P.EE#..y*k. r*Kli*q*y.

-I-A33
 thinners and Behaviorism
Extinction
•

because
Behavior decreases and

stimulus
eventually disappears
withheld
Extinction burst : behavior initially increases
1- Respond ant conditioning
.

>

Philosophical origins in frequency before disappearing

humans Reference Pavlov classical
Empiricism : at birth have no
knowledge to
conditioning method
• •

shaping
or content in mind .
All knowledge is acquired as
respond ant conditioning into smaller steps
( Hs) : Dividing behavior
-

Environmental determinism : environmental influences s Unconditioned stimulus stimulus that produces

a response naturally →
results in unconditioned ↳ primary manner in which human beings
account for all behavior
-

Poslntism : science only concerned with knowable

response acquire complex behaviors
Neutral stimulus ( NJ ) not associated with
.

:
stimulus
study observable behavior the unconditioned bell not salivation
continuous reinforcement
response : .

Ele mentalism smallest reinforcer follows immediately response

-
:
Explained through , simplest .

Nj ( belly + yg ( food ) salivation

=
.
after

Learnt rapidly easier to extinguish

Predict and
building blocks relevant ( og )
-

control events
,

↳ bell conditioned stimulus

.

becomes a through
-

Evolutionism : Behavior explained along same principles association with us leading to a conditioned response
Partial reinforcement
as animals .
even in ab sense of food .
Behavior not always reinforced

Learnt slowly difficult to

extinguish
> Operant CONDITIONING ,
.

y view of person .
Interval schedule or ratio schedule
.

Humanity view
-

Bring about learning of new responses ↳ fixed or variable pattern

•
Based on principles of evolutionism and -

Behavior controlled by environmental stimulus

determinism after behavior
that come

↳ Observable behavior at object of

study .

Leads to an increase / repeat in behavior >

-

i
satisfies Fixed Reinforcement
-

interval
outcome of evolution
a need Reinforcer presented at regular intervals

complexity of behavior is
only diff to environmental Response increases prior to reinforcement
certain conditions due
-

under reinforcement
.

increases
unnecessary for goal orientation and planning and then decreases

Environment determines behavior

> Reinforces variable interval
Behavior is lawful , can be manipulated intervals
Any environmental conditions / stimulus increases Irregular
•

-
•

the probability that behavior will be repeated fixed ratio

.
Personality as black box : internal structure •
Presented at a fixed number

Humans are unfree : -

no freedom of choice -

Primary biological value

: to organism
variable ratio

> Respond ant and operant Behavior

-

Secondary : has acquired reinforcement value •

presented after irregular number of desired > Elimination

responses systematic desensntisation eliminates reactions

of
as concept
personality
.

:
Behavior
of
•

association
•

because
ant
-

Difficult to extinguish of fear by teaching the individual to relax in

.
Respond behavior :

fastest rate
behavior response the of feared stimulus
through
↳ stimulated something before presence
'

a
the Reinforcement
by
•

Called a stimulus : observable object or reciprocal inhibition

•
Behavior is established so it will be repeated
environment results
'

change in which response .

cause and effect As a result of positive or

negative reinforce -

merit
•
operant behavior :

↳ not preceded Positive : positive added after and

by stimuli .
stimulus
•
Produced spontaneously likelihood increases
> Development of personality
Effects of dev of human behavior
effect environment and controlled learning on .

Has
.

an on
'
Negative :
Negative stimulus removed after .
optimal development learning to behave that
:

by this effect
relieves primary and secondary reinforces
environment
and likelihood increases one
•
Behavior → effect on and avioids aversive
punishment
•

can make decisions to improve their own and

> Dynamics of the personality .

Decreasing the likelihood other

people 's environments
-

Learning through behavioral control

Focus on environmental factors control behavior
.

Two types : Administration of negative

views of psychopathology
.

>

.
Learns by producing behavior randomly -

may be stimulus after undesirable behavior to decrease

repeated or not based on outcome
Removal of stimulus decrease likelihood
.
reinforcers usually associated with organism survival positive
 Second variables

Local Cognitive Learning Theory

is
person expectancy
-

Differences ascribed largely to their

expectancies
> Behavior is learned focus on observable behavior Third variable is subjective allocate
, > Dynamics of personality
. values : -

•
Refers to
things expectation and thoughts
like a reward
•

uses cognitive psychology concepts ( thinking memory ) ,

.

self -

regulating systems and plans

Observational NB ! Motivation ↳ standards person sets
learning as
-

Albert Bandura
.

not result of drives .

