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ACME-2022 IOP Publishing
IOP Conf. Series: Materials Science and Engineering 1262 (2022) 012029 doi:10.1088/1757-899X/1262/1/012029
Influence of the defect characteristic in aluminum alloy 7075

in non-destructive electromagnetic testing
A Savin1, R Steigmann1, V Uchanin2, M D Stanciu3

1
National Institute of R&D for Technical Physics, Nondestructive Testing Department, Iasi,
Romania
2
Karpenko Physico-Mechanical Institute of the National Academy of Sciences of Ukraine,
Lviv, Ukraine
3
Transilvania University, Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Brasov, Romania
Email: asavin@phys-iasi.ro
Abstract. The paper presents the results obtained from aluminum alloy 7075 T6 using eddy
current testing method (ECT). This method is based on eddy current 3x3 sensor array,
commanded through PC by a data acquisition system, allowing several different delay and
amplitude technique at transmission and reception. The response of each sensor is stored,
ensuring details for reconstructions and imaging procedures. Based on software CIVA
simulation and experiment, defect characterization is obtained using the information received by
each sensor of the array and establishing the position of the flaw upon the reacting sensor from
array. The signal is post processed using super resolution algorithm to enhance signal to noise
ratio, thus both surface and under surface flaws shall be identified, (thin or volumetric) or having
different tilting reported to the surface and correlation between theoretical and experimental
results.
1. Introduction
Aluminum and aluminum alloy (AA) materials had never been missing in the automobile industry and
aviation industry [1]. The year 1903 represents for aluminum the "conquest" of the field of aviation
constructions. Aluminum has been used in the first flight device of Wright brothers for engine parts[2].
It was the start for hot hardened aluminum. Then, over the years, the aerospace industry needed more
and more types of materials, dictated by long-haul flights, which required highly durable casings and
engine parts which led to research and obtaining of several types of new aluminum alloys. Aluminum
alloys having remarkable mechanical properties are wide used in large aircraft constructions [3]. With
about a third of the weight of steel, having exceptional mechanical properties, aluminum alloys are used
in a remarkable percentage in large aircraft constructions [3].
Due to the high level of zinc [4], AA 7075 T6 has excellent fatigue resistance [5]. Completing the
materials range in aeronautic industry with CFRP and GFRP structures, the 7075 aluminum-based
materials are found and remain as highly demanded in structural parts as rods, aircraft fittings gears and
shafts, as well as in other industries due to its outstanding mechanical properties as low weight and high
stress strength [6,7]. This type of alloy can be easily processed, remaining a popular choice for all types
of aviation and is still common in construction. The Zn and Mg alloying elements through the MgZn2
intermetallic phase increase the strength [8] so that industry experts are still positive about the use of
AA in the aerospace industry. AA 7075 T6 is a very strong alloy and commonly used in the aerospace
Content from this work may be used under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 licence. Any further distribution
of this work must maintain attribution to the author(s) and the title of the work, journal citation and DOI.
Published under licence by IOP Publishing Ltd 1
industry, its choice depends on factors such as mechanical strength of the final product, elasticity,
corrosion resistance, electrical conductivity, etc [9].
AA 7075 T6 is a material generally considered not weldable, being extremely prone to cracking after
welding but is a very high strength material used for highly stressed structural parts. Quality aluminum
alloy products are made by die casting [10], which ensures good mechanical properties, accurate
geometry and competitive price for large series products. However, during the manufacturing process
even if cutting-edge technologies and service environment are used, various alloy flaws can inevitably
occur. There are known situations in which the presence of possible flaws does not immediately produce
visible effects, but they can develop and eventually lead the alloy failure causing functional
discrepancies that make the material improper to use.
Electromagnetic testing by ECT is proving to be successfully applied for thin conductive products
with defects in and/or subsurface [11,12]. At the same time technicians need augmented ECT regimen
that can adapt to special purpose materials. The micro ECT sensors in different configurations ensure
the emphasizing of the material discontinuities by analyzing the response of the sensor in amplitude /
phase of the scattered electromagnetic field. The sensor has the role both of generating the alternating
magnetic field, inducing EC in the sample and of measuring the secondary field [13]. The literature
reports different types of EC sensors depending on the operating modes classified as absolute,
differential, reflection and hybrid [14]. Additionally, ECT can be automatized/ personalized to gain time
during evaluation process. It is known that a better way to inspect surface and subsurface cracking is
flexible eddy current array. This technology is based on the ability to simultaneously interrogate multiple
EC sensors that form the array, each sensor producing a signal relative in the amplitude and phase of the
structure above which it is positioned [15,16]. These signals are correlated with data from an encoder
allowing the coding of position and time required for graphical representation as C scan of the structure.
The system allows covering large areas in one scan, simplifying the inspection of complex geometries
structures. However, the sensitivity of such tests is affected by the low conductivity of the material and
the high coherent background noise, which makes the high sensitivity standards required of the
aerospace industry difficult to achieve. Although the limitations of the method are known, ECT is a
technology efficient and precise, being widely used in the detection of subsurface flaws and the
qualitative assessment of conductive materials [17-19], always trying to isolate the effects of
interference factors as dependence by composition and structure of the material, the design features of
the sensor, etc. Imaging technology overcomes the shortcomings of classical ECT that does not provide
information about the shape of the defect and additionally has the advantage of intuitive defect
information. The paper proposes to analysis the signals of sensors array at the raster scan of AA7075
T6 plate surface containing open at surface discontinuities and hidden defect (thin and volumetric),
having different tilting towards the displacing direction of the transducer and correlation between
theoretical results and measurements.
2. Materials and methods
2.1. Materials
6 specimens were cut-out from a sheet AA 7075 T6 with conductivity  = 1.89x107 S/m, with a
composition presented in table 1. (reported la EN 573-3 chemical symbol EN AW-Al Zn5,5MgCu).
Table 1. The chemical composition (wt.%).

