Condition Monitoring of

Power Transformers
 Need for
Transformer Condition Monitoring
• Expensive capital equipment
• Not easy to repair or replace
• Advanced computer aided design practices.
• Transformers operation.
• Condition Monitoring imperative.
• A corrective/preventive action can be initiated.
 Transformer Ageing
• Life of transformer depends on the
condition of insulation system (kraft
paper and oil) with time under impact of:
– Thermal stresses
– Electromagnetic stresses
– Electro-dynamic stresses
– Contamination and natural ageing processes
effecting the tensile strength of paper
 Transformer Ageing
• Rate of deterioration depends upon the
operating conditions - loading pattern,
incipient faults, maintenance

• Condition monitoring also enables to

estimate the residual life of the
transformer.
Poor Quality of
Design or
Materials or
Production or
Maintenance
Processes
results in …
failure of transformers
 Types of failures

 Infant failures: Early life failures are the

result of latent or delivered defects.
- Latent defects are abnormalities that
cause failure, depending on degree of
abnormality and amount of applied
stress.
- Delivered defects are those that escape
test / inspection within the factory
- They are directly proportional to total
defects in the entire processes.
 Types of failures

 Mid life failures: These are results of –

- Freak system disturbances
- Wrong specifications
- Poor maintenance
 Types of failures

 Old age failures: These are results of –

- Ageing of insulation system
- Wear & tear
COMPONENTS CAUSING FAILURE IN
SERVICE
Windings (29%)

Terminals (29%)

Tank & Dielctric

Fluid (13%)
Onload (13%)
Tapchanger
Magnetic Circuit
(11%)
Other
Accessories (5%)
 Transformer Failures
• The main causes of transformer
winding failures are due to:
– Moisture contamination and ageing which
cause the transformer internal dielectric
strength to decrease
– Damage to the winding or decompression
of the winding under short circuit forces
– Damage to the bushings caused by loss of
dielectric strength of materials.
 Types of Transformer Faults

• Mechanical Faults:
– Tank, fittings and accessories
– damaged porcelain insulators
– clogged oil piping, damaged gaskets
– mechanical damage of the windings.
 Types of Transformer Faults
• Electrical Faults:
– Low insulation resistance
– Punctured insulation between turns,
sections, windings and various high
potential points.
 Types of Transformer Faults
• Magnetic Faults:
– Abnormal heating
– Breakdown of insulation between
core laminations core fixtures and
clamping
– Non-uniform distribution of magnetic
flux.
 Reliability
• BS:4778/1991 Section 3.1 defines reliability
as ‘the characteristic of an item expressed by
the probability that it performs required
conditions for a stated period of time’.
• Reliability of a transformer is determined by:
– Design of transformer
– Quality of materials
– Quality of manufacturing processes
– Operation and maintenance
‘Why’ Condition Monitoring?
 Early detection of incipient faults
Avoid catastrophic outage
Provide basis for economic repair
decision
 Maintenance Management
Maintenance management based on
measurements and trend analysis
 Ageing process and residual life
under control
 Improve safety to personnel and
environment
 ‘Purpose’ ….
• Purpose of Condition Monitoring:
– Avoid forced outages
– Minimize failures
– Optimize maintenance costs
 Often used techniques
Tests To detect

DGA Ageing of oil, paper, hot spot, arcing or PD

Degree of Ageing of insulating paper

polymerization
Furfural Ageing of paper insulation

RVM Water content & ageing of insulation paper

Tan Delta Dielectric loss in insulation system due to

accumulation of polarizing materials
IR Value & Accumulation of polarization materials
Polarization Index
FRA Detects physical movement of windings

PD Deterioration of insulation system/able to detect some

localized defects
 ‘How’ Condition Monitoring
• Monitoring scheme must be:
– Simple
– Low cost
– Without disruption of power
• Data must be focused on results to:
– Prevent problems
– Define the severity of a problem
– Provide information to take action
– Provide on-line and off-line diagnostics
– Enable ‘trending’ of data
– Avoid intrusive maintenance
 ‘What’ to Monitor
• Winding resistance measurements
• Capacitance and tan δ
• Insulation Resistance (IR) and
Polarization Index (PI) measurements
• Oil parameters
• Dissolved Gas Analysis (DGA)
• Furfuraldehyde Analysis
• Degree of Polymerization (DP)
• Partial Discharge (PD) Measurements
• Frequency Response Analysis (FRA)
• Recovery Voltage Measurements
• Capacitance and tan δ for bushings
Winding Resistance Measurements

