SHORT PAPERS AND CLASSROOM NOTES 141

REFERENCES
[11 R. Stein, 'Coincidence of poles and zeros, IEEE Trans Education, vol. E-8,
pp. 21-22, March 1965.
[2] N. Ahmed, 'Coincidence of poles and zeros,' IEEE Trans. Education (Cor-
respondence), vol. E-8, pp. 79 81, June-September 1965.
[3] R. Stein, T. S. Huang, and P. Naslin, 'Coincidence of poles and zeros," IEEE
Trans Education (Correspondence), vol. E-9, pp. 39-40, March 1966.
[4] H. M. Power. "Coincidence of poles and zeros," IEEE Trans Education (Cor-
respondence), vol. E-9, p. 129, June 1966.
[5] C. M. Close, The Analysis of Linear Circuits. New York: Harcourt, Brace &
World, 1966.
[61 G. A. Etzweiler and S. A. Steele, "The Laplace transformation of the impulse
function for engineering problems," IEEE Trans Education (Short Papers),
vol. E-10, pp. 171-173, September 1967.
[7] C. A. Desoer and E. S. Kuh, Basic Circuit Theory, vol. 2 (preliminary edition).
New York: McGraw-Hill, 1967.
[81 M. E. Van Valkenburg, Network Analysis. Englewood Cliffs, N. J.: Prentice-
Hall, 1964.
[9] D. K. Cheng, Analysis of Linear Systems. Reading, Mass.: Addison-Wesley,
1959.
101 H. H. Skilling, Electrical Engineering Circuits. New York: Wiley. 1965.
z-Transform Analysis of Sampled-Data Control
Systems Without Reference to
Impulse Functions
DEVELOPMENT
The z-transform method of analysis is applicable to sampled-data
control systems in which sampling is accomplished by a sample and
hold element. The block diagram of a sample and hold element is
shown in Fig. 1. The sample and hold element examines the amplitude
e(t) | sampler and c(t)
data-hold device
Fig. 1. Sampler and data-hold device.
of the input signal e(t) at selected instants of time and computes the
output signal c(t) from this information by a predetermined extrap-
olation scheme. If e(t) exhibits a discontinuity at sampling instant
ti, then the value of e(tl+) is used as the sampled value of e(ts). Note
that if the extrapolation scheme is to be physically realizable, the
output c(ti) for any time ts must be determined entirely from the
sampled values of e(t) for t <ti.
For the case of periodic sampling, the output of a general linear
extrapolator during the nth sampling interval can be expressed as
c,(t) = {e(nT)[l + go(t- nT)] + e[(n - l)T]gl(t-nT) + * * -

C. L. PHILLIPS, MEMBER, IEEE, D. L. CHENOWETH,
AND R. K. CAVIN, III
Abstract-The z-transform method of analysis of sampled-data
control systems is developed without the usual references to impulse
functions. It is felt that this development is desirable for an intro-
ductory course in sampled-data control systems, since the student is
not given the impression that z-transform analysis is dependent on
+ e[(n - m)T]gm(t - nT)} {(t - nT) - u[i - (n + 1)T]}, (1)
nT < t < (n + 1)T,
where g(t), i = 1, 2, * m, is the response of the extrapolator to the
sample e[(n-i)T].
Note that this expression for c.(t) is simply the superposition of a
set of weighted responses for all past samples of e(t) from (n-m)T
to nT. Each of the functions gi(t-nT), i O, 1, * , rm, is zero when =

an assumption of the existence of imnpulse functions. Further, this t=nT. The input signal e(t) is extrapolated in this manner because
development is more rigorous, since the mathematical difficulties of the practical desirability of having c(nT) =e(nT) for all n.
associated with the impulse functions are avoided. Then, at any time t O<t< o, c(t) is given by
00

INTRODUCTION c(t) = Z Cn(t).

-n=O
(2)
When the student is first introduced to the z-transform analysis
of sampled-data control systems, quite often he is left with the im- The Laplace transform of cn(t) is
pression that this method of analysis is approximate and cannot 1 -CTs
always be trusted to give accurate results. This impression can be C.(s) = e(nT) ]e nTa + E e[(n - k)T]Gk(s)e FnT
S k=O
traced to two sources. First, the z-transform is usually related to (3)
impulse functions in the time domain, and the student knows that -,e[(n -k) T]2 Igk(t -nT)u[t -(n + 1) T]}
k=O
impulse functions cannot exist in a physical system. Second, in many
textbooks on sampled-data control systems, the relationship of the Since
impulse functions of the z-transform to physical systems is justified 21{k(0- nT)u[t - (n + 1)T]7 = e nT42I{gk(t)U(t -T) (4)
by stating that, under certain conditions, the impulse function is a
good approximation to a finite-width pulse. This statement is true; (3) can be written as
however, it is unnecessary and misleading in considering sampled-data
control systems in which each sampler is followed by a data hold. Cn(s) = e(nT)e $, -: Fs}
A method of introducing the z-transform analysis of sampled- m (5)
data systems is presented here which circumvents the two problems + , e[(n - k)T]eCnT.{Gk(s) - £[gk(t)u(t - T)]}.
stated above. In particular, it is shown that the impulse functions k=O