Si Fe Cu Mn Mg Cr Zn Ti Other Al
each total
EN 573-3 0.40 0.50 1.2- 0.30 2.1- 0.18- 5.1- 0.20 0.05 0.15 Bal.
2.0 2.9 0.28 6.1
sample 0.1 0.22 1.7 0.09 2.51 0.18 5.75 0.02 - - Bal.
2
Determination of elastic properties of studied samples were carried out using ultrasound (US)
method. The principal elastic parameters (E,G, ν) were calculated using from US velocities of
longitudinal and transversal propagating waves (CL and respective CT). For thin samples, (the case of
aluminum plates), a delay line has been used [20] and the measurements were made using emission
reception US transducer G5KB for longitudinal waves and MB4Y for transversal waves connected to
PR 5077 Pulser Receiver as in [21], Figure 1
Figure 1. Experimental set-up for ultrasound method
The mechanical parameters are given in Table 2.
Table 2. The mechanical properties of samples.

sample Density Elastic Shear Poisson CL CT L l H
[g/cm3] modulus modulus ratio [m/s] [m/s] [mm] [mm] [mm]
[GPa] [GPa]
AA 7075
2.778 71.82 27 0.33 6332 3153 142.33 24.09 2.94
T6
The thermal processes for aluminum alloy reconfigure the structure and strengthen the mechanical
properties of the alloys knowing that the alloying elements Zn and Mg through the intermetallic phase
lead to the increase of the strength [22]. For the alloy under study, the phase diagram was drawn,
following the direct relationships between the binding energies of the atoms and the mechanical
properties in such a way as to obtain superior mechanical properties.
2.2. The field diffracted by the crack; model-based study

