglu et al. (2005b) Retail atmosphere; Retail density;
Music tempo; Crowding
306
Lee et al. (2011) Spatial crowding; Human
crowding; Behavioral outcomes;
Store image
Kim and Runyan (2011) Consumer behavior; Consumer
psychology;
Crowding
Brengman et al. (2012) In-store vegetation; Consumer
emotions; Retail crowding
Alawadhi and Yoon Crowding;
(2016) Store layout;
Shopping intentions
Lucia-Palacios et al. Stress coping;
(2018) Social support;
Sales associates; Shopping
companions
S. Park and S. Zhang
Objectives Settings Methods Findings
Explore the sequential relationships among several Supermarket Field study Retail density positively affects crowding perceptions.
variables pertinent to retail crowding.
An empirical investigation of some of the determinants and Mall Laboratory experiment: Retail density positively affects crowding perceptions. Time
outcomes of retail crowding. slides pressure intensifies crowding perceptions under high-density
conditions.
Explore the impact of lighting levels on personal spatial A 5.18 by 6.1-m Laboratory experiment A reduction in lighting can cause an increase in personal
preferences. room space requirements.
Examining the impact of in-store illumination on shoppers' Restaurant with a Field study Brighter lighting can alleviate people's perception of density,
searching, purchasing, and consumption behaviors. wine cellar influencing shoppers to examine and handle more
merchandise.
Examine the simultaneous effect of in-store density and Mall Field study The interactive effect of retail density and background music
music on shopping behaviors and evaluations. tempo will have a significant influence on customers'
cognitive and behavioral shopping outcomes.
Investigate the effects of store layout design and factors Supermarket Field study Aisle table area most strongly impacts the overall degree of
about the consumer on the perception of store crowding. perceived store crowding.
Examine how spatial density conditions caused by kiosks in Mall Laboratory experiment: The aisle tables and the kiosks are considered obstructions to
shopping mall walkways affect shoppers' approach/ videotapes the shopping process which can create psychological stress,
avoidance behaviors and patronage intentions. thus leading to crowding.
Examine the effect of introducing foliage into the store Fashion retail Laboratory experiment: In-store greenery significantly reduces feelings of stress and
environment. context slides evokes pleasure, especially in a spatially dense store
environment.
Explore the role of store layout and human density on Department stores Laboratory experiment: Under a certain consumer density, stores under an
perceived crowding. virtual video tapes asymmetrical counter layout are considered to be more
crowded than under a symmetrical one.
Explore whether social service scope can help customers Shopping malls Field study Shopping in the company of others can directly reduce the
alleviate their levels of stress while shopping in crowded level of stress but that it is not enough to diminish the effect
retail scenarios. of crowding on stress.
Journal of Retailing and Consumer Services 49 (2019) 305–315
S. Park and S. Zhang
methods by using virtual roaming technology, and thus aims to ex-
amine whether circulation layout affects retail crowding and the spe-
cific way it works by simulating shopping trips in three malls under
different layouts: radial, linear, and annular. As the first theoretical
contribution to this issue, this study provides the first empirical evi-
dence of how circulation layout influences retail crowding, thereby
providing new ideas for retail crowd management. Furthermore, this
study finds that retail crowding is actually a three-dimensional pro-
blem, which marks yet another departure from previous views.
The paper is structure as follows: through literature research, a
thirteen-item retail-crowding measurement scale was built, with re-
ference to that used in Machleit et al. (1994). Then, three virtual indoor
shopping malls of the same size but with different circulation layouts
were constructed using 3DMAX and UE4, followed by a shopping-event
simulation, which generated experimental data related to retail
crowding. The factor analysis method was used to measure crowding
levels at the three virtual shopping malls. Statistical analysis of the
crowding perception scores each mall was conducted by using repeated-
measures Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) to examine whether the form
of the circulation layout itself significantly affects consumers’ retail-
crowding levels. Finally, a paired sample t-test (a post hoc analyses)
among the 13 specific items was conducted to discuss the impact me-
chanism as a supplement.
2. Literature review
This section provides a detailed review of the antecedents of retail
crowding because it deals with retail crowd management and retail-
crowding measurement methods. In addition, it reasonably predicts
that retail crowding can be significantly mitigated by adjusting the
circulation layout, according to the basis of the division of circulation
layout form, and its varying impact on consumer experience.
2.1. Retail crowding
Crowding is more closely associated with perceived population
density (which is subjective and evaluative) than population density
(which is objective). A person may perceive crowding even in a less
dense store and may also feel untroubled in a denser one (cf. Mehta,
2013). Distinct from density as “an objective measure that is a neces-
sary but not sufficient antecedent to crowding” (cf. Pons and Laroche,
2007; Pons et al., 2014), crowding is defined as certain negativity that
people feel under some degree of density by Stokols (1972). And he
argued that crowding is a state of psychological stress resulting from an
insufficient supply of space, which contains two components: (1) a
physical condition and (2) an experiential state. Once individuals per-
ceive crowding, they try to alleviate the recognized disparity imposed
by spatial limitations (Pons et al., 2014). Crowding is also often men-
tioned in residential environments such as student residences (e.g.,
Oppewal et al., 2017), and it is suggested to be closely related to
privacy violations.
Introductory research on retail-environment crowding was pursued
by Kotler (1974), who predicted that the shopping atmosphere would
have a more significant impact on consumer-buying decisions than the
products themselves. He also considered that the crowding caused by
the density of individuals in retail stores might alter the retail atmo-
sphere in some way, thus having a predictable impact on consumer
behavior. Harrell et al. (1980) then followed, proposing the term “retail
crowding” and stimulating a discussion of consumer behavior under
crowding conditions. Through experiments, they confirmed that retail
crowding interferes with consumers' ability to measure product in-
formation, thus reducing their purchasing confidence. Accordingly,
consumers will adopt some debugging behaviors, for instance, trying to
minimize their shopping time or exploration behavior, even leaving the
store without purchasing anything (cf. Noone and Mattila, 2009; Song
and Noone, 2017). Machleit et al. (1994), meanwhile, defined retail
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Journal of Retailing and Consumer Services 49 (2019) 305–315
crowding as follows: a certain number of people or obstacles in a fa-
cility is evaluated as inducing excessive crowding when they restrict or
halt one's preferred actions.
Crowding has received widespread attention in the retail industry,
with empirical studies mainly focusing on its antecedents, con-
sequences, and the mediating or moderating variables. In terms of
consequences, crowding has proven to affect consumer satisfaction,
patronage intentions, behavioral responses, evaluation of product
quality and store reputation. In terms of mediating or moderating
variables, individual differences have been proven to occur in retail-
crowding perception levels, mainly related gender, cultural background
(Pons and Laroche, 2007; Kim et al., 2010; Pons et al., 2016), values
(utilitarianism/hedonism), crowding expectations (Pons et al., 2016;
Machleit et al., 2000), and control of desires (Hui and Bateson, 1991;
Van Rompay et al., 2008; Mehta, 2013).
The management of retail crowding has always been a headache for
retailers, especially in retail locations where traffic is relatively high. In
general, mall managers want to provide customers with a comfortable,
spacious shopping environment, so that consumers stay in malls for as
long as possible, thus inducing impulse consumption. However, it is
almost impossible for operators to expand a shopping mall's area to
alleviate crowding due to the limitation of the building area.
Nonetheless, by means of adjusting lighting or background music
