Module no.

4 : Number Systems and Logic Gates

 Basic gates
 Universal gates
 Boolean algebra
 De Morgan’s theorem

1. Explain what are the basic logic elements?

Basic logic elements are NOT gate, AND gate, OR gate and the flip-flop.
2. Explain what is a combinational circuit? Write two characteristics of
combinational circuits.
In a combinational circuit, the output depends upon present input(s) only i.e, not
dependant on the previous input(s). The combinational circuit has no memory element.
It consists of logic gates only.
The two characteristics of combinational circuits are:
 In combinational circuits, the output exists as long as the input exists.
 A combinational circuit will always respond in the same fashion to the input
function, when we apply signal to the input terminal of the combinational logic
circuit.
3. Explain the symbol, truth table and operation for :
OR gate : AND Gate :

In an OR gate, the output of an OR gate

In the AND gate, the output of an AND
attains state 1 if one or more inputs attain
gate attains state 1 if and only if all the
state 1. The Boolean expression of the OR
inputs are in state 1. The Boolean
gate is Y = A + B, read as Y equals A ‘OR’ B.
expression of AND gate is Y = A.B
The truth table of a two-input OR basic gate
The truth table of a two-input AND
is given as;
basic gate is given as;
A B Y
A B Y
0 0 0
0 0 0
0 1 1
0 1 0
1 0 1
1 0 0
1 1 1
1 1 1
NOT Gate :
In a NOT gate, the output of a NOT gate attains state 1 if and only
if the input does not attain state 1.
The Boolean expression is: Y = 𝐴̅
It is read as Y equals NOT A.
The truth table of NOT gate is as follows;
A Y
0 1
1 0
When connected in various combinations, the three gates (OR, AND and NOT) give us
basic logic gates such as NAND, and NOR gates, which are the universal building
blocks of digital circuits.
NAND Gate : NOR Gate :
This basic logic gate is the combination of This gate is the combination of OR and
AND and NOT gates. NOT gate.

The Boolean expression of the NAND gate The Boolean expression of NOR gate is:

is: Y = 𝐴. 𝐵 Y=𝐴 + 𝐵

The truth table of a NAND gate is given as; The truth table of a NOR gate is as

A B Y follows;

0 0 1 A B Y

0 1 0 0 0 1

1 0 0 0 1 1

1 1 0 1 0 1
1 1 0
Exclusive-OR gate (XOR Gate) : Exclusive-NOR Gate (XNOR Gate) :
In an XOR gate, the output of a two-input In the XNOR gate, the output is in state
XOR gate attains state 1 if one adds only 1 when both inputs are the same, that
input attains state 1. is, both 0 or both 1.
 The Boolean expression of the XOR gate is: The Boolean expression of the XNOR
𝐴. 𝐵 + 𝐴̅. 𝐵 or Y = A ⨁ B gate
The truth table of an XOR gate is;
A B Y
The truth table of an XNOR gate is given
0 0 0
below;
0 1 1
A B Y
1 0 1
0 0 0
1 1 0
0 1 1
1 0 1
1 1 0
4. Which gates are called as the universal gates? What are its advantages?
A universal gate is a gate which can implement any Boolean function without need to
use any other gate type. The NAND and NOR gates are universal gates. In practice, this
is advantageous since NAND and NOR gates are economical and easier to fabricate and
are the basic gates used in all IC digital logic families.
5. Explain why is a two-input NAND gate called universal gate?
NAND gate is called universal gate because any digital system can be implemented with
the NAND gate. Sequential and combinational circuits can be constructed with these
gates because element circuits like flip-flop can be constructed from two NAND gates
connected back-to-back. NAND gates are common in hardware because they are easily
available in the ICs form. A NAND gate is in fact a NOT-AND gate. It can be obtained
by connecting a NOT gate in the output of an AND gate.
6. Realise the basic gates using universal gates.
Implementation of AND Gate using Universal gates.
a) Using NAND Gates
The AND gate can be implemented by using two NAND gates in the below fashion:

b) Using NOR Gates

Implementation of AND gate using only NOR gates as shown below:
 2. Implementation of OR Gate using Universal gates.
a) Using NAND Gates
The OR gate can be implemented using the NAND gate as below:

b) Using NOR Gates

Implementation of OR gate using two NOR gates as shown in the picture below:

3. Implementation of NOT Gate using Universal gates.

a) Using NAND Gates

b) Using NOR Gates

7. Explain what is Boolean Algebra?

Boolean algebra is a mathematic system of logic in which truth functions are expresses
as symbols and then these symbols are manipulated to arrive at conclusion.
8. Explain what is associate law? OR
State the associative property of Boolean algebra.
Associate law is a low of addition and multiplication and according to this law grouping
of the variable is the ORing or ANDing of several variables is immaterial and the results
obtained are the same.
9. Explain the important laws of Boolean algebra.

The six important laws of Boolean algebra are:

1. Commutative Law : Any binary operation which satisfies the following
expression is referred to as a commutative operation. Commutative law states
that changing the sequence of the variables does not have any effect on the
output of a logic circuit.
 A. B = B. A
 A+B=B+A
2. Associative Law : It states that the order in which the logic operations are
performed is irrelevant as their effect is the same.
 ( A. B ). C = A. ( B. C )
 ( A + B ) + C = A + ( B + C)
3. Distributive Law : Distributive law states the following conditions:
 A. ( B + C) = (A. B) + (A. C)
 A + (B. C) = (A + B). ( A + C)
4. AND Law : These laws use the AND operation. Therefore they are called AND
laws.
 A. 0 = 0
 A. 1 = A
 A. A = A
 A. 𝐴̅ = 0
5. OR Law : These laws use the OR operation. Therefore they are called OR laws.
 A+0=A
 A+1=1
 A+A=A
 A + 𝐴̅ = 1
6. Inversion Law : In Boolean algebra, the inversion law states that double
inversion of variable results in the original variable itself.
 𝐴=𝐴
10. State and Explain the DeMorgan’s Theorem.
Theorem 1

 The LHS (left-hand side) of this theorem represents the NAND gate that has
inputs A and B. On the other hand, the RHS (right-hand side) of this theorem
represents the OR gate that has inverted inputs.
 The OR gate here is known as a Bubbled OR.

Here is a table that shows the verification of the first theorem of De Morgan:

Theorem 2

 The left-hand side of this theorem represents the NOR gate that has inputs A
and B. On the other hand, the right-hand side represents the AND gate that has
inverted inputs.
 The AND gate here is known as a Bubbled AND.
Here is a table that shows the verification of the second theorem of De Morgan: