Second Semester

• Electromagnetism
• Electric-Field
• Magnetic-Field
• Electromagnetic-Field
• Modern Physics
• Special Theory of Relativity
• Quantum Mechanics
 Chapter 5
The Static Electric Field 静电场
1. Electric Field and Its Principle of
Superposition
2. Gauss’s Law and Its Applications
3. Electric Potential 电势 and Its Principle of
Superposition
4. Circulation theorem 环路定理 and Its
Applications
 Benjamin Andre-Marie Charlse-Augustin Georg Simon Thomas
Franklin Ampere de Coulomb Ohm Edison

Hans Christian Michael James Clerk Hertz, H. R. Hendrik Antoon

Oersted Faraday Maxwell Lorentz
 The earliest studies on electricity date back to
the ancients. Perhaps they knew it from “amber
琥珀” and lightening 闪电…

In China Wang Chong in Eastern Han Dynasty

recounted the compass in his work.
Charles Augustin Coulomb 库仑 (1736-1806)
torsion balance 扭秤
measuring very small electric forces.

q1q2
f  2
r
Orsted 奥斯特 (1777-1851)

The Magnetic Effect of Electrical Currents 电流

的磁效应 1820 年
6
Just over a month after the discovery
Biot 毕奥 (1774-1862) and Savart 萨法尔
(1791-1841)
Biot-Savart Law
calculate the magnetic field for a segment of
current carrying wire 一段载流导线 .
 
 Idl  r
dB  3
r

7
 Ampere 安培 (1775-1836)

the first person to develop a technique for

measuring electricity. Galvanometer 电流计 .

Ampere’s law 安培定则

Ampere’s circulation theorem 安培环路定理

8
Faraday 法拉第 (1791-1867)

made one of the most important discoveries

in the sciences of electricity and magnetism;

electromagnetic induction 电磁感应定律 .

9
James Clerk Maxwell (1831-1879)

Maxwell ’ s equations

In 1888 the German

physicist Hertz 赫兹
firstly discovered the
electromagnetic wave ，
thus the theoretical system
of the classical
electromagnetism was
finally established.

10
 Summary 本章摘要
Electrostatic Field The field distributed round a static
charge is called the electrostatic field.

Two Important force E
Physical Quantities

work U

Two Fundamental
Gauss’s Law
Theorems
Circulation Theorem
 Main
Main Contents
Contents
Coulomb Law, Superposition Principle of Coulomb
Force

E Field intensity Calculation
Electric Flux 电通量 , Gauss’s Law

Circulation Theorem, Electric Potential


The relationship of E and potential gradient 电势
梯度
Motion of charged particles in electric field
 Requirements
Requirements

Master the Calculation of Field Intensity 电场

强度的计算

Find the Field Intensity with Gauss’s Law 用高斯定

理求场强

Find Electric Potential 电势

 5-1. Electric Charge ， point charge

1. Point Charge

A charged body without size and shape

A charged geometrical point.

(1) Two Kinds of Electric Charge

Positive Charge 正电荷

Negative Charge 负电荷
When the girl
touches a Van de
Graaff generator,
she received an
excess of positive
charge, causing her
hair to stand on end
直立 .
15
 (2) Quantization of Electric Charge 电荷的量子化

Electric Quantity 基本电量

19
e  1.6  10 C
(3) Conservational Law of Charge

The net charge in an isolated system is always conserved.

Or : total charge is constant in any process.

Conserved quantities: energy, momentum, angular

momentum, charge……
 (4) the Relativistic Invariability of Electric
Quantity 电荷相对论不变性

The electric quantity is independent of the velocity

and acceleration.
Q
Q
+++
 5-2. Coulomb‘s Law 库仑定律

With the torsion balance ( 扭秤实验 )Coulomb (in

1785) was able to establish the Coulomb’s law
of electrostatic interaction 静电作用 :
The force between two point charges at rest was
inversely proportional to the square of the
distance between them and proportional to the
product of the charges.
y F12
+q1
r12
  q1q2
F21   F12  k 2 r̂12 r1 r2
+q2
r12 F21
0
z x
 k is a proportionality constant 比例系
数. 1
k  9  10 N  m /C
9 2 2

4π  0

 0  8.85  10 12 C 2 /(m 2  N)

Dielectric constant in vacuum
( 真空介电常量 真空电容
率)
 1 | q1q2 |
F  rˆ
4 π 0 r 2
q1 q2
A “point charge” should r
be: d  r d
 说明 Description:

(1) It is an exp. Law, only holds for “point charge”

model.
(2) There are four basic physical quantities for
electromagnetic quantity in the SI system. They
are length (m), mass(kg), time(s), current(A).