Differ according to competencies
> social
learning / social cognitive learning theorist ↳ Motivated by interaction between person and situation

(reciprocal determinism
is the outcome of
.
Behavior is motivated by results of behavior
learning
All behavior except reflexes are learnt
individual
•

's behavior a

interaction the person environment

-

two learning types :

-

Active participants : influence

process of between ,

itself
1. experiences with the results of their own behavior .
Three ways : direct experience ,
observation
and behavior ,

2 the observation of results of behavior of others

self -

regulation
µ ; gene ,
.

reinforcement
.

.
: direct ,
vicarious ,
self
↳ expectations ↳ Behavior also motivated ✓ elf evaluation
role of by -

↳ behavior changes as a result of performing

self control behavior which is rewarded or punished
variables
-

a
person
marshmallow test individual not reacts to stimuli but
rotter
.

only
interactional approach → behavior is result of interplay interprets it and hypotheses
-

is result of influence of
.
behavior joint
between person and rituation Observational
learning
subjective preferences about the possible
criticised the person 1st view .

Learning by observing
rewards and expectancies ( BP HE ,RY
-

Emphasis on role of expectations and self -

control .
Behaviors are complex , dangerous or

Person variables to the

change relative
•

social variables far removed from innate reflexes

cognitive person
-

situation as percieved by individual

term , :
.

↳ Encoding strategies •

Eventually develop generalized expectancies Social learning: all learning phenomena where social cognitive factor play a role
§ Model: the figure whose behavior is observed
Expectancy about results of behavior
§ Modeling: the behavior of the model
§ Observer: the person who observes someone else's behavior

subjective values § Reinforcement agent: the person who rewards or punishes the
model's behavior
-
Locus of control § Imitation: the behavior of the observer
self-regulation .
§ Counter-imitation: refers to cases where the observer do the
opposite of what they have observed in the model, which may
arise from negative attitude toward the model
Competencies Bandura .
influenced by : attention and retention
Learning through self-regulation
-

Julian Rotter Attention: The observer must pay attention to the behavior of the model for
o Self-
•
People possess various capabilities that underlie :
learning to take place
§ Retention: the first to the extent to which the observer will remember the
regulationfesttotheindividualsubabilitytoregulatetheirown
↳ concept of internal and external locus of control behavior and depends on the observer's attention
behavior, particularly their learning processes
↳ symbolizing capability : enables communication o Itincludesself-reinforcementandself-punishment
learnt acquired
Factorsinfluencingobservationallearning § the nature of the model
Behavior is
, in social situations behaviour
o 2basictypesofself-
and regulationsaredistinguished:internalandexternal
enables humans to conserve manipulate § the characteristics of the model
Internal :
people can exercise control over what
happens § the characteristics of the observer self-regulation
§ the results of the model’s behaviour § self-efficacy o internalself-
External control experiences in the form of cognitions , reflect regulation:peoplesubjectiveevaluationoftheirown
:

believe that circumstances beyond behaviour, for instance when you say to yourself, ‘good
on experiences and use to plan job!’
BP=f (E ,
RV ) o externalself-

function of expectancy and reinforcement value Forethought :

Implies people do not
simply regulation:anexampleistreatingyourselfbybuying
yourself a new pair of sneakers for doing well on a task.
Behavior potential =

o Self-
reatt to immediate situations or past regulationisregardedisthemostimportantformoflearning
> the View of Person ,

because it is fundamental to other types of learning

can devise plans and goals
•
Behavior is the outcome of knowable , multiple > Development
vicarious capability :
ability to learn from and
gauge , .

Develops throughout entire lifespan

others enables INDIVIDUAL to learn via continuously learns new and modified behaviors
-

Individual and situation co -

determine behavior ,

dangerous behavior stages

No
observation Of others
'

self regulate in interaction with situation

of
- -

an
ongoing process change
.

self
Interactional is central reciprocal determinism regulatory capability ability : to live
by
-

•
view ÷

standards : independent
>
optimal learning
-

Humans are not passive responders but rather own .

theory about learned behaviour - not good behaviour or

active evaluate and self reflective ability to have self bad behaviour adjusted behaviour or maladjusted
who stimuli , plan judge : a
image
-
-