tempo, reducing aisle tables or kiosks, and adding greening, consumer
crowding perception may be significantly alleviated. Indeed, most
hardware items utilized have taken on a standard configuration for
retail purposes, which is difficult to streamline. Moreover, by increasing
the greening, adjusting the music and smell, etc. (Table 1), problems
may be resolved only partially and temporarily, and these results will
be significantly affected by personal preferences. Instead, we believe
that consumers' perception of crowding can be lastingly controlled
while not effect population and spatial density by using some other
methods.
There are also limitations in the experimental methods used in retail
crowding-related studies (Mehta, 2013). Before 2015, most of the ex-
periments were conducted using field studies combined with consumer
recall or slide playback (cf. Table 1). For example, Machleit et al.
(2000) used a videotape and a written scenario to study the relation
between retail crowding and shopper satisfaction. Concerning dining
space, Kim et al. (2010) explored the difference in crowding perception
between Easterners and Westerners by using 20 slide photos of a
crowded local restaurant combined with a five-minute video. Further,
in a study on retail crowding and consumer behavior (cf. Lee et al.,
2011), respondents were asked to recall and imagine themselves back
in the store environment.
One issue with retrospective surveys is the distortion of results be-
cause of the reliance on one's memory of the shopping episode. Mehta
(2013) stated that in the process of the experiment, nonexperimental
elements such as temperature, smell, and noise severely affected the
authenticity of the data acquired, thus making the causal nature of the
relations unclear. Subsequently, some researchers tried to resolve this
issue by using simulation methods. For example, Alawadhi and Yoon
(2016) attempted to explore the impact of population density and
counter layout on consumer-perceived crowding and shopping out-
comes by using a virtual walkthrough video played through VR glasses.
Although the use of these virtual tools has achieved good research re-
sults, they still require the use of slides or videos.
2.2. Circulation layout form
Circulation is the trajectory of people's movements, whether inside
or outside buildings. Interior circulation is defined as the way we ex-
perience a structure's three-dimensionality through movement with full
consideration of time, sequence, and space. Bitgood (2006) divided
interior circulation into horizontal and vertical circulation. Elottol and
Bahauddin (2011) highlighted how horizontal circulation contains all
S. Park and S. Zhang
Table 2
The primary circulation layout forms.
Form Icon Uniform size Endpoint
Radial Three or more
Linear Two
Annular None
walking areas such as corridors, lobbies, verandas, entrance foyers, and
balconies. Meanwhile, vertical circulation refers to areas such as stair-
cases, ramps, elevators, and escalators. In architecture-related research,
when lacking emphasis, circulation layout usually refers to a horizontal
circulation rather than a vertical one.
Most mall circulation layout forms are related to terrain conditions.
Qin and Wang (2010) divided circulation layout into four—linear,
circular, radial, and grid—according to people's visual tendencies and
walking habits. In the outdoor environment; Ching (2016) categorized
circulation layout into six forms according to the strength of the rela-
tion between people and space: linear, radial, spiral, grid, network, and
composite. Using a similar approach; Zhang (2017) divided the circu-
lation layout of the ground layer into three forms: linear, loop, and grid.
In the physical exhibition, Liu et al. (2018) divided the circulation into
grid, centralization, radiation, and line form. Our study determines the
forms of circulation layout, a subject that appears at a higher frequency
in related studies. With reference to Corbusier's ideas of geometrization
and simplification, we advocate for dividing the horizontal circulation
layout of the retail industry into three geometric forms: radial, linear,
and annular (Table 2), according to differences in the number of spatial
endpoints and in humans' sense of direction. Arguably, all the compo-
site forms are constituted by these three basic forms.
The three circulation layout forms have different characteristics.
The radial line layout has a higher space utilization because of its
flexible spatial shape, but its round trip is relatively weak, and custo-
mers can easily get lost in the absence of good sign design. Meanwhile,
the linear form (one line and broken line) consists of a relatively
compact design and an easy-to-identify spatial orientation through
which customers can immediately grasp the overall structure of the
shopping mall, but such excessively simple orientation design may lead
to an inconvenient round trip. In contrast, there are almost no dead
ends in the annular form; customers can visit every store without re-
peating any routes, but the annular form is often considered mono-
tonous since it is too common.
As the core of spatial organization, circulation layout is proposed as
a concern related to crowding for it has a bearing on customer ex-
perience: in the physical exhibition, Liu et al. (2018) study the influence
of circulation layout on wayfinding behavior combined with the virtual
video playback, and he suggested that the subjects may get lost due to
the circulation layouts, which leads to an uncomfortable feeling of
crowding. In tourism, Li et al. (2017) stated that unreasonable circu-
lation layout may restrict the physical movements of people, causing
them, for instance, to lose direction or undertake the same routes re-
peatedly, thus increasing the risk of potential privacy violations be-
cause of frequent encounters between unfamiliar individuals, which
eventually results in a sense of overcrowding. In the retail industry,
although it is reasonably predicted that consumers’ levels of perceived
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Journal of Retailing and Consumer Services 49 (2019) 305–315
Pros/Cons Related research
Flexible form and high space utilization Liu et al. (2018);
Easy to get lost Zhang (2017);
Ching (2016);
Qin and Wang (2010)
A clear sense of direction
Inconvenient round trip
Convenient round trip
Monotonous form
Table 3
Machleit's et al. (1994) retail-crowding measurement scale (Seven-point Likert).
Number Items
1. The store seemed very spacious. (Reverse Coded)
2. The store had an open feeling to it. (Reverse Coded)
3. I would feel cramped shopping in this store.
4. This store would feel confining to shoppers.
5. This store was a little too busy.
6. There were a lot of shoppers in this store.
7. This store seemed very crowded to me.
8. There wasn't much traffic in this store during my shopping trip.
(Reverse Coded)
crowding can be controlled by adjusting circulation forms (Dogu and
Erkip, 2000; Kim and Runyan, 2011; Mehta, 2013), the effects of cir-
culation layout on retail crowding have not been confirmed through
academic research or given any detailed instructions in the literature
regarding retail space.
3. Method
In order to obtain experimental data on consumer retail-crowding
perception in malls under different circulation layout forms, the
methodology section of this paper is carried out in three steps: (1) the
measurement scale development of retail crowding, (2) the establish-
ment of virtual malls based on 3DMAX and UE4, and (3) the simulation
of shopping events based on the within-subjects design method.
3.1. Retail crowding measurement
A five-item scale (stuffy/no-stuffy, cramped/uncramped, crowded/
uncrowded, free to move/restricted, spacious/confined), borrowed
from Hui and Bateson (1991), was used to measure respondents' per-
ceptions of retail crowding. This scale was also used by Yüksel (2009) to
determine the connection between billboard color and retail crowding.
Another measure is the two-dimensional, eight-item, and seven-point
Likert scale developed by Machleit et al. (1994) (Table 3), with a few
more items added to Harrell et al.’s (1980) scale.
Machleit's et al. (1994) retail-crowding measurement scale has often
been used in related studies. Kim et al. (2010) used that scale to mea-
sure differences in dining space retail crowding between Easterners and
Westerners. It was also used in studies exploring the effects of store
layout design on retail crowding and shopping behavior (e.g., Lee et al.,
2011; Alawadhi and Yoon, 2016) and in studies aiming to measure the
degree of spatial crowding in restaurants (e.g., Song and Noone, 2017).
Recently, the scale was mentioned in a study on the relationship be-
tween employee social support and consumer shopping pressure (Lucia-
S. Park and S. Zhang Journal of Retailing and Consumer Services 49 (2019) 305–315