(3) Obey the principle of superposition.

 
Vector F1   Fi 1
i
sum
 5-3. Electric Field
Question:
Coulomb’s interaction is at a distance. How
does q1 “know” of the presence 存在 of q2?
How the force of q1 acts on the point charge q2?
1. The electric field
In the 19th century, British experimental physicist
Michael Faraday proposed the electric field.
charge q1 electric Field 1 charge q2
electric Field 2
vector field
The basic feature of electric field:
 Giving an acting force to any charge

in it ( 对放其内的任何电荷都有作用力 ) E .
 The electric force does work on moving
charge ( 电场力对移动电荷作功 ) U.
Two main tasks:

 Calculating the electric field produced by

a given distribution of charge.
 Calculating the force that a given field exerts
on a charge placed in it.
 电场强度的测定 Q

To define E at point P due to the charge
object Q, we measure the electrostatic q0 P

force F that acts on the test charge q0 as: F


 F (electric field intensity
E 
q0
电场强度 )
Question: Does the net electric field depend on
the magnitude of the test charge
?
No! The electric field depends only on the “field
charges 场源电荷” and their distribution.
2. The calculation of electric field intensity
(1) Electric field of a single point charge
q0

F
1 qq0
rˆ 场源点 
r
r
4 π 0 r 2
电荷 q

 r E
Unit-vector r rˆ 
r
of :
r
 F

1 q
+
 E  rˆ E
q 0 4 π 0 r 2

r
(2) The electric field due to a few point charges
 in

From the principle of
superposition of F:
F   Fi
i 1

in

  F
  Fi in

Fi
E' s definition: E  i 1

q q i 1 q

 
E   Ei  in
E
qi
rˆ
i
or 4π 0 ri 2 i
i 1


—— the principle of superposition E
 —— the principle of superposition of
electric field intensity 电场强度

If there is a distribution of electric charges

(whether they are discrete 离散 or
continuous), the net electric field is the vector
sum of that of all charges.
 
E   Ei
i
A special case
：
electric dipole ( 电偶极子 ).

Two charged particles of magnitude q but of

opposite sign separated by a distance d, such a
configuration is called electric dipole.
The concepts of electric dipole are often
referred to as polar molecules( 有极分子 ).


-q d +q
Question: 
How to calculate E produced by a dipole ?
i.e. The electric field at the point P,
perpendicular bisector to the
dipole axis ( 电偶极子中垂线 ) .
Solution:
  
E  E  E
q q
 rˆ  rˆ
4 π 0 r2
4 π 0 r2


rˆ  rˆ  l
    
 Q r E  E  E
E 
 4 0 r3
Q  r  r 
 
 E  
 Q r
E E  4 0 r 3
 4 0 r3

E r >> l  Ql
  
r r r 4 0 r 3
- +Q
r+= r-  r 
Q l l  r  r   pe
E
    4 0 r 3
 r  r   l
pe  Ql

Explanations:
(a) E for a dipole is inversely propotional to the
cube of the distance ( 距离的三次方 )for all
distant points.
(b) The product qd, is defined a vector quantity
called electric dipole moment ( 电偶极矩 ).
 
p  ql
(3) Electric field calculations for any continuous
charged distributions 电荷连续分布情况

Q
dV dq
dq
 体 DC  
Density of
dV
dq
r p
charge (DC):  面   
ds dE
DC
 线 DC dq ds
 
dl

dl
Density of charge (DC):
 1  dl 
linear charge density ， dq   dl E 
4 0  r2 r

 1  dS 
surface charge density  ， dq   dS E 
4 0  r 2
r


 1  dV 
volume charge densidity  ， dq   dV E 
4 0  r2 r
   dq
E  dE 
Q
 Q  4π 0 r 2 rˆ
 
Vector. E  E ( x, y , z )