Using a sensor array connected to an eddy current equipment, the emphasizing the discontinuities is
assured. The modelling of sensors array response is carried out using Green’s dyadic functions for half-
space, developed in [23]. This model is accurate when the penetration depth is low, assuring a good
approximation. The electric field created by the sensor circulated by the current with I0 amplitude and
 frequency is E1(r), those created in material with conductivity 2 is E2(r). In the presence of
discontinuity having f, these are [24]
E1  r   j2  G12  r , r '  J  r '  dr ' (1)
Vsource
3
 f  r '  
E2  r   j2 2  G22  r , r  E2  r  
' '
 1 dr '  E1  r  (2)
Vflaw   2 
with dyadic Green’s function G12  r , r '  (calculated in [25], Vsource is the volume of the emission coil,
and to obtain E2  r  were used Moore-Penrose inversion [26]. The presence of inhomogeneity is
considered a secondary source, creating the field defined by G22 ( r , r ') dyad [27] using discretization of
region of interest in identical cells (M=18cells), small enough (0.125x0.125mm2). Thus, the
perturbation given by the discontinuity become
  f (r ') 
E flaw (r )  j2 2  G21 (r , r ')E2 (r ')   1 dr ' (3)
Vflaw  2 
and the e.m.f. in one sensor of the array will be e  r    E  r  dr , C being the contour of a sensor
flaw
C
(Figure 2).
Figure 2. Subsurface crack
While the normal component is continuous on the discontinuity, the tangential one is discontinuous
[28]. To solve the forward problem, the method of impulse has been used applying a regular partition
for discontinuity, so that both E2  r  and f shall be considered constant in each cell, meaning the value
in the center of cell. The calculation has been developed in Matlab. As in other applications such as
sonar and radar [29], the EC resolution can be enhanced by detecting the direction of propagation.
Knowing that e.m.f. from each sensor in the array is ri  bi e ji , for the N reception sensors the
response of the array due to the discontinuity must be unambiguous, in order to distinguish between two
inhomogeneities placed in closed enough locations. According to [24] the sensor’s sensitivity matrix is
A  w * wH , so that any trace of ambiguity is removed using weighting vector w - describing the
connections strength (making a linear combination between the sensor array signal and the output
signal). Thus the response of the array will depend on the weighting vector and the vector of the
measurements of the sensors array [30]
X  r  wH (4)
with H the hermitical operator. The weighting function for the array response is set for different clusters
and places of discontinuities, relative to the surface of the material. The e.m.f. phase is determined in
the same way. For any type of sensor, it would be ideal for the maximum sensitivity shall be in the
center. For a defect-free area, the magnitude and phase of the excitation current provide the sensitivity
4
2
in the center. The electric power of the signal induced in the array due to discontinuity is P ~ y and
2
P0 ~ y0 in condition that is not present. In order to facilitate the representation will use a normed
response array (NRA)
P  P0
NRA[dB]  10lg (5)
P0
Searching among all the possible discontinuity positions those that maximize the output power, the
defect position can be obtained.
3. Results and discussions
3.1. Eddy current sensor array simulation

Taken into consideration the penetration depth  a EC in material,   1 /  f and considering the
defect at depth of 1.55mm undersurface (almost 55% from wall thickness), 5kHz frequency assures its
emphasizing. The tangential component of the field and EC propagation in the presence of a
discontinuity under the surface are presented in Figure 3.
Figure 3. Eddy current distribution
The emphasizing of defects using the sensor array has been simulated using CIVA 9.1, figure 4
presenting the results for two defects, D1- under surface having dimensions of 5x0.2x1.55mm3 and D2
open at surface defect having 4x0.2x1 mm3 at 5kHz. The calculation of electric field was carried out for
0.1A current at 0.5mm lift-off, the array being displaced perpendicularly on the defect (Figure 4).
Figure 4 presents the variation of amplitude and the phase of electric field generated by the array.
The simulated sensors array scanning is carried out perpendicularly on the length of the defect. The
emission coil assures a homogeneous field in its center; thus, the reception coils are placed inside it. The
situation along x axis, where the array is symmetrical with x axis for y=0 has been taken into analysis
(Figure 5).
The relation between the penetration depth and frequency limits somehow the detection of defects
but keep the possibility to detect defects under the surface of thin materials and not only.
5
b
Figure 4. Results of CIVA simulation adapted for application: a) amplitude and phase map of crack in
an aluminum plate for D1; b) amplitude and phase map of crack in an aluminum plate for D2
Figure 5. Example of sensors array configuration in CIVA
The result of simulation shows that the amplitude is maximum for the sensor placed over the defect
comparatively with those placed at the limits of the array, meanwhile the phase of the signal remains
almost unchanged. This implies that a defect closed to the center of the array will produce a response
6
more powerful than the signal produced when the defect is under a sensor from the edge of array.
Surveying the same discontinuity, the sensors must have same characteristics (amplitude and phase),
giving a uniform sensitivity of the array.
The array’s resolution of array is improved by super-resolution procedure [24,30]. Considering the
defects D1 and D2, at making  angle with the normal to the direction of sensors array displacing
(parallel with the length of crack), varying between 00 and 750, the response of array has been simulated
(Figure 6).
b
Figure 6. Simulation of sensors tilting: a) Different orientation of reception coils towards the defect;
b) Amplitude of e.m.f. induced in sensors array for different orientation of defect D1 towards scanning
direction
From data experimentally obtained, it can be drawn that for a defect perfectly visible it is necessarily
to increase the gain. In analytical expression, the situation is given by the square brackets from eq. (2).
The solutions of each states function on i angle are unknown expressions. The region of interest is
discretized in Ni identical cells (Ni;x,y,z, i=1,2...N the number nodes) with small dimensions  vi so that
the field in each cell must be identical with the one in the cell’s center. The equations are solved using
point-matching method of moments [31]. Each solution of the equation can be written in function of
7
local coordinates of diagonal volume of defect. For the simulated results, an horizonal extraction of
signal has been carried put (Figure 7).
b
Figure 7. Coil impedance change; signal extraction along the defect line: a) complex plan
representation; b) the real and imaginary part of the X and Y channel
8
3.2. Sensors array result