, behaviour

perfect oneself self-efficacy

change behavior Behavior is determined but the interaction between
on , The interpretation and handling of aggression
• Aggression is seen this behavior that develops from inborn and

theory of specificity : the characteristics of the individuals and those of a learned behavior patterns in a lifelong process in which different
-

specific situation kinds of learning play a part

-
G- =f ( PXSXB) Mischel
• Potentially aggressive models of behavior part of the behavioral
repertoire of each individual
• Aggression will be repeated when it leads to rewarding
-

Long list of person variables which he calls consequences

• Aggressive responses can be learned particularly through
> Structure of personality cognitive -
social person variables observing aggressive
models
-

Emphasis on
functioning and dynamics ↳
Encoding strategies
• Likelihood that aggression will be performed depends on a
number of factors
and interactions, including expectancies, self-efficacy
-
Not regard personality as fixed structure or
parts -

Influence on personality because

they
perceptions, one’s
interpretation of the situation, self-regulating strategies, and
Behavior is result of situational and person variables
•

values
shape what individuals learn and • Aggressive behavior can be provoked by unpleasant stimuli
↳ person and environment such as frustration
will see and evaluate or can be due to expectation of rewarding outcomes
.
how they • Persistence in aggressive behavior is regulated by its results
 r

Alfred Adler '

inferiority
People respond
and compensation
to psychological interior ties > Birth order
'
compensation
'
compensation with
^
individual Psychology
becoming good at inferiority
>
↳ some compensate by
I drive '
-

single or
motivating force

behind behavior similar to self actualization

-
to me become good at something else
↳ striving for perfection
^
Some never develop self et teem -

to fulfill our
overwhelmed by forces of inferiorly = complex
•

Desire we have
•

closer to ideal
potentials , come
↳ neurosis , psychological problem
Earliest aggression drive :
was
-

phase
reaction when other drives are frustrated
↳ Assertiveness drive
Superiority
NB: For Adler our personalities could be accounted for by the
-

Response : . develop superiority complex

ways in which we
do - or do not - compensate or overcome those problems. ↳ pretending to be superior
-
masculine protest hiding feelings in delusions
. of power afforded
↳ Boys in higher esteem than girls by alcohol and drugs
: males have power , education motivation insufficient social intent
Neurosis :
. ,

not due to innate superiority rather

assertive
The ruling type : aggressive , dominant strive for power .

boys encouraged to be ,

§ The getting type passive ,

rely on others charm
'

strong assertive control

-

•
Masculine :
,
, ,
§ The avoiding type AVOID life
react into self
'

Feminine weak passive , dependent , psychotic

-

:
, ,

t unhealthy neurotic ,

striving for superiority

'

↳ people want to do better than others

Style of life > childhood 3 childhood situations

•

↳ how people live life how handle problems

,
-
1st child inferiority :
>
personality Asset Mlm
> Motivation > children remain self focused
towards the future
.

Moving strong sense of inferiority

Humans drawn towards goals purposes will compensate
-

ideals
,
with encouragement
and :

telelogy
-

Partial truths : fictions

-
2nd pampering

/
> children taught by others actions that

they can take without giving hatred

> Social interest
learned but Falls : do not learn for themselves by
social concern not inborn nor
,
society
.

combination do not learn to deal with others

-

Innate disposition ,
must be nurtured .
3rd
neglect
of
•
sense caring for family , community , > learn
inferiority because told no value
humanity life useful to others
being selfishness through trust
>
Learn no
-
,

failures :
lacking in social interest i. neurotic ,
love i.
capacity
.

•
Not known no
criminals , drunkards ,
perverts etc

↳ goal of and
superiority
personal triumph
d
only have meaning
personal .

•
End up imperfect and not velf -
actualized .
foaally -

Oriented Psychoanalytical Theories

> Introduction
Inhibited growth leads to through
Dynamics
'

social dimension social and cultural factors >

•
:
, love
consciousness manifested in concept of self
> Basic hostility : result of conflicting experiences repressed
needs need belong unity
.

and Human : to
Basic anxiety : pervasive feeling of helplessness .

swamped
,
↳ can
strengthen the out and not be

child is unable to unconscious ↳ Sadistic relationship : destructive

by society 's conformity demands when cope
Philosophical theories
dominating
-

needs become linked unity through

Interpersonal style with
'
:

Masochistic : destructive unity

Karen
Horney a way of relating to other

shaped by culture ; interaction between means of

people develop style as
coping through submitting
-

>
environment creates conflicts
person and Irreconcilable and prelude one another
intra psychic
.
interpersonal
→