Table 4
Retail crowding cases.
Variable Main opinion Related research

Perceived population density Retail density positively affects crowding perceptions. Perceived crowding negatively affects satisfaction. Harrell et al. (1980);
Lucia-Palacios et al. (2018)
Social interaction Frequent physical contact between strangers creates a feeling of crowding. Machleit et al. (1994);
Lucia-palacios et al. (2018)
Spatial openness The openness and ventilation conditions can be adjusted by providing natural light and greening, thus Hui and Bateson (1991); Brengman
affecting crowding perception. et al. (2012)
Viewable range Physical obstacles in a store environment such as racks or columns may hinder free movement and block Machleit et al. (1994);
the view, which leads to a feeling of crowding. Van Rompay et al. (2008)
Aisle area Physical area elements including aisle area and ceiling height were used to assess spatial crowding. Lee et al. (2011);
Aisle width Alawadhi and Yoon (2016)
Ceiling height
Aisle length
Store layout Store layout (spacious vs. Cluttered) may affect perceptions of retail crowding, with spacious layout Van Rompay et al. (2012);
conditions attenuating negative effects resulting from many shoppers visiting the store at the same time. Lucia-Palacios et al. (2018)
Lighting conditions Due to the increased demand for personal space, people feel more crowded under high illumination than it Adams and Zuckerman (1991);
did in relative darkness. Boyce (2014);
Şener Yilmaz (2018)
Noise level Environmental noise increases people's psychological stress, which leads to a feeling of crowding. Spielberger (2004);
Eroglu et al. (2005b)
Shopping smoothness The aisle tables and the kiosks are considered obstructions to the shopping process which can create Kim and Runyan (2011);
psychological stress, thus leading to crowding. Lee et al. (2011)
Time pressure Time-constrained shoppers may be more sensitive to crowded conditions, and may view crowding more Eroglu and Machleit (1990);
negatively as it prevents effective goal achievement. Pan and Siemens (2011)

