LT-lí-2 - physic

Physics II (Advanced Program) (PH1026)

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Chap 22

1. Electric Falux and Gauss’s Law

a. Electric Flux
- Definition: Electric flux is a measure of the “flow” of electric field through a surface. It is equal

to the product of an area element and the perpendicular component of E , integrated over a
surface.
- Characteristics:
 Whether there is a net outward or inward electric flux through a closed surface depends
on the sign of the enclosed charge.
 Charges outside the surface do not give a net electric flux through the surface.
 The net electric flux is directly proportional to the net amount of charge enclosed within
the surface but is otherwise independent of the size of the closed surface.
- Formular:

Uniform electric field:  E E  A

 E  E  d A
Nonuniform electric field:
b. Gauss’s Law
- Statement: The total electric flux through a closed surface is equal to the net electric charge

inside the surface divided by 0 .

  Q
 E E  d A  encl
- Formular: 0

Qencl  qi
Where: , the enclosed surface (Gaussian surface) is imaginary.
- Application of Gauss’s Law
 On planar: Choose a cylindrical Gaussian surface,

E
 Infinite sheet 2 0 where  is the surface charge density.


E
 Between 2 opposite plates: 0

 On spherical:
 Conducting sphere: if r<R: Qencl = 0 then E=0
1 q
E
If r>=R: 40 r 2

1 Qr
E
 Insulating sphere: if r<R: 4 0 R 3

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 1 Q
E
If r>=R: 40 r 2

 On cyclindral: if r<R: E=0

Q
E
 0 (2 r 2  2 rL )
If r>=R:
1. Charges on conductors
- When excess charge is placed on a conductor and is at rest (electrostatic situation), it resides entirely

on the suface and E 0 everywhere in the material of the conductor.


E
- Field at the surface of a conductor: 0

- Charing by induction: all induced charges must reside on the surface of the induced object.

Chap 23

2. Electric Potential
a. Electric Potential Energy
- The electric force caused by any collection of charges at rest is a conservative force. The work W
done by the electric force on a charged particle moving in an electric field can be represented by the
change in a potential-energy function U.

- Formular: W F  d  U

- So U decreases when q 0 moves in the same direction with F and increases when it moves in the
opposite directiion.
- Electric potential energy of two point charge q and q0 is shared between 2 charges and depends on
their separation. It represents the work done on the test charge q 0 by the field of q if q 0 moves from
an initial distance r to infinity.
1 qq0
U
4 0 r
- Electric Potential Energy for a charge q0 in the presense of a collection of charges depends on the
distance from q0 to each of these other charges.
q0 qi
U
4 0
r
i i

1 qi qj
U 
4 0 i j rij
- The total potential energy of a collection of charges:
b. Electric Potential
- Definition: Electric Potential is potential energy per unit charge.
- Formular:

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 U q
V 
 Due to a point charge: q0 40 r

U 1 qi
V 
q0 40
r
 Due to a collection of point charges: i i

1 dq
V 
4 0 r
 Due to a charge distribution:
c. Electrical Potential Difference
- Definition: The potential difference between two points equals the amount of work that would be
required to move a unit positive test charge between those points. .
- Formular: The potentila difference between 2 points a and b V ab, also called the potential of a with
respect to b, is given by the formular
b  b
Vab Va  Vb E  dl E cosdl
a a

- Equipotential Surfaces: An equipotential surface is a surface on which the potential has the
samevalue at every point. At a point where a field line crosses an equipotential surface, the two are
perpendicular. When all charges are at rest, the surface of a conductor is always an equipotential
surface and all points in the interior of a conductor are at the same potential. When a cavity within
aconductor contains no charge, the entire cavity is an equipotential region and there is no
surfacecharge anywhere on the surface of the cavity.
- When all charges are at rest, the surface of a conductor is alwaysan equipotential surface. In addition,
the entire solid volume of a conductor is at the same potential. The electric field just outside a
conductor must be perpendicular to the surface at every point.