usually related to the z-transform do not appear (and not are stated Then, from (2) and (5), we obtain
to appear) in the models of physical systems. Instead it is shown that
these impulses functions are a mathematical convenience. Further, C(S) = 2[c(t)] = E Cn(s)
it is shown that if data holds are present in the control system (which n=O
is usually the case [1]), the z-transform method of analysis is exact. =[~ ]e(nT)Cn8Ts
2
If data holds are not present in the system, the z-transform method S n=O
(6)
of analysis is approximate, and must be used with care. Finally, all m oo
of the important aspects of z-transform analysis of sampled-data + E
k-0
{Gk(s) - £[gk(t)u(t T)]} n-0
E e[(n -k)T] C.T.
-

control systems are developed without reference to impulse func-

tions. It is felt that this development is superior to existing develop- In the expression
ments in that the students are not given the impression that z-trans-
form analysis is dependent on the assumption of the presence of im- E e[(n -k)T]CnT.,
n-0
pulse fulnctions.
let (n-k) -p. Then
co 0
Manuscript received November 18, 1967.
The authors are with the Department of Electrical Engineering, Auburn Uni-
versity, Auburn, Ala. 36830
E
n-0
e[(n k)T]InT-
= F, e(pT)613P+k)F
pp-k
co
=
e-kTF,
p-0
e(pT)-PT, (7)

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 ~1
142 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON EDUCATION, JUNE 1968