Palacios et al., 2018).
Other related research goes even deeper; Machleit's et al. (1994)
scale shows obvious flaws (DeVellis, 2016). Firstly, the semantics of
some items used in the scale seem to be repetitive and difficult to dis-
tinguish from each other: the first and third items in the scale that
describe the space's size for products; and the sixth, seventh, and eighth
items that represent the number of individuals. Secondly, the Likert
seven-point semantic scale is often considered to be incomprehensible
when the semantics are similar, because not all the respondents have
good professional knowledge. Thirdly, the experiment was conducted
using consumer recall and video playback, and individuals may not
behave similarly in actual retail environments because of the com-
plexity of perceived factors and experiential realism (Mehta, 2013).
Fourth, due to the limited experimental method, the subjects' physio-
logical feelings are severely restricted. Therefore, it is hard to com-
prehensively evaluate the environmental elements such as the space
size, color tone, and furnishings overall, thus limiting the selection of
scalable items, and ultimately affecting the experiment's results. Last
but not least, recent research suggests that in addition to the cases of
human and spatial crowding mentioned by Machleit et al. (1994), some
other situational or environmental factors, such as time pressure ex-
perienced during shopping (cf. Eroglu and Machleit, 1990; Pan and
Siemens, 2011), a lack of shopping smoothness (cf. Lee et al., 2011; Kim
and Runyan, 2011), poor lighting conditions (cf. Adams and
Zuckerman, 1991; Boyce, 2014; Şener Yılmaz, 2018), a cluttered store
layout (cf. Van Rompay et al., 2012), and a high noise level (cf.
Spielberger, 2004; Eroglu et al., 2005b), can also result in crowding
(Table 4).
To construct a scientific measure of retail-crowding perception,
using the literature research method, this study investigated 13 ele-
ments frequently appearing in the literature that are considered to in-
duce retail crowding (Table 5). Then, in reference to the retail-
crowding measurements developed by Machleit et al. (1994), combined
with a five-point Likert scale (with a gradually increasing degree from 1
to 5, where 1 means “not at all” and 5 means “obvious”), we designed a
questionnaire which considers three items on social crowding (e.g.,
“there are a lot of shoppers in the store,” “the store is a little too busy”)
and two items on spatial crowding (“the store seems very spacious,”
“the store has an open, airy feeling to it”) in the scale developed by
Machleit et al. (1994). The excluded items were considered to be se-
mantically similar and difficult to identify, or unsupported by any lit-
erature.
3.2. Tool development
With the development of intelligent hardware and the open source

Table 5
Retail crowding measurement scale.
Variable Scale item Numbering

Perceived population density *There are a lot of shoppers in the shopping mall. X1
Social interaction *The stores are a little too busy. X2
Viewable range *The shopping mall seems very spacious. (Reverse Coded) X3
Aisle area **The area of the shopping mall is small. X4
Channel width **The channel width of this shopping mall is narrow. X5
Ceiling height **The ceiling height of this shopping mall is low. X6
Channel length **The channel length of this shopping mall is short. X7
Store layout **The layout of fixtures or merchandise here is cluttered. X8
Lighting conditions **The lighting conditions are poor. X9
Noise level **I feel noisy in the shopping mall. X10
Spatial openness *The shopping mall has an open, airy feeling to it. (Reverse Coded) X11
Shopping smoothness **My shopping process is smooth. (Reverse Coded) X12
Time pressure **It's hard to finish shopping within a limited time. X13

*Original retail crowding scale items used by Machleit et al. (1994). ** Newly added scale items.

309
S. Park and S. Zhang
Table 6
Empirical approaches to retail-crowding related studies.
Method Immersion Interactive
*Online survey
*Field study ● ●
*Laboratory experiment: (Videotapes or Slides)
Virtual roaming (Joystick or VR-glass) ● ●
* Traditional experimental method. ● Indicates good performance in the regard.
of the game engine platform (UE4 and Unity, etc.), virtual roaming has
become an important branch of virtual reality (VR) technology that has
been widely used in construction and tourism-related research. It has
been effective in controlling and eliminating the effects of nonexperi-
mental elements on the accuracy of results. Furthermore, contrary to
traditional virtual scene experiments, virtual roaming emphasizes
human-virtual space interaction and effectively creates an immersive
real-world experience for experimental subjects, that is, subjects can
walk and move freely in a virtual scene just as if they were playing a
game. The virtual research method was considered to be more scientific
than the field research method for studies related to one's overall
shopping experience (Table 6).
Fig. 1. Experimental procedure.
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Journal of Retailing and Consumer Services 49 (2019) 305–315
Controllable Low-cost Recordable Repeatable
●
● ● ● ●
● ● ● ●
Based on the above views, using 3DMAX and UE4, we built three
virtual shopping malls (A, B, and C) which were 70 m long and 130 m
wide with a total area of 9100 sqm (i.e., a medium-sized shopping
mall). All three circulation layouts were designed in a regular symme-
trical form (cf. Alawadhi and Yoon, 2016) with the same channel length
(300 m) and width (7 m) (Fig. 1). Then we decided to simulate a
shopping event three times, for each one of the three virtual shopping
malls, with nonexperimental elements that have been controlled within
a reasonable range that would not easily lead to crowding (Table 7). To
simulate a more realistic shopping scene, we set up interactions and
conversations among characters.
S. Park and S. Zhang Journal of Retailing and Consumer Services 49 (2019) 305–315