Underlies three basic personality types :

optimistic view : tends toward development
transcendence
,

instinctual existence
•

Movement against others ( aggressive ) :

• '

growth realising , of potentials and individuals

do not accept apart mess axiomatic hostility met with
hostility destroying
:

or
-

by creating
,
are able to
consciously shape their
personality
that Movement towards others Hub missive)
people need liberated from
•

Neurotic to be
↳ Benign aggression phylogenetically
•

:
blocks their acknowledge own helplessness and seek affirmation
which growth
-

.
Movement away ( detached ) programmed impulse geared to protect
structure
> of
personality -
avoid being dependent on others , no
hostility malignant aggression aggression :
•
structural elements
↳ idealised self : product of feeling of
inferiority , > Erich Fromm becomes an end
common in
prestige and competitive societies .
Humanistic psychoanalysis : a synthesis

Actual self : how we consciously act in life , of Freud and Marx

, relationship between

often reject because doesn't meet ideal self individual and

society Rooted ness :
Need to be protected and
Real self : emerges when person relinquishes struggle for freedom against society 's pressure
•

Alienation
form part of past
techniques developed for dealing with anxiety
to conform :
all
.
Human is dualistic : animal and human nature
and resolving conflict
needs :S ex
•

physiological , hunger , thirst

People transcend their animal instinct

.

Personal
identity : need to know self
Dynamics
"

can
>
by self consciousness reason , conscience
and determine
principle energy naturally challenged place
-

Growth : all '

in
society
•

People must confront existential and historical

individual
-

in such a as to ensure that the

way dichotomies
will develop her unique potential , unless it becomes •
insoluble conflict inherent in human existence
blocked by some anti natural influence
-

.
conflicts that can be overcome ↳
. Frame of reference : Need for

orientation in world , give meaning

> structure
•
self consciousness
-

to live J
' '
Regards human creation joke
needs :
as because
crucial
.

two
↳
•

His self -
consciousness that makes people primitive systems : natural objects
> Need for security :
free from anxiety aware of their dichotomies
two processes : and influence of ancestors
Need for satisfaction : basic physiological
-

needs ↳ Reason : allows to transcend animal nature

and deal with dichotomy of existence Nontheistic systems : no specific

evaluates
conscience : regulating agent ,
-

Factors promoting / inhibiting growth

:

according to norms and value , y concept of duty

> parents act with love →
promotes ↳ two types of conscience
Monotheistic :
concept of God
Authoritarian
and
- :
internalised external authority
contrast :
parental irresponsibility -

Humanistic :
inner voice around which those orientate
neurotics / cultural influences →
Inhibits temperament : behavioral response that is
ng
-

constitutionally determined and can't change

character : component that is shaped by
personal experience and socialisation can
,

change
 > Structure >
Optimal Development
Person Orientated A- each of needs
Hierarchy Ideal achievement of self
•

. : -
actual lsation
pproo
1. Accurate observation of reality
all other rather fouls • Ability to see reality for what it is and can observe humanity, culture, science and politics with accuracy
> Rejects views umbrella for
17
growth motivations • Their views are not affected by stereotypes, own desires or anxieties
→ i . meta needs urinate , needs ) • Do not fear reality or unknown. Prepared to take risks in the search for truth and
individual dignified human ( will , values , are not handicapped by safety needs
-

on : as
2. Self-acceptance, accepting others and human nature
-
Know / understand , truth , justice
• Recognise human nature for what it is rather than what they would prefer for it to be. Accept themselves and human nature
emotions ) conscious process acthl unconditionally
growth , / , .

process of achieving • On a biological level, they enjoy their food, sleep well and enjoy sex
• Accept natural bodily processes, as well as illness and death more readily
) integrated
maximum
being Ctreedom
whole one 's
3. Spontaneity, simplicity, and naturalness
, potential • Are not superficial or pretentious in their behaviour
• Reveal their thoughts in an often unconventional and spontaneous way

Rogers Frankl
L Personal achievements: related to a sense of efficiency, capability,
- Maslow , ,
achievement, confidence, personal strength, and independence
• The esteem of others: includes social standing, honour, importance, dignity,
• They do not let rules and regulations stop them from achieving their goals
• Ethical code might contradict that of community
appreciation and the need to be recognised by others as competent
• If satisfied: Feel confident, competent, useful, and needed 4. Task involvement
Model responsible person chooses freely
• If unsatisfied: Feel inferior, weak, helpless
: • Involved in a career or task that is not aimed primarily at self-satisfaction but rather for a greater good
.