• Measure Resistance of all windings

• Compare with factory results
• Increase in Resistance indicates
– Loose joints - Leads to local hot spots and
eventual melting of joints
– Worn out contacts – Leads to contact
erosion
 Capacitance and tan δ of windings

• Measure Capacitance and tan δ of each pair of

windings and windings with respect to earth
• Compare with factory results
• It indicates healthiness of insulation system –
paper, press-board and oil
• Increase in tan δ indicates deterioration of
insulation system
– Contamination
– Moisture absorption
 Insulation Resistance (IR) and
Polarization Index (PI) measurements
• Measure IR and PI values of each winding
in pairs and with respect to earth
• Compare with factory results
• Lower values indicate poor insulation
system
PI (Ratio of 10 min to 1 min) Condition
Less than 1 Dangerous
1.0 – 1.1 Poor
1.1 – 1.25 Questionable
1.25 – 2.0 Fair
 Oil Parameters
Test Acceptable Questionable Unacceptable Purpose
BDV KV ≥ 30 29 - 25 < 25 Ability of oil to with
(ASTM D-877) stand electric stress
Interfacial ≥ 32.0 31.9 - 28 < 27.9 Measures tension
tension Nm/m between oil & water
(ASTM D971) layer. Used to detect
polar contamination
and insulating ageing
Neutralization < 0.05 0.06 – 0.10 > 0.10 Acidic compounds
No mgKOH/g produced by oxidation
(ASTM D974) of oil and degradation
of solid insulation
Color ASTM D ≤ 3.5 -- > 3.5 Visual indication of
1500 & 1524 serious contamination
or degradation
Dissipation Healthiness of
factor At 250C < 0.1% 0.1 – 0.3% > 0.30% insulation system
At 1000C < 2.99% 3.0 – 3.99% > 3.0%
 Oil Parameters
• Moisture Content:
Permissible limits of water in oil:
Less than 72.5 KV 25 ppm
72.5 – 145 KV 20 ppm
Above 145 KV 10 ppm
• Resistivity and Tan δ IS 335 IS 1866
Permissible values
Resistivity ohm-cm at 900c 35 x 1012 1 x 1012
Tan δ at 900c 0.002 0.05
 Dissolved Gas Analysis (DGA)
• Transformer insulating oils consist of
different hydrocarbon molecules.
• Splitting some of the hydrocarbon bonds
occur due to electrical and thermal faults,
forming gases –
– Hydrogen
– Methane (CH4)
– Ethane (C2H6)
– Ethylene (C2H4)
– Acetylene (C2H2).
 Dissolved Gas Analysis (DGA)
• Low energy faults (like Partial Discharges)
sufficient to split weak H-C bonds result in
hydrogen as main gas.
• Higher temperatures are needed for splitting
C-C bonds.
• Higher temperatures result in
– Ethane, methane and ethylene at 5000C.
– Acetylene requires temperatures 800 - 12000C.
• Carbon particles form at 500 to 8000C and are
observed after arcing in oil or around very
hot spots.
 Dissolved Gas Analysis (DGA)
The condition for formation of key gases by
the degradation of cellulose and oil :
Material Condition Key gas
Cellulose Overheated >1500C CO, CO2 and H2O

Oil Overheated 3000C ≈10000C Methane (CH4),

Ethane (C2H6)
Ethylene(C2H4)
Organic acids
Oil Electrical stress (Partial Hydrogen (H2)
discharge) Arcing to 10000C Acetylene (C2H2)
 Dissolved Gas Analysis (DGA)
Categories of key gases and general fault conditions