Table 7
The specific parameters of the three shopping malls.
Category Item Parameter Comments Related research

Parameters of the virtual Number of characters 58 Twelve to 25 feet reserved for strangers in a public area. Fifty-eight Hall (1966);
malls characters (20-foot spacing) are placed to simulate a low-crowding Alawadhi and Yoon
condition. (2016)
Ceiling height 3.6 m A visually comfortable spatial aspect ratio. Hall (1966);
Channel width 7.2 m Alawadhi and Yoon
(2016)
Channel length 300 m A size that not easily causes fatigue or other negative emotions. Guo et al. (2016)
Aisle area 2100 m2
The number of stores and 90 (product)30 Some common handicrafts including ceramics and paintings are Machleit et al. (1994);
products (store) neatly arranged in the stores. Van Rompay et al.
90 (product) (2008)
Ambient sound 60 dB A shopping environment background sound that is not easily Stewart et al. (2016)
annoying.
Illumination 700 lux According to lighting standards, this is a relatively bright lighting Boyce (2014); Şener
Color temperature 5000 K condition that does not easily cause depression. Yılmaz (2018)
Virtual perspective Moving speed 5 km/h The average walking speed among Chinese. Guo et al. (2016)
View height 160 cm The average visual height of subjects.

3.3. Experimental procedure level in shopping malls with different circulation layout from a macro
perspective; and (3) as a supplement, a paired sample t-test among the
As a subjective psychological experience, retail-crowding percep- 13 specific items was conducted to discuss the impact mechanism from
tion is complex and sensitive. Considering the influence of the in- a microscopic angle.
dividual differences of the subjects on the experimental results, our
entire experimental was processed within-subjects, thus eliminating 4.1. Factors of retail crowding
statistical errors (Gravetter and Forzano, 2018). Moreover, the whole
experimental process strictly follows the rules of a within-subjects de- Collected data were screened and analyzed using SPSS 23.0. The
sign. First, to avoid any potential threats affecting the subjects' judg- scale reliability and internal consistency of each measure were assessed
ments on retail crowding, nonexperimental factors were effectively using Cronbach's alpha and KMO and Bartlett's test, respectively. The
controlled through virtual means. Thus, we did not provide any in- results showed that Cronbach's alpha for the summed scale based on
formation to the subjects about the research objects. That is, the subject these items was 0.877, indicating good reliability. KMO was 0.777,
completes the entire experimental process in a subconscious state suggesting an adequate sample and eligibility for factor analysis. Then,
completely. Hence, the experimental results reflect the individual's in- taking a 95% level of significance, α = 0.05, the p-value (Sig.) of
dependent feelings. Second, to avoid order effects (e.g., practice, fa- 0.000 < 0.05; therefore, the factor analysis was valid.
tigue, and carry-over effects), wherein one becomes fatigued by a Three reasons validate the selection of the factor analysis method
shopping experience leading to poorer performance during the next (Hadi et al., 2016; DeVellis, 2016) to measure retail-crowding scores:
one, subjects were asked to take turns doing the experiment, resting and (1) the factor analysis method can resolve the correlation problem be-
filling out the retail-crowding report at half-hour intervals. tween indicators while reducing information loss by means of di-
To get a more heterogeneous population, our experiments were mensionality reduction, which also makes it easier for us to understand
carried out in Korea and China. Given the importance of demographic the construct of retail crowding from a macro perspective, and which in
characteristics, we chose subjects aged 18–38 (M = 23.37, SD = 4.14), turn helps us to provide targeted advice on retail crowd management
and 127 subjects participated in our experiment. Participants from issues; (2) the factor analysis method determines weights based on the
Korea were recruited via campus e-mails and the college bulletin board correlation between the indicators, thus avoiding the subjectivity of
in Pusan National University, which included various professional artificial empowerment; and (3) the factor analysis method permits the
students and some teachers. In China, participants are recruited via on- use of SPSS statistical software, which is very efficient and produces
site recruitment methods in a shopping mall. Shopping vouchers were accurate results.
used as incentives for participation. Three common factors, F1, F2, and F3, were extracted using
We described the shopping scenario to subjects before the experi-
ment: “Starting now, you will be visiting a shopping mall to find a few Table 8
things to decorate your house. Try to finish shopping within five min- Rotated component matrices and cumulative variance contribution rates of the
utes (i.e., the average time cost in the test phase).” The simulated en- common factors (n = 360).
vironment was projected on a display screen. Then, each subject found Common factor (F) F1 F2 F3
something to purchase in each of the three shopping malls separately.
After each shopping experience, the questionnaire Q_A, Q_B, or Q_C was X1 0.776 0.033 0.250
X2 0.823 0.018 0.202
completed, describing the shopping experience for each purchase.
X3 0.547 0.596 −0.029
Finally, we retained 120 cases (a total of 360 valid questionnaires) after X4 0.430 0.739 0.104
eliminating outliers and those with technical errors. X5 0.153 0.823 0.160
X6 0.057 0.669 0.494
X7 −0.293 0.569 0.231
4. Data analysis X8 0.013 0.376 0.679
X9 0.065 0.308 0.751
In order to explore the relationship between circulation layout and X10 0.780 0.171 0.042
retail-crowding perception, this section was carried out in the following X11 0.592 0.561 0.280
X12 0.217 0.128 0.855
three aspects: (1) the factor analysis method was used to extract the
X13 0.315 −0.047 0.738
common factors of retail-crowding perception; (2) repeated-measures Cumulative variance contribution rate 22.965% 45.654% 67.345%
ANOVA method was used to examine the difference of retail crowding