to evaluate oneself positively • They are not egocentric, rather immersed in philosophical and ethical
need • matters that concern humankind and avoid petty matters
between possibilities , process of
becoming ii. Based on one 's actual worth 5. Exclusiveness: The need for privacy
• Enjoy isolation and privacy
• Less dependent on the support, warmth and reassurance of others
>
mental disturbance • Handle uncomfortable situations calmly, objectively and with dignity - can make
r them seem cold/stand-offish or even antagonistic

HUMANISM unfulfilled __ root of psychopathology 6. Autonomy: Being independent of culture and environment
• Function independently of physical and social environment
- • Development and continued growth does not depend on external rewards such
•
NB ! sense of identification as popularity or prestige

Integration 7. Consistent renewal of appreciation

•

• Always enjoy the simple, basic enjoyments of lite (as in nature and family)
• Continue to enjoy them with delight, surprise and ecstasy throughout life
subjective experiential world of individual
'

8. Peak experience
- -
Dominant in children • Often experience moments of intense excitement, tension, peace, bliss, and serenity
• Often the result of love, sexual climax, bursts of creativity, insight, etc.
• Restore dignity ↳ prefer order and • Mare prevalent among creative self-actualisers
9. Social feeling
• Not concerned with deficiencies of humankind - more concerned about them

predictability 10. Interpersonal relationships

• Deep, meaningful interpersonal relationships and are more intense with committed partnerships.

Existentialism is Unfulfilled • Small circle of close friends

:
Being who
becoming not =
OCD
•

• May acquire admirers or disciples

↳ regular
, 11. Democratic character structure
• Does not discriminate on grounds of race, gender or class, qualifications, beliefs or orientations
merely of static gratification
conglomeration a contents • Willing to learn from anyone who is their superior in a given field
12. Discrimination between means and goals, good and evil

or patterns >
Dynamics
'

Restores eguilllbhlim • Distinguish clearly between a goal and the means by which it may be achieved
• Regard means as inferior to the goal they wish to achieve - but still derive as
much enjoyment from a journey as the moment of arrival at destination
transcend our genetic and environmental • Generally not religious in orthodox sense, but strong ethical and moral codes,
Development progresses through stages
.
.
no uncertainties about right or wrong
13. Philosophical, benevolent sense of humour
limitations of need gratification goal self actualize
,
-
• Enjoys humour that provokes a smile rather than a hearty laugh. May find amusement in absurdities. Enjoy subtle humour with
a message
14. Creativity
• Possess a certain kind of originality or ingenuity
•
Lower = more urgent ; regularly gratified • Naive and child-like sense of relating to the world
15. Resistance against enculturation
and
Phenomenology :
people reach out to world
first
• Live by their own rules rather than that of the broader community
• Live in harmony with community but also detach themselves from it
• They resist convention when it is really important to them
attach personal meaning •

Higher
needs
may motivate behavior when
• Oppose useless, ineffectual rebellion - would rather operate from within the
system to bring about social change than launch attacks from the outside

lower needs not met

Abraham Maslow .
Deficiency motives :
4 levels are basic .

decrease in tension
Emphasises gratification
=
•
the actual nation of human

Growth motives self -

actualization needs >
Psychopathology
and possibility
-

potential of influence on
-

•
Human llmatation rather than neurosis
behavior 7 Development .
Not yet self actualized -
i. limited level

-
The higher in the hierarchy the level of motivation,the higher the individual's .
Pathology develops when needs are
development and the healthier their functioning
> View of the
person un gratified or over gratified
•
Optimistic view , acknowledges positive .
No specific stages of development
For example, a person whose needs for love are unfulfilled can become
obsessed with love to the point of pathologically dependency

aspects oh > depicted as ladder , can go up or down

-

Unfulfilled meta -
needs - >
pathological conditions
↳ Someone level can return to
dignity will to develop functioning as •
on
higher
,
gratified boredom
, .

over -

meta - >

lower level
integrated whole ↳ over
exposed to beauty and become blessed

actual Hatton as motive

-

Behavior not only motivated by needs Maslow says that the meaning of the individual gives to the fulfillment of needs
•
Self -
, goal to achieve has a bearing on malfunctioning
• For example, unfulfilled sexual needs will become pathological only if one
on one level
full potential interprets not having a boyfriend of girlfriend as being a loser or worthless

why self actual Sablon

-
not achieved ?
> Aggression
-

Behavior in needs Of gratification : >

Acknowledges destructive side

↳ says humans use violence to satisfy needs

beings
•

Humans as yearning
For example a person who is hungry might behave violently in order to obtain money to buy food
of food itself; or a person who experiences lack of security could be aggressive in an attempt to
Need gratification as growth basis gain a feeling of control and overcome insecurity