3. Relations
- If the potential V is known as a function of the coordinates x, y, and z, the components of electric
field at any point aregiven by partial derivatives of V.
 V  V  V 
E  ( i j k )  V
x y z

- V is called potential gradient.

V
Er 
- For radial electric field: r
- We can also conclude that moving in the direction of the electric field means moving in the direction
of decreasing potential.

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Chapter 24 CAPACITANCE AND DIELECTRICS
4. Conductors, Capacitors, Capacitance of parallel-plate and cylindrical capacitors;
Energy Storage in Capacitors and Electric-Field Energy
- Conductor: materials that has many free-moving charges
- Capacitor is any pair of conductor separated by an insulating material
Q A
- Capacitance of parallel-plate capacitor: C= V =ϵ0 d
ab

Q λL 2 π ϵ0 L
C= = =
- Capacitance of cylindrical capacitor: V ab λ r r
ln b ln b
2 π ϵ0 r a ra
- Energy stored in a capacitor in the form of electric field energy
Q2 1 2 1
U= = C V = QV
2C 2 2
1
u   0 E2
- Electric field density in a vacuum: 2

Chapter 27 MAGNETIC FIELD AND MAGNETIC FORCES

5. Magnetic Field, Magnetic Field Lines and Magnetic Flux. Motion of Charged
Particles in a Magnetic Field
- Magnetic Field is created by a moving charge or a current, which exert a force on any other
moving charge or current that is present in the field.
- A magnetic field can berepresented graphically by magnetic field lines. At each point a magnetic
field line is tangent to the direction of 
B at that point. Where field lines are close together the
field magnitude is large, and vice versa.

- Magnetic flux Φ B through an area is defined in an analogous way to electric flux.

d b B  d A

The total megnetic flux through the surface:

Φ B= B cos ϕdA= B⊥ dA= 

B.d 
A

The SI unit of magnetic flux is the Weber (Wb).

B  d A 0 (closed surface)

The net magnetic flux through anyclosed surface is zero (Gauss’s law for magnetism). As a result,
magnetic field lines always close on themselves.

- The magnetic force exert on a moving charge: F qv B

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 - The magnetic force is always perpendicular to v . Hence, a particle moving under the action of a
magnetic field alone moves with constant speed. In a uniform field, a particle with initial velocity
perpendicular to the field moves in a circle with radius R that depends on the magnetic field
strength B and the particle mass m, speed v,and charge q.

mv
R
qB

Chapter 28 SOURCES OF MAGNETIC FIELD

6. Magnetic forces of currents, concept of magnetic field; Magnetic field vector;
magnetic field of a current element ; the law of Biot and Savart,Magnetic Field of a
Moving Charge

- Magnetic force on a conductor:   

F =I l× B

For an infinitesimal wire section: d 

F=Id l × 
B
- Concept of magnetic field: Magnetic Field is created by a moving charge or a current, which
exert a force on any other moving charge or current that is present in the field.

- Magnetic field vector B  : The total magnetic field caused by several moving charges is the
vector sum of all fields caused by individual charges. (principle of superposition of magnetic fields
pg 926); at each point, the magnetic field vector is always tangential to the magnetic field line
crossing that point.

- Magnetic field of a current carrying conductor, Biot-Savart Law: (pg926-947)

μ0 I 
dl × r^
d
B=
4 π r2

- Magnetic field of a moving charge:

μ0 q v × r^

B=
4 π r2

7. Ampere’s law on the line integral of magnetic field vector around a closed path.
Applications of Amper’s law in calculating the magnetic field ofcurrents.