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S. Park and S. Zhang Journal of Retailing and Consumer Services 49 (2019) 305–315

principal component analysis (an eigenvalue greater than 1.0). The

variance contribution rates of the three common factors were 22.965%,
22.690%, and 21.690%, respectively. This means that 67.345% of the
total information of all variables was explained (Table 8), which can
comprehensively reflect information on customers’ retail-crowding
perception.
Moreover, the contribution rates of the three common factors to
each project were calculated separately. Accordingly, the main vari-
ables affecting the first common factor are X1 (perceived population
density), X2 (social interaction), X3 (viewable range), X10 (noise level),
and X11 (ventilation conditions); those affecting the second common
factor are X4 (aisle width), X5 (ceiling height), X6 (aisle length), and X7
(aisle surface area); and those affecting the third common factor are X8
(Store layout), X9 (lighting conditions), X12 (shopping smoothness),
and X13 (time pressure).
The scores of F1, F2, and F3 were obtained based on the component
score coefficient matrix, which was calculated using regression ana-
lysis. However, the scores of the three common factors were not com-
parable because of weight differences in their composite scores.
Therefore, we multiplied the score of the common factor by the cor-
responding weight value as shown in formula (a). Considering Machleit
et al.’s (1994) definition of retail crowding, and the results of factor
analysis, the three factors were named as follows: F′1, social restriction;
F′2, space-size restriction; and F′3, shopping-convenience restriction Fig. 2. Mean analysis of retail crowding.
(cf. Reimers, 2014) —which are deemed closely related to “shopping-
convenience” as a salient determinant of store patronage for customers. formulated:
The sum was named F’T for overall restriction. These naming rules were
applied to subsequent data inspections. H1. The differences in F’T (overall restriction) between different
shopping malls are significant.
22.965 22.690 21.960
FT= F1 + F2 + F3 = F 1 + F 2 + F 3 H2. The differences in F′1 (social restriction) between different
67.345 67.345 67.345
(a) shopping mall are significant.
H3. The differences in F′2 (space-size restriction) between different
shopping mall are significant.
4.2. Crowding difference caused by circulation layout
H4. The differences in F′3 (shopping-convenience restriction) between
Based on the theory of psychological reactance, any potential set- different shopping malls are significant.
tings or designs that block the shopping process are considered to cause
The differenption were compared using repeated-measures ANOVA
retail crowding (cf. Machleit et al., 1994; Lee et al., 2011; Van Rompay
(Table 9), because the experiment used a within-subjects design, and
et al., 2012; Mehta, 2013). Accordingly, oral feedback from the parti-
hence the content between the virtual scenes was correlated. Further,
cipants was a great inspiration for our work. Most respondents stated
according to the results of Mauchly spherical test on F′3, P < 0.05,
that the linear circulation layout provided the most comfortable ex-
which did not meet the requirements of the covariance matrix spherical
perience. They exhibited a relatively high level of curiosity and ex-
test, therefore, the Greenhouse-Geisser method was used to correct the
ploration of the linear form because they could not see the edges of the
results (Gravetter and Forzano, 2018).
unknown area ahead. Too, the linear form brought about the most
According to the results: there is a significant difference between
comfortable population density and spatial size perception. In contrast,
F′1, F′2, F′3 and F’T in all three shopping malls at a significance level of
subjects had the lowest satisfaction with the radial line layout. In par-
p = 0.01. Therefore, all four original hypotheses (H1, H2, H3, and H4)
ticular, some pointed out that at an intersection, they found it bur-
are supported. In other words, circulation layout significantly affects
densome to choose their shopping route. Furthermore, some subjects
consumer retail-crowding perception.
stated that when multiple edges or multiple outlets for space were si-
For a comprehensive comparison and an intuitive observation, we
multaneously visible, the shopping mall felt narrow. In summary, the
used the mean analysis method to calculate average values for F′1, F′2,
subjects mistakenly believed that some variables such as spatial size
F′3, and F’T for the 120 subjects for the three shopping malls (Fig. 2).
and number of individuals were totally different between the three
As shown in Fig. 2, first, the values for social, space-size, and
shopping malls. To verify whether the difference in retail-crowding
shopping-convenience restrictions are most significant in shopping mall
perception is significant between the three malls, four hypotheses were

Table 9
Retail crowding differences in various circulation forms.
Retail crowding restriction (F′) Mauchly's test of sphericity Sphericity assumed Greenhouse-Geisser

Approx. Chi-Square Sig F Sig. F Sig.

Social restriction (F′1) 2.28 0.32 16.91 0.00** – –

Space-size restriction (F′2) 1.19 0.55 26.11 0.00** – –
Shopping-convenience restriction (F′3) 5.05 0.08 – – 14.17 0.00**
Overall restriction (F’T) 1.21 0.55 64.46 0.00** – –

**p < 0.01.

312
S. Park and S. Zhang
Table 10
Mean differences among all 13 variables for the three shopping malls.
Item Mean difference Item Mean difference
A-B A-C B-C A-B
X1 1.30** 0.67** −0.63** X6 0.97**
X2 1.10** 0.57* −0.53** X7 0.87**
X3 0.87** 0.57* −0.30 X8 1.17**
X4 1.60** 1.93** 0.33* X9 −0.50*
X5 0.80** 0.80** 0.00 X10 1.43**
*p < 0.05. **p < 0.01.
A. Accordingly, it may be presumed that the radial layout form creates
the most apparent sense of retail crowding. Second, although shopping
malls B and C are similar in their overall restrictions (i.e., there was no
statistically significant difference) relative to shopping mall C, shopping
mall B had a significantly lower level of social restrictions, scoring
substantially higher than shopping mall C in spatial restriction, too.
4.3. Compositions of crowding difference caused by circulation layout
Significantly, malls B and C scored similarly in terms of shopping-
convenience restrictions (Fig. 2). Accordingly, we were curious to de-
termine whether the component of shopping-convenience restrictions
(e.g., X8, Store layout; X9, lighting conditions; X12, shopping smooth-
ness; and X13, time pressure) revealed a similarity in scores between
malls B and C. In other words, although some factors have similar
overall scores, there may be significant differences in the scores of
specific items included. In addition, some factors vary widely in overall
scores, but the specific items may feature similar ones. For a more in-
depth exploration of ways in which circulation layout shapes retail
crowding, a paired sample t-test (a post hoc analyses) was conducted
between the thirteen specific items in the three shopping malls.
The results (Table 10) reveal a significant difference in the scores of
X9 (lighting conditions) between malls B and C, at a significance level
of p = 0.01. But not for X8 (Store layout), X12 (shopping smoothness),
or X13 (time pressure).
Of two other discoveries, first, although social restrictions for malls
B and C proved to be significantly different, according to the results of
paired sample t-test, there is no significant difference in consumers’
perceptions of X3 (viewable range) and X11 (ventilation conditions),
while the differences of X1 (perceived population density), X2 (social
interaction), and X10 (noise level) between malls B and mall C are
significant. Second, the difference in scores for specific items was sig-
nificant between the three malls: perceptions of population density (X1)
and channel length (X7) at a significance level of p = 0.01; and social
interaction (X2), aisle area (X4), lighting conditions (X9), and ambient
noise (X10) at a significance level of p = 0.05. In other words, circu-
lation layout significantly affects the scores of these items, indirectly
causing a difference in retail-crowding perception. Conversely, if the
mall adopts a certain circulation layout shown in this paper, these six
items should receive special attention for retail crowd management.
5. Results and discussion
Our work mainly addressed two issues: the examination of whether
circulation layout affects retail crowding, and the exploration of the
specific way circulation layout shapes retail crowding.
This study supports the following three conclusions. First, the cir-
culation layout can significantly affect retail crowding. Generally, the
radial form of a mall causes the most apparent crowding, follow by
linear and annular shapes. In particular, the radial form is confirmed to
show the highest scores not only for all three dimensions of retail
crowding (social, space-size, and shopping-convenience restrictions)
but also in all thirteen scaled items, while the linear form creates the
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Journal of Retailing and Consumer Services 49 (2019) 305–315
Item Mean difference
A-C B-C A-B A-C B-C
1.27** 0.30 X11 0.73** 1.07** 0.33
1.70** 0.83** X12 1.00** 1.07** 0.07
1.53** 0.37 X13 1.13∗∗ 0.97** −0.17
0.67** 1.17** – – – –
0.83** −0.60* – – – –
least social and shopping-convenience restrictions. In addition, the
annular form spawns the least space-size restriction. Second, the in-
teractions among social restrictions, space-size restrictions, and shop-
ping-conveniences restrictions collectively lead to retail crowding. This
triangular relationship is indispensable, i.e., people can hardly feel a
sense of retail crowding if shopping-convenience is fully guaranteed (by
providing green channels or VIP channels, etc.)—even in dense and
small-scale retail spaces. By the same token, if the other two dimensions
are fully alleviated, retail crowding will also be avoided. Third, circu-
lation layout shapes the three dimensions of retail crowding in different
ways. On the one hand, the circulation layout form affects consumers'
perceptions of space-size restrictions by influencing their perceptions of
the aisle area and channel length. On the other hand, the circulation
layout form affects consumers' perceptions of social-restriction per-
ceptions by influencing consumers' perceptions of population density
and social interactions. Moreover, circulation layout form affects con-
sumers' perceptions of shopping-convenience restrictions by influencing
consumers' perceptions of lighting conditions and ambient noise. In
other words, designers or mall operators can effectively adjust con-
sumer perceptions of such elements by altering the circulation layout,
thus fine-tuning even further a consumer's retail-crowding perception.
5.1. Theoretical contributions
As its key theoretical contribution, this study provides the first
empirical evidence of the influence of circulation layout on retail
crowding by comparing three shopping malls with different circulation
layouts. Although circulation is suggested to concern crowding (Li
et al., 2017; Liu et al., 2018; Dogu and Erkip, 2000; Lee et al., 2011;
Mehta, 2013), in the retail industry, the relevant theory lacks empirical
research. This study bridges that gap.
Another contribution is the three-dimensional construction of retail
crowding discovered in this study, which was a departure from some