General fault condition Key gases

Thermal condition Methane, Ethane, Ethylene,
involving the oil and small amount of Acetylene
Partial Discharge Hydrogen, Methane and small
amount of Acetylene and
Ethylene
Sustained arcing Hydrogen, Acetylene and
Ethylene
Thermal condition Carbon Monoxide and Carbon
involving the paper Dioxide
 Dissolved Gas Analysis (DGA)
CIGRE Method (Electra No. 186, Oct 99) - Key gas concentration and indication:

Characteristic gas Concentration (ppm) Indication

C2H2 > 20 Power discharge
H2 > 100 Partial discharge
∑CxHy > 1000 Thermal fault
> 500
COx > 10000 Cellulose digradation
Gas Concentration ratios
Ratio Value Indication
C2H2/C2H6 >1 Discharge
H2/CH4 > 10 Partial discharge
CO2/CO > 10 Cellulose overheating
<3 Cellulose degradation
C2H2/H2 > 2 (with C2H2 > 30) Fault gases from OLTC
 Dissolved Gas Analysis (DGA)
Method recommended by
Electrical Technology Research Association
1000
A A: Arc Discharge
100
B: Discharge
C2H2
10 C: Partial discharge
B
C2H6 D: Overheating > 7000C
1.0
or heating + discharge
E: Over heating < 3000C

0.1 C D F: Over heating

3000C – 7000C
0.01 G: Overheating > 7000C

E F G

0.1 1.0 4 10 100 1000

C2H4/C2H6
 Dissolved Gas Analysis (DGA)
Roger’s Method
Ratio Evaluation
CH4/H2 C2H6/CH4 C2H4/C2H6 C2H2/C2H4
0 0 0 0 If CH4/H2<0.1, PD
otherwise normal ageing
1 0 0 0 Slight overheating below 1500C
1 1 0 0 Slight overheating 150 – 2000C
0 1 0 0 Slight overheating 200 – 3000C
0 0 1 0 General conductor overheating
1 0 1 0 Circulating current/overheated joints
0 0 0 1 Flashover without power flow
0 1 0 1 OLTC Selector breaking current
0 0 1 1 Arc with power flow through or
persistent sparking.

Ratios < 1 are designated as ‘0’ ; Ratios > 1 are designated as ‘1’
 DGA - IEC : 599 Method
Code of range of
Ratios
C2H2/ CH4/ C2H4/
C2H4 H2 C2H6
Ratios of Characteristic gases
< 0.1
0.1 – 1 0 1 0
1-3 1 0 0
>3 1 2 1
2 2 2
Case No Characteristic fault Typical examples
0 No fault 0 0 0 Normal ageing
1 PD of low energy density 0 1 0 Discharges in gas-filled cavities resulting from
incomplete impregnation or super-
Saturation or cavitation or high humidity
2 PD of high energy density 1 1 0 As above, but leading to tracking or perforation
of solid insulation
3 Discharges of low energy (See 1→2 0 1→2 Continuous sparking in oil between bad
note 1) connections of different potential or to floating
potential. Breakdown coils to earth. Selector
breaking current
4 Discharge of high energy 1 0 2 Discharges with power follow-through. Arcing –
breakdown of oil between windings or coils to
earth. Selector breaking current.
5 Thermal fault of low temp. 0 0 1 General insulated conductor overheating.
<1500C (See bite 2)
6 Thermal fault of low temp. 0 2 0 Local overheating of the core due to
range 150–3000C. (See note 3) concentration of flux. Increasing hot spot
7 Thermal fault of medium temp. 0 2 1 temperatures; varying from small hot spots in
300 – 7000C core, shorting links in core, overheating of
8 Thermal fault of high temp. 0 2 2 copper due to eddy currents, bad contacts/joints
> 7000C (See note 4) up to core and tank circulating currents
 DGA - IEC : 599 Method
Notes:
1. For the purpose of this table, C2H2/C2H4 to rise
from a value between 0.1 and 3 to above 3 and the
ratio C2H4/C2H6 from a value between 0.1 and 3 to
above 3 as the spark develops in intensity.
2. In this case the gases come mainly from the
decomposition of the solid insulation, this explains
the value of the ratio C2H4/C2H6.
3. This fault condition is normally indicated by
increasing gas concentrations. Ratio CH4/H2 is
normally about 1; the actual value above or below
unity is dependent on many factors such as design
of oil preservation system, actual level of
temperature and oil quality.
4. An increasing value of the amount of C2H2 may
indicate that the hot point temperature is higher
than 10000C.
 Dissolved Gas Analysis (DGA)
Acceptable limits of Dissolved Gases (Trafo-Tech 2006)
Gases in PPM Age of transformer in years
0 - 5 6 - 10 11 - 15 > 15
Hydrogen 100 100 100 100
Carbon Dioxide 9000 9000 9000 15000
Carbon 500 700 1500 1500
Monoxide
Methane 70 70 200 200
Ethane 40 40 200 200
Ethylene 40 100 200 200
Acetylene 10 10 20 50
 Dissolved Gas Analysis (DGA)
• Limitations of the DGA:
– It cannot detect the incipient faults
– Values measured are the average values
over a period of time.
• On line monitoring of H2 is quite popular.
• Sensors have also been developed for
on-line monitoring of CO, CO2 and C2H2.
 Furfuraldehyde Analysis
• Prolonged action of heat on cellulose paper causes
de-polymerization, which is aggravated by presence of
moisture, forming furanic compounds.
• Thermal degradation of oil-paper insulation system
yields different amounts of furanic derivatives, the
most common being 2-furfuraldehyde.
• Such deterioration of paper on winding conductor can
be assessed by subjecting the paper to various tests.
• Windings of oil filled transformers are not accessible.
Can be accessed after draining oil which is a tedious
process.
• The furfural derivatives produced due to degradation
of paper dissolve in oil.
 Furfuraldehyde Analysis
• Hence, the chemical analysis of transformer oil gives
the evidence of changes that are taking place in the
winding during normal operation.
• The main advantage of using furan analysis as a
diagnostic tool is that these compounds are
degradation products specific to paper and can not be
produced by oil.
• It has been estimated that new paper under normal
running conditions will generate furfural at the rate of
1.7 ng/g of paper/hour. The rate of production increases
with increasing degree of degradation to 0.5 mg/g of
paper in about 100,000 hours or 15-20 years.
 Furfuraldehyde Analysis
• Elevated temperatures or presence of
oxygen or water increase this rate. The
limits of detection of furfural are about
0.02 mg/l of oil.
• Acceptable levels of furfural in
transformer oil:
– <0.1 mg/l – acceptable;
– >0.1 mg/l – questionable and
– 0.25 mg/l – unacceptable.
Degree of Polymerization (DP)
• Paper insulation of conductor is subjected
the maximum operating temperature
• Life of transformer depends on the extent of
degradation of conductor insulation.
• DP closely relates to the mechanical
properties of paper. Life of paper is
considered to have been expired once tensile
strength of paper drops to approximately 50
to 60% of initial tensile strength which is
reached when DP reaches a level of nearly
20% of the initial degree of polymerization.
Degree of Polymerization (DP)
• Computation of the percentage
remaining life is calculated by:
% Remnant life = {(DP-200)x100}
(1200-200)
The new paper has a DP of 1200 and
end of life is found to be 200.
Degree of Polymerization (DP)
• Another method used is to measure the
specific viscosity of a solution of paper in
cupriethylene diamine. From this, the
intrinsic viscosity of the solution is
calculated by:
ns = (Viscosity of paper solution – viscosity
of solvent) / Viscosity of solvent.
The degree of polymerisation is calculated
from the intrinsic viscosity using Martin’s
tables.
Degree of Polymerization (DP)
• The correlation between the furfural
content and the DP value and the
residual life is given by the formulae:
Log (fur) = 1.51 – 0.0035DP
Log (fur) = -1.83 + 0.058T where T is
the residual life.
Degree of Polymerization (DP)
Correlation between furan concentration and DP
Total furan level (ppb) Range of DP Recommended retest
period (months)

100 444-1200 12

101-250 333-443 6

251-1000 237-332 3

1001-2500 217-236 1

>2500 <217 Failure likely

 Partial Discharge measurements (PD)

• Partial Discharge is a localized electrical

discharge that only partially bridges the
insulation between conductors.
• It partially ruptures insulation without
complete flashover or breakdown.
• PD is caused by:
– Improper processing of transformer
– Presence of moisture
– Solid impurities in oil
– Gas bubbles in oil
– Delamination of press-boards
– Voids between glued components
– Bad connection of electrostatic shields
 Partial Discharge measurements (PD)