The sensors array consists in emission coil and 9 reception coils disposed in 3x3 packed configuration.
The block diagram is presented in Figure 8.
Figure 8. Block diagram of experimental set-up
The emission part is fed with a current having amplitude I0=0.1A and 5kHz frequency. The reception
coils are alternatively interrogated, detecting the amplitude and the phase of e.m.f. with a lock-in
amplifier which has a signal with proportional amplitude and in the phase with current through the
emission coil as reference. The response of array has been measured in a region free of discontinuities
and for the defect open at surface D1. The results are presented in Figure 9.
b
Figure 9. The amplitude of e.m.f. recorded in each reception coil when the defect open at surface is
positioned under sensors: (a) (21,22,23); (b) between two rows of coils (21,22,23) and (31,32,33)
9
It can be observed that the response of the array for the defect D1 located between the center of two
columns indexed as in Figure 9b is increased when the center of the sensors scans the symmetry axis of
D1 defect (Figure 9a). When the defect is placed between two columns of reception coils, the central
region of the array has a response in amplitude significantly increased, compared with the sensors placed
on the border of the array, fact due to spatial distribution of the electric field generated by the emission
part (circular coil)[32]. The same conditions were implied for D2 defect under the surface.
b
Figure 10. The amplitude of e.m.f. recorded in each reception coil when the defect under surface is
positioned under sensors: (a) (21,22,23); (b) between two rows of coils (21,22,23) and (31,32,33)
It is observed that the amplitude response of the array depends very much on the position of the crack
in relation to the surface but also on their width, the geometric dimensions being essential for thin cracks.
The amplitude of the reception signal decreases for the subsurface defect; result in good accordance
with the theory of electromagnetic field diffraction and skin effect. Using the superresolution procedure
as the method for data processing, a noise signal ratio is obtained which ensures the detection of the
defect compared to a single sensor.
4. Conclusions
Method described in this paper is a very promising tool for nondestructive evaluation of AA7075T6.
Specially designed to be adaptable to hidden defects, (thin or volumetric) having different tilting
reported to the surface to be inspected, this method is based on sensors array (3x3 reception coils)
electronically controlled by a data acquisition system. The software CIVA simulation is used both to
optimization design array sensor and also to determine optimal frequency and emphasizing image of
10
defects and establish theoretical delay law for received signal from each sensor array. The received
signal was post processed using the super resolution procedure to improve the noise to signal ratio.
Several horizontal extractions and their superposition really show the correspondence between the
position of the sensors in the array and their amplitude response. The results obtained they highlighted
the distribution of eddy currents for realistic crack line analysis and they aim to improve the performance
of the sensor array when evaluating thin flat structures. These results of experiments carried out extend
the capabilities of the sensors array to discriminate different position of defects and to characterize them.
Acknowledgments
This work is partially supported by the Ministry of Research, Innovation and Digitization, Romania
under Nucleus Program MAGNA2022, Project PN 19 28 01 02 and Program1 - Development of the
National R&D system - Contract PFE 5/2021.
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PAPER • OPEN ACCESS You may also like

testing - Invar Electroplating for Controlled

- Automated egg grading system using

This content was downloaded from IP address 193.254.230.239 on 15/11/2022 at 15:08

Influence of the defect characteristic in aluminum alloy 7075

A Savin1, R Steigmann1, V Uchanin2, M D Stanciu3

2. Materials and methods

Table 1. The chemical composition (wt.%).

Figure 1. Experimental set-up for ultrasound method

The mechanical parameters are given in Table 2.

Table 2. The mechanical properties of samples.

2.2. The field diffracted by the crack; model-based study

Figure 2. Subsurface crack

3. Results and discussions

3.1. Eddy current sensor array simulation

Figure 3. Eddy current distribution

Figure 5. Example of sensors array configuration in CIVA

3.2. Sensors array result

Figure 8. Block diagram of experimental set-up

InIOP Conference Series: Materials Science and Engineering 997 1 p. 012031

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