E x   dE x , E y   dE y , E z   d E z ,

   
E  E xi  E y j  Ezk
Example

As shown in figure, Electric quantities

Q,L Q distribute uniformly on a line bar of
length L .Find the electrostatic force
acting on the point charge q0 .

b q0Q 1 1
q0 magnitude：f  (  )
+ 4πε0 L b b  L
 Example
A thin rod of finite length L has charge q spread
uniformly along it. What is the magnitude E of the
electric field at point P where is from the rod d
(linear DC: )?  y
dE dE y
 dx 
Solution: dE  
4 π 0 r 2
dE x
P
dE x  dE cos d 2 x
1 
dE y  dE sin  0 x
x   d cot  , dx  d csc 2 d , r 2  d 2 csc
dq 2 

 cos d  sin d

dE x  dE y 
4 π 0 d 4 π 0 d
 2  cos d 
E x   dE x    (sin  2  sin  1 )
1 4π 0 d 4 π 0 d
2 sin  d 
Ey   dE y    (cos  1  cos  2 )
1 4 π 0 d 4 π 0 d
  
E  Exi  E y j ,
2 2
E Ex  Ey
or Ey
  arctan
Ex
Applications:
(a) For infinite charged length of rod  1  0,  2  π
or, y much less than L(<<):
  
E j ( 无限长均匀带电细
2 π 0 y 棒 )
Direction:
perpendicular to and away from the
rod.
(b) For half-infinite charged length
π     
1  ,  2  π E   i j
2 4 π 0 d 4π 0 d

( 半无限长均匀带电细
棒)
(c) combination of Charged linear bar
surface charge density 

o x
p
Example :
A thin ring of radius a with a uniform
 + 
around its circumference 周长 .E P  ?
dq   dl dE x  dE cos 
 dq
dE  rˆ dE y  dE sin 
4 π 0 r 2

Considering the symmetry 对称性 , E have only x component

dl


dE x  dE cos θ E  E x xˆ

dE dE
   dl x
That is, | E | E x   dE cos    4 π 0 r 2

r
x 2 πa x ( 2 πa )
E

4 π 0 x  a
2

2 3 2  0
dl 

4 π 0 x  a 2

2 32

Qx
E

4 π 0 x  a2

2 32 (charged ring)

1 If Q > 0, along +x direction.

If Q < 0, along -x direction.
Point charge?!
2 If x >> a, then we have
Q (Charged ring at
E
4π 0 x 2 large distance)
Example :
Below figure shows a circular plastic disk of radius R that
has a positive surface charge of uniform density  on its
upper surface. What is the electric field at point P, a
distance z from the disk along its central axis?
dQ   2 πr  dr
2π r z
dE  dr
4 π 0 ( r  z )
2 2 3/ 2

z R rdr
E
2 0  0 (r 2  z 2 )3 / 2

 z (Charged
E [1  ]
2 0 2 2 1/ 2
(R  z ) disk)
  z
E [1  ]
2 0 (R  z )
2 2 1/ 2

1 If R while keeping z finite, it reduces to


E (infinite sheet 无穷大薄片 )
2 0
The E produced by any infinite charged sheet is
not related to the distance of z (constant) and its
direction perpendicular to the infinite sheet.
πR 2 q
2 z>>R, E 
4 π 0 z 2
4 π 0 z 2

The disk here is look like a point charge.

 10-3 Gauss’ Law

1. Electric field lines

Hey! Keep in mind: electric field lines

do not actually exist !
The properties of Faraday’s electric field lines:

(1)Electric field lines originate 发源 on

positive charges and terminate 终止 on
negative charges (or go on to infinity).

(2) The field lines are

never cross each other
2. Flux ( 通量 )of an electric field

The relationship between Flux and E
Direction: the tangential direction of electric field
line at each point in space ( 电场线上每一点的切线方
向 ).
Magnitude: proportional to the number of field
lines  per unit area, measured in a plane that is
perpendicular to the lines ( 电场中某点场强的大小等于该
点处的垂直于电场方向电场线数密度 ).
d
i.e. E   d  EdS 
dS
 Uniform
 EB  
EA EC E
B C
dS 
A
 Where  is the electric flux —— the number
of field lines intersecting the given area ( 通过电场
中任一面的电场线条数通过该面的电通量 ).
Calculating the flux of electric field:

(1) A planes in the uniform E : 匀强电场情况
The number of electric field line through
both area of S and S are equal, so
 
Φ  ES Φ  E S   ES cos   E  S
(2) For nonuniform fields and curved surfaces 非
匀强电场中曲面  
E dS
  S
d  E cos dS  E  dS
 
 d   E  dS
S S

(electric flux through a Gaussian surface)


Descriptions:
 
If the surfaces is closed,    E  dS
S


outward the closed surface; dS  0

inward the closed surface. dS  0
If the surface is unclosed, the positive normal
direction can be free chosen.
e is a scalar. Its SI unit: N·m2/C.
 3. Gauss’ law ( 高斯定理 )
Karl Friedrich Gauss (1777—1835),
German mathematician and physicist.

1834 年，通过受电磁
影响的罗盘指针，高斯
向韦伯发送了电报。这
不仅仅是从韦伯的实验
室与天文台之间的第一
个电话电报系统，也是
世界首创。尽管线路才
8 千米长。
To find out the relation between the electric field
and its source, consider a very simple case of a
positive point charge q at the center of a 
spherical shell:  q
E
E rˆ
4 π 0 r 2

  q  
Φ   E  ds   r  ds
A1 A2
4 π 0 r 2

q q 
  4 πr 
2 E
4 π 0 r 2
0
The same result for any shaped-closed surface
A2 due to the continuity of electric field line.
If q is outside of the area, inward=outward, =0
  qinterior
 Φ   E  ds  
closed
0
+q
surface

—— Gauss’law for vacuum.

The flux of the electric field through a closed
surface of any shape equals to 1/0 times of the
algebraic sum of charges enclosed within the
surface. 真空中静电场内通过任意闭合曲面的电通量等于该
曲面所包围的电量的代数和的 1/0 倍 .
The relation of the source of electric
filed and the field 反映场和源 的关系 .
   qinterior
 Φ   E  ds  
0
Descriptions: closed
surface

(a) Where  qinterior is the algebraic sum of all

interior charges enclosed in the Gaussian surface.
 is not related to the way of distribution and
outside charges. 通量由高斯面内电荷决定。

(b) The quantity E on the left side of above
equation is the electric field resulting from all
charges, both those inside and those outside the
Gaussian surface. E 由所有电荷决定。
(c) Gauss’s Law and Coulomb’s law are
equivalent in electrostatic field . However,
Gauss’s Law is hold for the electric field
produced by moving charges; Coulomb’s law is
only true for electrostatic field.

(d) It give a simple way to calculate the E
distribution of electric field for a given charge
distribution with symmetry.

4. Applying Gauss’ law——calculating

Example :
A uniformly charged spherical volume （带电球

体） , radius R and total charge Q. Find E the at
any point of inside and outside region.

Question? How do we choose the surface for


calculating the electric flux or E ?

R
Solution:

To calculate E outside of the sphere, we choose for

Gauss’ surface (G. S.) as an imaginary spherical
shell A1 with r > R:
 
Φ  AE  ds  E Sds R
1

using
1
 E 4πr  Q2
Gauss’law E
0
 Q
E  2
rˆ ( r  R ) R r
4 0 r
To calculate E inside of the sphere, we choose for
G.S. as an imaginary spherical shell with A2 r <
R:   1 1 4 πr 3

Φ  A E  ds  E 4 πr 2
 V 
0 3

2 0
r Qr
E  
3 0 4 π 0 R 3
R
 Qr
E rˆ ( r  R )
4 π 0 R 3
E

O R r
 
In the similar way, we can get Eof spherical
shell （带电球壳的电场）
 Q
E  rˆ ( r  R )
R 4 π 0 r 2


E0 (r  R)
E
q
4 π 0 R 2

q
8 π 0 R 2

O R r
Example :
A section of an infinitely long cylindrical plastic
rod with a uniform +. Letus find an expression
for the magnitude of the   Eat a distance r from the
axis of the rod.
Solution: Our Gaussian surface should match the
symmetry of the problem ——axis symmetry
( 轴对称性 ) or cylindrical symmetry.

场强沿垂直轴线的方向 ；距
中心同远处场强相同
    
Φ   E  ds  side E  ds
face
   
  E ds   E ds
left right

1
 E  2 πrl  l
0


 E (line of charge)
2 π 0 r

The direction of E  is radially outward from the line
of charge for +, and radially inward for -. It also
approximates the field of a finite line of charge, at
points that are not too near the ends (l >> r).
 Example :
A portion of an infinite, sheet ( 无限 
大均匀带电平面 ) with a uniform E
(positive) surface charge density .

FindE the  a distance r in front of 
E
the sheet.
Planar symmetry—— 垂直板面
Solution: 向外 , 距板同远处 E 大小相同
     
Φ   E  ds   E  ds   E  ds  2 Es
S left A right A

s
2 Es 
0

E  (sheet of charge)
2 0
Discussion:
If we arrange two infinite plates, with uniform
opposite  to be close to each other and parallel as

the figure shown. What are the E in the region of
A, B and C?  
A C B
E A  0 , EB  0
 
EC  E   E   2  
2 0  0
The electric field between parallel- 

plate capacitor in circuit ( 直流电路中
的平行板电容器间的场强 ) is such a case. A C B
 Summary:
For certain symmetry arrangements of charge
(cylindrical, planar and Spherical symmetry),
Gauss’s law is very much easier to use than
integration of field components.
• The symmetry of charge distribution is as
same as the one of electric field distribution.
 10-4. Electric Potential
1. Features of electrostatic force
Coulomb’s Law for F
1 q1q2
electrostatic force: 4 π 0 r 2

Newton’s Law for m1 m 2

F G 2
gravitational force r

The electrostatic force is a conservative force.

The work done by electrostatic force is path

independent. 静电力做功与路径无关
 We can infer that the work done on a moving
charge around a closed loop in an electrostatic
field is zero.
     
 Fe  dl 
L
 qE  dl  q  E  dl  0
L L

 
q  0,   E  dl  0
L Circulation theorem

The line integral of the electrostatic field

around a closed loop is zero ( 静电场中场强沿任意
闭合环路的线积分恒等于零 ) 静电场的环路定
理.
 2. Electric potential energy 电势能
electrostatic force is a conservative force
b
Wab  EP  ( EPb  EPa )  EPa  EPb
b   
Wab  
a
Fe  dl  E Pa  EPb E
reference potential energy q
EPb  E P  0 a
  
then E Pa  Wa  q  E  dl
a

The Ep of charge q at point a = the work done by the Fe
during the move of charge q from a to infinity. (q 在电场中 a
点的电势能 =q 从 a 移到无穷远电场力所做功 ).
 3. Electric potential 电势
The physical quantity to represent property of
field at any point —— electric potential.
   (electric potential
U a   E  dl at point a)
a

When q =1, U a  E P a  Wa 

Ua equals to the work done by the on unit positive
Fe
charge during the move from a to infinity along any
path. ( 电荷 q 在电场中某点电势 Ua 在数值上等于单位正电荷从
a 移到无穷远处静电场力所做的功亦等于放在点 a 的单位正电荷
所具有的电势能 ).
Explanations:

(a) The difference of Ep and U:

U is a property of an electric field,

regardless of whether a charged object
has been placed in that field; Ep is an
energy associated with a system (the
charged object plus the charged
particles that set up the electric field).
(b) Electric potential difference  U( 电势差 , 电压 )
The U between any two points a and b equal

to the work done by the Fe on unit positive
charge during the move from a to b.
     b 
U  U a  U b   E  dl   E  dl   E  dl
a b a

U is independent on the choice of reference

potential ( 电势的零点无论选在何处 . 电势差不受影响 ).
The value of electric potential is relative, but
the one of electric potential difference is
absolute ( 电势的大小是相对的 , 电势差是绝对的 ).
4. Calculations of electric potential
(a) Potential due to a point charge

From definition of U, integral along radial direction: E
    
q q P
U P   E  dl   Edr   dr 
P rP rP
4 π 0 r 2
4 π 0 rP 
q r
U 
4 π 0 r q
q>0 produces a positive electric potential;
q<0, produces a negative electric potential.
(b) Potential Due to a Group of Point Charges

Based on the principle of superposition of E:
n
q
U 
i 1 4 π 0 ri
(c) Potential due to a continuous charge distribution
  dl
1 dq 
U   dU   where dq   dS
4 π 0 场源电荷 r  dV


(d) Principle of superposition of electric potential:

 
Assume some charges produces E1 , E 2 , at point a:
      
U  E  dl   E1  dl   E2  dl   U1  U 2  
a a a

电场中某点的电势等于各电荷单独在该点产生的电势的叠加 ( 代数
和)。

Note: It should be relative to same reference point.

Example :
A thin ring of radius R with q uniformly distributing its
circumference. What is the U at point P, a distance z from
the ring along its central axis ( 带电圆环轴线 )?
Solution:  dq   dl 
q
dl Z
2 πR
P
dV 
dq

qdl
4π 0 r 8π 2 R( z 2  R 2 ) 1 2
r
0

2 πR qdl
U P   dU   1 R
L
0
8π  0 R ( z  R )
2 2 2 2
V dq
q
U ( z)  1
4 π 0 ( z  R )
2 2 2 z
O
Example:
Calculating potential U for the uniformly charged
spherical shell (with charge Q and radius R) .
R  Q
U ( r )   Edr   dr
r R 4 π 0 r 2
r
Q R
 (r  R)
4 π 0 R 球面内 E=0!
 Q
U (r )   dr
r 4 π r 2
0
Q 与电量集中在球心的 V
 rR
4 π 0 r 点电荷的电势分布相同
The distribution of U is continuous.
Uin equals to the U at spherical surface. O R r
Spherical shell is a equipotential body ( 等势体 ).
 
10-5. Relation between V and E
1. Equipotential surfaces 等势面

Adjacent points that

have the same electric
potential form an
equipotential surface, .

U ( x, y , z )  C

电势相等的点组成的面
 2. Relation between electric field line and
equipotential surface
(a) Electric field lines are perpendicular to
equipotential surfaces everywhere.
(b) The direction of electric field lines direct the one
of electric potential decreasing ( 电势降落的方向 ) 放在
电场中的正电荷将由高电势处向低电势处运动 ; 负电荷……
(c) The electrostatic force does zero
work if charge move along the surface.
(d) The place where the equipotential
surfaces are dense has strong electric
field ( 等势面的疏密反映了场的强弱 ).
 3. Electric potential gradient ( 电势梯度 )

Integral relation —— find U from E:
零势点  
U  
P
E  dl
Differential relation——find

E from U:
E  gradU  U

That is, E x   U ; E y   U ; E z   U
x y z
Proof:
 U  dU 
As figure, a,b are very near points, ds is E
the displacement from a to b. U
 b
 
U a  U b  E  d l   a dl
 E  d l  dU
U a  U b  U  (U  dU )  dU I II
        
Where, E  dl  ( Ex i  E y j  Ez k )  (dxi  dyj  dzk )
 E x dx  E y d y  E z d z
U U U
dU  dx  dy  dz
x y z
U U U
Ex   , Ey   , Ez  
x y z
 U  U  U 
i.e. E  ( i j k )  U
x y z

★ The operator of gradient 直角坐标下梯度算符 :

     
  ( )i  ( ) j  ( )k
x y z
  U  U  U 
so, E  grad U  U  ( i j k)
x y z
U Partial derivatives along L
or Es   
L direction 沿 L 方向的变化率 ( 方向导
数 )
The component of E   in any direction is the
negative of the rate of change of the electric
potential with distance in that direction.
（电场中某点场强沿某方向的分量等于电势沿此方向空间变
化率的负值 或电场中某点场强等于该点的电势梯度的负值）。

In SI system, the unit of electric field can be

defined as volts per meter. V/m is as same as N/C.
Example :
A thin ring of radius R with

a uniform + around its
circumference. What is the EP ?
q
From, U ( x)  1
4 π 0 ( x  R )
2 2 2 R
 P
Ex   U ( x)
x O
1 q  2x
 ( ) q
2 4 π ( x 2  R 2 ) 3 2
0

qx V
 3
4 π 0 ( x  R )
2 2 2

E y  Ez  0 x
O
It is the the same as what we got before!
Example :
At any point on the central axis of a uniformly

charged disk U is given by U  ( z 2
 R 2
 z) ,
2 0
from this expression, What isE the at any point on
the axis of the disk.
Solution:
U  z
 Ez    (1  )
z 2 0 z R
2 2

It is the same result as what we got before!