• Location of PD is by: (IEC: 60270)

– Acoustic Detection
– Electrical location
• Narrow band method or Radio Interference
Voltage method (Range 10 KHz).
• Wide-band method measured in pico-coulombs
(pC) (Range 50 to 400 KHz)
• Identifying location of PD needs skill
and expertise.
 Partial Discharge measurements (PD)
PD Level and their Critical Stages (as per CIGRE WG 12.18)
Classification to be developed to support caution and Critical Stages and Alarms
alarm levels
Dielectric Condition PD Levels Caution Alarm levels
Levels
Defect-free 10-50 pC First warning First fault
signal: signal:
Normal deterioration < 500 pC q >500-1000 q >> 2500 pC
pC
Poor impregnation 1000 – 2000 pC

Long term destructive 2500 pC in paper Signal of Critical

ionization >10,000pC in oil defective condition:
Large (3-5 mm in dia) 1000 – 10,000 pC condition: q >> 1,00,000
air/gas bubbles in oil q > 1000 – – 10,00,000
2500 pC pC
Paper moisture upto 3-4% 2000-4000 pC and
and relevant level in oil reduction of PD
inception voltage by 20%
 Frequency Response Analysis (FRA)

• Dielectric faults may be caused by

mechanical displacements occurring during
– transportation,
– short circuit forces or
– inadequate processing during manufacturing
causing shrinkage of windings during service.
• Such changes can not be detected by DGA
or any other tests.
• FRA is easy to perform in the field and
provide reliable indication of mechanical
condition of transformer.
Frequency Response Analysis (FRA)

• The transformer is isolated from the system

and the impedance or admittance of the
transformer is measured as a function of the
frequency (2 KHz or 20 KHz or 2 MHz).
• This gives a ‘fingerprint’ of the transformer.
• This test is repeated over time and the
‘fingerprints’ are compared.
Recovery Voltage Measurements
• RVM method is used to detect the condition of
oil-paper insulation and the water content in the
insulation.
• It relies on the principle of the interfacial polarization
of composite dielectric materials, i.e., the build-up of
space charges at the interfaces of oil-paper
insulation due to impurities and moisture.
• A dc voltage is applied to the insulation for a time.
The electrodes are then short-circuited for a short
period of time after which the short-circuit is
removed to examine the rate of the voltage build-up
or the polarization profile. The time constant
associated with this peak recovery voltage gives an
indication of the state of the insulation.
Recovery Voltage Measurements
• The main parameters derived from the
polarization spectrum are the maximum
value of the recovery voltage, the time to
peak value and the initial rate of rise of the
recovery.
• This method is very controversial as to its
suitability for direct measurement of
moisture content in the oil, due to the strong
dependence of the results on the geometry,
construction of the insulation system of the
transformer.
 Capacitance and tan δ
for Bushings
• Capacitance and tan δ measurements of
condenser bushings give indication of the
condition of the insulation in the bushing.
• A new bushing will have a tan δ value less
than 0.5%
• Capacitance value of bushing in service need
to be compared with factory test result value
for deciding the extent of degradation.
 Capacitance and tan δ
for Bushings
 High Tan delta (between0.007 and 0.01):
Ingress of moisture in bushing insulation
 Very High Tan delta (Beyond 0.01):
High humidity, Strong ageing of insulation
 Low Tan delta: Weak Potential connection
 High Capacitance: Partial Breakdown.
Suggested periodicity of diagnostic tests

Test Periodicity

IR/PI, BDV, Tan δ of oil and One year

winding capacitance & Tan δ
Bushing capacitance & Tan δ

Dissolve Gas Analysis

Winding resistance

Water ppm Half year

 To conclude …
• Quality and Reliability are a measure of the
availability of the transformer for continuous
operation throughout its stipulated life time.
• It is highly dependent upon the design and
manufacture of the transformer, its materials
and construction. It is also dependent on
proper erection & commissioning and
subsequent maintenance at site.
• In essence, it is a function of the interactions
between the transformer and system.