- Ampere’s law: the line integral of B around any closed path equals μ0 times the net current
through the area enclosed by this path: (pg947)

∮ B . 
dl = μ0 I encl

- Applications of Ampere’s law: Ampere’s law is useful when exploit the symmetry of a situation to
evaluate the line integral of 
B (pg938)

Chapter 29 ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION

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 8. Induction Experiments, Faraday’s Law, Lenz’s Law

- Experiment: a coil of wire is connected to a galvanometer. When the nearby magnet is stationary, the
meter shows no current. This isn’t surprising; there is no source of emf in the circuit. But when we
move the magnet either toward or away from the coil, the meter shows current inthe circuit, but only
while the magnet is moving. If we keep the magnet stationary and move the coil, we again detect a
current during the motion. (pg958)

- Faraday’s law: The induced emf in a closed loop equals the negative of the time rate of change of
magnetic flux through the loop. (pg960)

−d Φ B
ε=
dt

- Lenz’s Law: The direction of any magnetic induction effect is such as to oppose the cause of
the effect.

9. Motional Electromotive Force; Induced Electric Fields; EddyCurrents

- Motional emf: If a conductor moves in a magnetic field, a motional emf is induced (pg981)

d ε= ( v × 
B) . 
dl

For straight conductor with length L moves in uniform B field, L and v are perpendicular to B and to
each other, the emf is:

ε =vBL

For any closed conducting loop, the total emf is:

ε =∮ ( v × 
B ). 
dl

- Induced electric field: when an emf is induced by a changing magnetic flux through a stationary
conductor, there is an induced electric field E of nonelectrostatic origin. This field is non-
conservative and can be associated with potential. (pg981)

−d Φ B
∮ E . 
dl=
dt

- Eddy current is the induced current that circulate throughout the volume of conducting material.
(pg974)

Chapter 30 INDUCTANCE

10. Mutual Inductance, Self-Inductance and Inductors. Energy stored in a inductor,

magnetic field energy, magnetic energy density
- When a changing current i1 in one circuit causes the a changing magnetic flux in the second
circuit, an emf ε 2 is induced in the second circuit. Likewise, a changing current i2 in the

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 second circuit induced an emf ε 1 in the first circuit. If the circuit are coils with N1 and N2
turns, the mutual inductance M can be expressed in terms of the average flux Φ B 2 through
each turn of coil 2 caused by i1, or in terms of the average flux ΦB1 through each turn of coil
1 caused by i2 (pg1012)

d i1
ε 2 =−M
dt

d i2
ε 1=−M
dt

N 2ΦB2 N 1ΦB1
M= =
i1 i2

- Self-inductance: A changing current I in any circuit cuases a self-induced emf  . The

inductance L depends on the geometry of the circuit and the material surrounding it. The

inductance of a coil of N turns is related to the average flux B through each turn caused by
the current I in the coil.
di
  L
dt
N B
L
i
- An inductor is a circuit device, usually including a coil of wire, intended to have a substantial
inductance.
- Energy stored in an inductor (inductor resistance is zero)
1
U  LI 2
2
- Magnetic energy density (The energy per unit volume)
B2
u
 In vacuum: 20
B2
u
 In material: 2 where   K m 0 is the magnetic permeability

11. R-L-C circuit, damped harmonic motion.

- RLC circuit contains inductance, resistance and capacitance.

4L
R2 
- If C , the circuit undergoes damped oscillation for sufficiently small resistance. The

frequency ω' of oscillation depends on L R and C. As R increases the damping

increases.

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 1 R2
 ' 
LC 4 L2

4L
R2 
- If C , the system no longer oscillates, the case of critical damping has been reached;
the charge of the capacitor decreases rapidly.
4L
R2 
- If C , the circuit is overdamped and the charge of the capacitor decreases even faster.

Chapter 31: ALTERNATING CURRENT

Chapter32: ELECTROMAGNETICWAVES

12. The system of Maxwell’s equations; the concept of electromagnetic field

- Gauss’s Law for electric fields:

Q enclosed
∮ E . 
dA=
ϵ0

- Gauss’s Law for magnetic fields:

∮ B . 
dA=0

- Ampere’s Law including displacement current:

∮ B . 
dl = μ0 (
i C +ϵ0
d ΦE
dt )
- Faraday’s law:

−d Φ B
∮ E . 
dl=
dt

(pg981)

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 - An electromagnetic field (also EMF or EM field) is a physical field produced by
electrically charged objects. It affects the behavior of charged objects in the vicinity of
the field. The electromagnetic field extends indefinitely throughout space and describes
the electromagnetic interaction. The field can be viewed as the combination of an electric
field and a magnetic field. The electric field is produced by stationary charges, and the
magnetic field by moving charges (currents); these two are often described as the sources
of the field. The way in which charges and currents interact with the electromagnetic field
is described by Maxwell's equations and the Lorentz force law.

13. Derivation of the wave equation Electromagnetic Wave, sinusoidal Plane Electromagnetic
Waves, polarization and the Speed of Light (pg 1058-1060)
- Derivation of Electromagnetic Wave equation:

d 2 E d2 
E
=μ ε
0 0
d x2 d t2

d B d 
2 2
B
2
=μ0 ε 0
dx d t2

- Sinusoidal Electromagnetic Wave:

E y ( x , t ) =E0 sin ( kx − ωt )

B z ( x ,t )=B0 sin ( kx −ωt )

Emax = cBmax

- Polarization of EM wave:  E and  B are are perpendicular to v and to each other, E

B v are follow right hand rule that the direction of 
E × B is the direction of v .
1
v c 
 0 0
- EM wave propagate in vaccum with speed

Chap 18

15. Kinetic-molecular model of ideal gas

- Kinetic-molecular model of an ideal gas

 A container with volume V contains a very large number N of identical molecular, each with
mass m.
 The moleculars behave as point particles , their size is small in comparison to the average
distances between particles and to the dismensions of the container.
 The moleculars are in constant motion, they obey the Newton’s law of motion. Each molecule
collides occasionally with a wall of the container. These collisions are perfectly elastic.

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  The container walls are perfectly rigid and infinitely massive and do not move.
- Average translational kinetic energy of a gas molecule:
3 1 R
Ktr  kT  m(vav )2 ( )
2 2 where k is Boltzmann constant NA

16. Distribution function

- Distribution function: observe a total N molecular, the number dN having the speed in the range from

v to v + dv is given by dN  Nf (v )dv The probability of a molecular randomly having speed in the

range from v to v+dv is f(v)dv. f(v) is the distribution function, and also the probability per unit
speed interval
- The Maxwell Boltzmann Distribution
2
m 3/ 2 2  mv
f ( v) 4 ( ) v e 2 kT
2 kT

8kT
v av  vf (v)dv 
0 m
- Average speed:

3kT
vrms  ( v 2) av  v f ( v) dv 
2

0
m
- Root-mean square speed:

df 2 kT
0 vmp 
- The most probable speed: obtain where dv is given by m

Chap 19

17. The First Law of Thermodynamic

- The First Law of Thermodynamic: The amount of internal energy U changes is equal to Q – W,
where Q is the heat transferring in the system and W is the work done to/by the system. The Law

could be expressed in the formular: U Q  W or in the infinitesimal process: dU dQ  dW

- Signs for work and heat:
 Q>0: Heat flows into the system
 Q<0: Heat flows out of the system
 W>0: Work done by the system against its surroudings
 W<0: Work done to the system by its surroundings
V2

W  pdV
- We have: dW  pdV or V1

dQ nCmol dT

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 iR
U n T
2 where i equals 3,5,6 for monatomic, diatomic, polyatomic respectively. U
is only dependent on temperature.
- Applying the First Law of Thermodynamic in some kinds of process
 Adiabatic: No heat transfer into or out of the system, Q=0
1
W  ( p1V1  p2V2 )
W nCv (T1  T2 )  
 U  W   1