since e(t) =0 for t <0. The substitution of (7) into (6) yields and, therefore,
-e-T+ m
C(s +
Sk=O
E e-kT.jGk(S) - [gk (t) u( T)]} e(nT) = f E(X)e7TXdX. (15)
(8)
E e(nT)eCnTs If e(t) is discontinuous at t =nT, (15) becomes [3]
n=O
e(nT+) + e(nT-) 1 rJ iE(
Define
C Ts m
2 27j J10 E(X)enT)'Xd (16)
Gh(s) A
S
+1
k=O
(ekTe | Gk(S) -C [gk(t)u(t T)-]} (9) Thus, from (16), e(nT+) can be expressed as
Then (8) can be expressed as 1
e(nT+) = -|i
2
E(7)nTXdX +
~~~Ae(nT)
(17)
27rj c-j.o 2
C(s) = GA(s) , e(nT)CnTi. (10)
n=O where
Equation (10) is the expression for the output of the sampler and Ae(nT) = e(nT+) - e(nT-), (18)
data hold. Thus far no mention has been made of the assumption of the amplitude of the discontinuity of e(t) at t =nT. From (17),
impulse functions present as signals in Fig. 1. However, since Gh(S)
is independent of e(t), and the summation rC+j Ae (n T)
e(nT+)ecnTs = E(X) 7nT(-))dX + _nT (19)
2 rJ c-j, 2
E e(nT)eCnT
n=O For the general case that e(t) may be discontinuous at any sampling
is dependent only on e(t) and the sampling period T, then (10) de- instant, the substitution of (19) into (11) yields
scribes the system of Fig. 2, as well as that of Fig. 1. In Fig. 2, E*(s)
E*(s)
2t cjo
E(X) ,
n=O
nT(8-)dX +
n=O 2
nTs_ (20)
E (s)
E*(S)-Gs) -C (s)
-
For e-T(vA)j <1

data hold
(21)
Fig. 2. Impulse modulator and data hold. n=O 1 - -

The substitution of (21) into (20) gives

is defined, from (10), as
Ir C±jf 1 ( + e(nT)
E* (s) =
E(X) CT(-)d tnT, (22)
2 rrj
E*(s) -E e(nT)e nT.
n=O
(11) -j1o n- 2

The integral in (22) is evaluated [6] by integrating around either of

In the analysis of sampled-data control systems, it has been found the paths r1 or r2, shown in Fig. 3. Evaluating the integral around
more convenient to use the equivalent system of Fig. 2 rather than ri by using Cauchy's residue theorem [6] yields
the actual system of Fig. 1. It is possible to analyze sampled-data
control systems considering only the terminal characteristics of the 1 c+jO 1 1 X
E(X) dX) = T E E(s + jn.). (23)
system of Fig. 1 [2]. The device of Fig. 2 labeled IM is generally
called an impulse modulator or an ideal sampler. By definition, the
Laplace transform of the output of the ideal sampler is given by (11) Substitution of (23) into (22) yields the desired relationship,
when the input is e(t). It is to be emphasized that the ideal sampler 0l
is not stated to be an approximation to a physical sampler. Instead, E*(s) =

Tn-71
T E(s + j]l.) + E
n=0
Ae(nT)
(

2
-T
(24)
the ideal sampler is a mathematical fiction that occurs through a
factoring of (10). If the integral of (22) is evaluated using the r2 path, the result is
The inverse Laplace transform of (11) yields impulse functions
in the time domain. It is noted that this signal does not appear (and
is not stated to appear) in the physical system. Thus the use of this Imaginary
plane
expression does not imply the existence of impulse functions in X-

physical systems. Of course, the z-transform of the signal e(t) is

obtained from (11); i.e.,
E(z) = E*(s) i|=(1/T) In, =f, e(nT)z-n.
n=O
(12) x

x poles of
PROPERTIES OF Z-TRANSFORM ANALYSIS
The z-transform is defined as in (12), where, if e(t) is discon- I Real
tinuous at t=nT, then e(nT+) is used [3]. The important properties
of z-transform analysis of sampled-data control systems will now be I
developed without reference to impulse functions. I x
xi
First the relationship [4] x

0l Ae(nsT)
E*(s) =- , E(s +jnw.) + , _nTsT (13)
T n=-oo n=o 2 x

will be derived. In (13), Ae(nT) is the amplitude of a discontinuity

of e(t) at t =nT. If E(s) is the Laplace transform of e(t), then [5]

e(t)= 1I
2rj rc+jll
cjx E (X)etXdX (14)
Fig. 3. Paths of contour integration.

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SHORT PAPERS AND CLASSROOM NOTES 143
is unnecessary when studying the z-transform. It is felt that this con-
1E( -eT(x) dX
2irj)153 (25) cept is also undesirable, since it quite often leaves students with the
impression that z-transform analysis is approximate.
ETAe(nT) E
__
2
+ E residues of [E(X) T Here, a general approach has been taken for the development of
n=O poles of-e z-transform analysis methods. However, it has been found that in
E(O)
an introductory course students develop better insight into the
This can be seen by using the form of the integral in (20) and noting s-transform if a simplified version of these developments is presented.
that along the infinite semicircle of r2, In particular, in (1) it is assumed that the data hold is a zero-order
lim [XE(X))eTXEnTo] = zAe(nT)e nTs. (26) hold. Then, in (13), e(t) is assumed to be continuous everywhere ex-