researchers’ view of retail crowding as a unidimensional (e.g., Eroglu
and Machleit, 1990; Hui and Bateson, 1991; Yüksel, 2009) or a two-
dimensional (e.g., Machleit et al., 1994; Eroglu et al., 2005a; Lucia-
Palacios et al., 2018) construct. After comparing, we reasonably sug-
gested that each dimension of retail crowding shows different char-
acteristics. First, compared to social and spatial size restrictions, the
components of the shopping-convenience restriction (i.e., lighting
conditions, store layout, shopping smoothness, and time pressure) seem
flexible and variable enough to be adequately adjusted through some
design or marketing means. Second, the components of the social-re-
striction dimension (i.e., the number of consumers and the degree of
social interaction) are highly subjective and uncontrollable, and thus
difficult to manipulate through design. However, the components of
spatial size restriction (i.e., spatial length, width, height, and area) are
of a relatively permanent nature.
Last but not least, this study is the first to apply virtual roaming
technology to retail crowding-related research, thereby providing new
ideas for future research. Compared with traditional experimental data
collection methods (e.g., field research, slides or video playback), vir-
tual roaming not only effectively controls for nonexperimental factors
S. Park and S. Zhang
within a reasonable range, but actually enhances the participants’ ex-
periences, thus validating the experimental data obtained.
5.2. Managerial implications
Due to the differences in retail-crowding perceptions caused by
different circulation layout forms, we reasonably suggest that the three
layout forms are suitable for different retail spaces. First, even though
the radial circulation mall layout resulted in the most ostensible
crowding perception, we cannot assert its inability to improve the
consumer experience in any or all design cases. In some special occa-
sions, for instance, a retail space with a large area but small passenger
flow (upscale department stores or shopping malls), the radial line
layout is a good choice because the crowding problems it presents are
negligible, and a proper degree of consumer density and associated
shopping ambience may be helpful for improving shopping experience
(Lucia-Palacios et al., 2018). Second, when a retail space with a rela-
tively small spatial size and a large population density (e.g., transpor-
tation hubs such as subway stations, railway stations) uses an annular
circulation layout and increases its number of turning points appro-
priately, space-size perception can be effectively improved while re-
ducing population density perception. Third, since the linear layout
exhibits the least social and shopping-convenience restrictions, it may
indeed stimulate customers’ desire to explore. Therefore, the linear
form is probably suitable for large, experiential retail space with
storylines, such as furniture malls or themed restaurants.
In some retail spaces where crowding problems often occur (for in-
stance, underground shopping malls, retail outlets on pedestrian streets
or in a supermarket), if a certain circulation layout form becomes a
mandatory option for certain irresistible reasons, such as terrain condi-
tions, etc., the following three enhancements are suggested. First, if the
radial form has to be adopted, designers or mall managers should be
prudent to ensure whether all three dimensions of retail crowding have
been controlled within a relatively reasonable level through traditional
design methods (e.g., adjusting lighting and background music tempo,
reducing the aisle tables or the kiosks, or adding greening) or marketing
methods (e.g., adjusting prices and promotion timeframe, improving
service quality or providing a shopping guide). Second, if the linear form
is adopted, the most important thing to focus on is appropriately in-
creasing people's perception of space size by increasing the aisle width
and area, the height of the ceiling, or appropriately decorating or ob-
scuring the mall's exits in order to improve consumers' sense of immer-
sion. Further, although lighting conditions have been shown to sig-
nificantly affect people's perception of space (Boyce, 2014; Şener Yılmaz,
2018), the influence of space size on people's perception of lighting has
not been verified. Our findings indicate that when a retail space adopts a
linear circulation layout, it is necessary to pay attention to the lighting
layout or increase lighting to appropriate levels, thus improving the
shopping convenience. Third, if the annular layout is applied, the
shopping-convenience restriction becomes a critical issue for retail crowd
management. Such circumstances may be effectively alleviated by im-
proving lighting conditions, providing a soothing background tempo, or
adding auxiliary pathways to increase accessibility between stores.
5.3. Limitations and avenues for future research
Some limitations of this research should be acknowledged. Although
virtual roaming technology is considered to create a highly realistic
visual and auditory experience, the senses of touch and smell remain
absent, whereas in practical situations, consumers' sense of touch and
smell may affect the shopping experience. Since the three types of
circulation layout used during the experiment are primary types ob-
tained through abstraction, the scope of their practical application may
be limited. In other words, future research should conduct a more in-
depth exploration of the retail crowd management in cases of relatively
special or complex circulation layout forms.
314
Journal of Retailing and Consumer Services 49 (2019) 305–315
Acknowledgements
The authors would like to thank anonymous reviewers for their
valuable suggestions.
Appendix A. Supplementary data
Supplementary data to this article can be found online at https://
doi.org/10.1016/j.jretconser.2019.04.008.
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Soobeen Park is a professor in the Department of Interior & Environmental Design at
Pusan National University. She is working on subjects related to behavior studies and
color perception.
Shaoqing Zhang is pursuing a doctoral degree in the interior & environmental design
graduate program at Pusan National University. His research interests include human-
environment interactions, and sustainable design of the interior environment.