Cp


 pV const and TV
 1 C v (ratio of heat capacities)
 const where

Cp Cv  R

 Isochoric: V=const, W=0
U Q nCv T

 Isobaric: p=const
W  p(V2  V1)

Q nCp T

 Isothermal: T=const, U 0
 Q=W

Chap 20

18. The Second Law of Thermodynamic

- A reversible process is one whose direction can be reversed by an infinitesimal change in the
condition of the process, and in which the system is always in or very close to thermodynamic
equilibrium.
- Thermodynamic processes that occur in nature are all irreversible.
- In a reversible process, no change of state would happen, no heat would flow into or out of the
system with truly uniform temperature throughout, the system would not expand and do work to its
surroundings.
- In an irreversible process, the system is not in thermodynamic equilibrium at any point until the end
of the process.
- Heat engine:
QH
 Heat engines take heat from hot reservoirs, convert part of it into work W, and discards

QC
the remainder at a lower temperature to the cold reservoirs.
 The working subtance undergos a cyclic process , that leaves the subtance in the same started
state.

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  U 0
W Q QH  QC  Q H  QC

W Q Q
e 1  C 1  C
 The thermal efficiency of an engine: QH QH QH

- The Carnot cycle

 The Carnot cycle opreates between two heat reservoirs at the temperature T H and TC and uses
only reversible processes.
 The thermal and mechanic equilibrium must be maintained all the times so that the processes
are completely reversible.
 The cycle consists of 4 steps:
 Expanding isothermally at temperature TH, absorbing QH
 Expanding adiabatically to temperature TC
 Compressing isothermally at temperature TC, rejecting QC
 Compressing adiabatically to temperature TH
 The thermal efficiency depends only on TH and TC
TC TH  TC
e 1  
TH TH
 A Carnot engine run backward is a Carnot refrigerator. Its coefficient of performance depends
only on TH and TC
T
K  C
TH  TC
- Some expression of The Second Law of Thermodynamic
 No cyclic process can covert heat completely to work. (engine statement)
 No cyclic process can transfer heat from a colder place to a hotter place with no input of
mechanical work. (refrigerator statement)
 No engine operating between the same two temperatures can be more efficient than a Carnot
engine. (because a Carnot engine operates only with reversible process)
 No refrigerator operating the same two temperatures can have a larger coefficient of
performance than a Carnot refrigerator.
 The entropy of an isolated system may increase but can never decrease.

19. Entropy
- Entropy change in reversible process

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 2
dQ dQ
dS 
T 
S 
1 T
 Infinitesimal reversible process:
Q
S 
 Reversible isothermal process: T
dQ
 S  0
 Cyclic reversible process: T
 Entropy depends only on the state of the system, and the change in entropy between given
initial and final states is the same for all processes leading from one state to the other.

- In an irreversible process, the total entropy always increases and S  0 .

- The meaning of the Second Law of Thermodynamic:
 If the Second Law were not true, we could power an automobile or an engine by cooling the
surrouding air. Neither of these impossiblities violates the First Law of Thermodynamics. The
Second Law, therefore, is not a deduction from the First Law but stands by itself as a separate
law of nature. The First Law denies the possibility of creating or destroying energy; the
Second Law limits the availability of energy and the ways in which it is used and converted.
 The Second Law of Thermodynamics is an expression of inherent one-way aspect of many
irreversible processes. Energy conversion is an essential aspect of all plant and animal life
and of human technology, so the Second Law of Thermodynamics is of the utmost
fundamental importance in the world we live in.

20. Real gas and phase transitions

- Differences between ideal gas and real gas

Ideal gas Real gas

Molecular size Behave as point particles, have volume, which
small size compared to reduces the volume in
average distance between which they can move.
particles and to
dimensions of the
container
Interaction with container Perfectly elastical Exert forces on the walls
walls collision, ocassionally
collide with the wall and
exert force on it.
Intermolecular interaction Not exert forces on each Exert attractive forces on
other each other, which reduces
the pressure by pulling
together as they are

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