cept possibly at t = 0. By making these two assumptions, the student
This result is proved in the Appendix. Then (24) can also be ex- is spared the more complex mathematical details, and thus obtains
pressed as a better perspective of the overall development.
E*(s) po= of residues of [E(X)
1
(27) APPENDIX
o(f
poles
x(X)
(A) Equation (26) will now be derived. The general tenn of the in-
tegral of (20) can be expressed as
PULSE TRANSFER FUNCTION nTs c+j1 -ni-nTa 'nTs
- I E(X)enTVd;X - 3[ E(X)eT"dX - . E(X)eT'd, (36)
The final property of z-transform analysis to be developed with- 2rj o 2 r2 2rj
out reference to impulse functions is the pulse transfer function. where the path r2 refers to Fig. 3, and the second integral on the
Consider the system of Fig. 4, where the switches are used to indicate right side of (36) is taken around the infinite semicircle of r2. On
this semicircle, X can be expressed as
J c(s) X = R&0,
with X (and R) arbitrarily large. The second integral of (36) can be
E(s) / E*(s) expressed as
-L
~ 0-> G(s)
T
Fig. 4. Sampled-data systems.
C(s) eni'scnT
2w]
= f-nTa
cn8 *-r12
E(X)eTXa-A =
-1

2w] w/2
E(R,-i)e#TRcjjRe0O. (37)
Consider the right side of (37). It is desired to evaluate
ideal sampling. It is desired to derive C(z) as a function of E(z), n-nTs ~- o12
where E(S) is given by (12). It is assumed that the transfer function 2r w/2 R-oo
lim [RiSOE(ReA)enTRj8dOl. (38)
of the data hold is included in G(s). Now
C(s) = G(s)E*(s) = G(s)[e(O) + e(T)e-Ts + . . . J To evaluate this integral, let
(28)
Denoting f(t) = e(t + nT)u(t). (39)
g(t) 2-'[G(s)] Then
= (29)
(which is generally called the impulse response), the inverse Lal
transform of (28) is
F(s) = e(t + nT)e stdt. (40)
c(t) = e(O)g(t) + e(T)g(t T) + - (30)
* - -
. Let t+nT=X. Then (40) can be expressed as
Then F(s) = f e(X)c8(X-nT)dX (41)
c(nT) = e(O)g(nT) + e(T)g[(n - 1)T] + * * * + e(nT)g(O). (31) or
nT

C*(s) is seen to be
F(s) = tnTs { e(X)ec8xdX - e(X)EcxdX]. (42)
C*(s) E c(nT)nI's = e(O)g(O) + [e(O)g(T) + e(T)g(O)jeT (3
n=S (32) Then, replacing s with X in (42),
+ [e(0)g(2T) + e(T)g(T) + e(2T)g(O)E-2T. +
or F(X) = fTX'E(X) - enT f e(X)eXXdX. (43)

C*(s) nT e
e(nT)E nT8] [E
n=O
g(nT)i'Ts] = E*(s)G*(s). (33) Multiplying (43) by X and rearranging yields
nT
The desired result is then XE(X)E,,TX =XF(X) + X f0e(X)eX(X-nT')dX
C(z) = G(z)E(z), (34) Then (38) becomes
where c-nT - -/2
o

/f2 R-+o [ReLE(R-i)enTRei6dO1

lim
G(z)
00

, g(nT)z-t, 2r
= (35)
ncO
and g(t) is defined by (29). All other properties of z-transform analysis
CnT

2gr ,f2
[i/ Ro
lim R-ieF (Reis)
are derived in textbooks on sampled-data control systems (see [1], nT
[7]-[10]) in such a manner that impulse functions do not appear in + lim Rei8f e(X)CRej6(X -T)dX] d. (44)
the derivations. These derivations will not be repeated here.
From the initial value theorem and from (39),
CONCLUSIONS lim R&OF(Rei) = f(O+) = e(nT+).
R-soo (45,)
The use of impulse functions is shown to be unnecessary in de-
veloping the properties of z-transform analysis of sampled-data con- Next consider the integral with respect to X in (44). Letting
trol systems. Thus the introduction of the impulse-function concept X= -y+nT,

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 144 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON EDUCATION, JUNE 1968
plane. In most transmission-line applications of the chart the char-
lim RS5 e(X)eJ8(xn)dV acteristic impedance is assumed to be real and is used as the nor-
malizing factor. With passive impedances, then, the normalized
=- lim RE0
R-+00 Jn2
e(nT - y)tSROdy impedance z will be in the closed right half-plane. Since (1) maps the
nT
right-half-plane inside the unit circle, the Smith chart usually dis-
- lim RS9 e(nT - y)&ReiGdy. (46) plays only this portion of the reflection coefficient plane.
There is fundamentally no requirement that the normalizing
By replacing R with -p, (46) can be expressed as factor be real, except that a complex factor can lead to normalized
nT
passive impedances appearing in the left half-plane, and conse-
lim -_ fe e(nT-Ty) lPedy quently off the Smith chart. This problem can be overcome by re-
placing the left half-plane z with -z, its reflection with respect to
the origin. Equation (1) then becomes
=- lim pei e(nT-y)[u(y)-u(y-nT)keVPSOdy=-e(nTi), (47)
-z-l z+1 1
by the initial value theorem. Then, from (44), (45), and (47)T (37) -z+1 z-I p
(2)
can be expressed as
Thus the plot of the negative of a normalized impedance on the
-_ el
f1 EG^)onT?bd\ = -nTs
-nT /2 -
)tnTXd
[e(nT+)-() d Smith chart can be read as the reciprocal of the reflection coefficient.
J8 Jrl12
2re(nT~~)
-e e(n7.) This means that whenever a problem threatens to cross the boundary
e(nT+)--e(n)nTa (48) of the Smith chart, it is necessary only to change the sign of the
2 impedance and invert the reflection coefficient.
The foregoing can be incorporated into the exploitation of the
Equation (48) is seen to be the same as (26). useful quantities 1 ±p(x). The plot 1 +p(x) on the chart is given by
the vector joining the point (-1, 0) to the point corresponding to
REFERENCES the reflection coefficient p(x), a construction sometimes referred to
[1] J. R. Ragazzini and G. F. Franklin, Sampled-Data Control Systems. New as the "crank diagram." Since the negative of p(x) is readily obtained
York: McGraw-Hill, 1958.
[2] W. L. McDaniel and C. L. Phillips, 'The X-transform and its use in sampled-
data system analysis," J. Franklin Inst., vol. 284, pp. 39-55, July 1967.
as the reflection of p(x) with respect to the origin, it will be assumed
[3] L. A. 1963.
Zadeh and C. A. Desoer, Linear System Theory. New York: McGraw- that finding and working with 1 -p(x) is obvious from the discussion
Hill,
[4] C. L. Phillips, J. L. Lowry, and R. K. Cavin, III, 'On the starred transform,"
IEEE Trans. Automatic Control (Correspondence), vol. AC-il, p. 760, October
I
of 1 +p(x). The magnitude 1 +p(x) is determined by scaling the
length of the vector with the linear reflection coefficient scale found
1966.
[5] M. F. Gardner and J. L. Barnes, Transients in Linear Systems. New York: on most commercial charts. Its angle is found by projecting the
Wiley, 1942. vector to intersect the unit circle, whose circumference is invariably
[6] C. H. Wilts, Principles of Feedback Control. Reading, Mass.: Addison-Wesley,
1960, pp. 261-265.
[71 E. I. Jury, Sampled-Data Control Systems. New York: Wiley, 1958.
scaled in degrees. If the angle at the intersection is O, then
[8] J. T. Tou, Digital and Sampled-Data Control Systems. New York: McGraw-
Hill, 1959.
[9] B. C. Kuo, Analysis and Synthesis of Sampled-Data Control Systems. Engle- arg (1 + p(x)) =-* (3)
wood Cliffs, N. J.: Prentice-Hall, 1963. 2
[101 E. I. Jury, Theory and Application of the Z-Transform. New York: Wiley,
1964. Equation (3) is readily deduced by observing that an inscribed angle
is equal to one half the corresponding central angle.
As an example of the use of these vectors, consider the following.
Let xi and xa be any pair of points on a uniform transmission line
Use of the Smith Chart with Complex with a propagation constant .y, the smaller x being closer to the load.
Characteristic Impedance Using E+ and E for incident and reflected voltage components,
respectively, we have, since p(x) =E-(x)/E+(x),
P. J. GRAHAM AND R. J. DISTLER, SENIOR MEMBER, IEEE
E(xi) = E+(xi) + E(xi) = E+(xi) [l + p(xi)].
Abstract-The Smith chart has long been recognized as a useful Also,
classroom aid in the study of transmission lines and waveguides. It
could also be used for more general n-port network calculations, ex- E+(X2) = E+(xi)eY(x2-1)
cept that normalizing with respect to a complex characteristic im- E(x2) = E+(x2)[I + P(x2)J
pedance can lead to left half-plane normalized impedances and, con- (4)
sequently, points outside the standard Smith chart even for passive E(x2) (1 + P(X2)\
terminations. A simple transformation is presented which permits == EtZ(2-XI).
the direct use of the standard Smith chart in such cases. Detailed E(xs) I + p(xs)
examples of a filter and low-frequency transmission line are pre- Since I-(x)/I+(x) = -p(x), it follows that
sented.
I(x2) 1 -P(x2)
X2
Several fairly recent papers [1]-[4] concerned with making the
-maximum use of the Smith chart indicate that there might be some I(xs) -(xl) I1-p(X)I
\ l- p(xi)IE(2-X (5)
interest in its application to problems where the characteristic im- As will be shown in the numerical example, all of the quantities
pedance is complex. This may include symmetric networks as well on the right-hand sides of (4) and (5) are obtainable directly from
as low-frequency transmission lines. the chart.
The Smith chart is a linear mapping Where I p(x) I exceeds unity and therefore falls off the chart, we
x-I can evaluate 1 +p(x) by use of the simple transformation
z+1
(1)
1 1+ p'(X)
of the normalized impedance plane onto the reflection coefficient 1 + p(x) = 1 + ( P'(x)

Manuscript received February 28, 1968. For example, suppose we wish to find E(x3)/E(xi), where
P. J. Graham is with the Department of Ocean Engineering, Florida Atlantic
University, Boca Raton, Fla.
R. J. Distler is with the Department of Electrical Engineering, University of I P(X) I ;?: I Xl _ X _ X2
Kentucky, Lexington, Ky. I P(X) I ig I X2 < X < X3.

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