Arranged in hierarchy
Environmentally dependent
 Catch Rogers > structure .
ideal self : self concept -
individual most like to

world have
3 assumptions :
Exist in continually changing of
.
•

↳ construct ne potential experience of which they are centre >

psychologically healthy : self concept
-

closely
goal orientated
- .

Reacts to field as experienced and resembles the ideal self ideal self provides valuable guidelines for growth and
development as it reveals
what we strive for (congruent)
peraeved
' '

capable of change : -

reality
•

importance of people 's subjective .

Reacts as organised whole to the phenomenal psychologically unhealthy : doesn't resemble
experience of themselves ( self-concept) field ideal self represents extreme forms of ideals set by others for the person –
not in tune with person’s real potential (incongruent)

and influence on personality -

A portion of total field becomes differentiated
.
Humans strive to achieve full potential as self >
Dynamics
through actualization .
Result of interaction with the environment .
Organism basic tendency and ✓ tri
ring
.
Achieved in an environment in which and environmental interaction with others , o to actualize ,
maintain and enhance the

individual experiences unconditional acceptance self structure is formed experiencing organism

-
3 structural elements : •
Best vantage point
:
internal frame Ot

View of the person reference

>
> organism
• Humanistic -

phenomenological view
.
total individual ( physical and psychological tune ) .
•
Goal -
orientated attempt of
organism
the

s Humanistic : individual studied as whole -

central figure in constant interaction with to satisfy its needs as experienced

role world Emotion accompanies and facilitates goal
and plays active
'
ever -

changing .

individuals influenced directed behavior

Phenomenological :
subjective behavior by subjective perception
' -

experience of world and now influences .

As experiences occur in life , they are symbolized ,

self concept -
Phenomenal field peraeved and organized into relationship wth self

i
Emphasis on freedom and positive .

totality of person 's perceptions and experiences .

Behavior brought about by organic experience
element of human nature i. architects .
includes perceptions of objects
-
or events and needs not symbolized
Environments facilitating outside the person and inner experience
•

play a or

inhibiting role in realization of potential >

Congruence and incongruence
individuals concept underlies
•
Ideal environment allows to see self .
Actualizing tendency : basic motive

themselves exactly as
they are -

Separate / differentiated part of the behavior

•
Individuals not unconditionally accepted -

phenomenal field that concerns the person

•

All strive for development of the organisms

characteristics of environment
environment lays down conditions for
accepting Develops through perceptions of potential regardless
•

→ ,

( conditional acceptance) relating to 1 or me .

Tendency to maintain ourselves and continue

•
Individuals act in accordance with conditions •
Mental picture of themselves and value
growing to become the best we can be

instead of their potentials : .

negative influence attached ( influenced by conditions of worth .
Need for positive regard for others

• Individual freedom is constrained by conditions imposed by others ) ↳ Basic need for approval ,
love , respect

↳ can overcome constraints : require .

conscious experience of themselves Tofillneedindividualmayadoptthevaluesandwishesofothersor
behave in certain way to earn esteem and to receive their acceptance,
unconditional acceptance Relatively stable flexible , open to respect, love etc. (conditions of worth)
change
.

,
 Need for positive self regard > Dev of self concept Individual sees as truly are
•
- .
-

↳ require esteem from others in order .

indiv . attach personal meanings • Wider spectrum of experience available to people,
and the more integrated
to feel good to experiences which involve them experiences are in the self-concept, the better they
know themselves, and the better they are able to
Positive regard and these incorporated in self concept use abilities and talents to achieve full potential –
→
actualizing ten dancy
• -

fully functioning people

'

Meanings and values not based on

congruence own experiences are also included •

Good life is not a static nirvana in
•
No difference between experience and .
NB ! positive regard and
tendency which we experience happiness : -
a process ,

view of themselves .

People closely connected are NB ! to not a static state , a direction

•
Ideal self can incorporate experiences in development A Growing Openness to Experience
o Personmovesawayfromdefensivenessandisincreasinglyopento
self -

concept . Unconditional positive regard experience – can experience all experiences consciously as part of
themselves and their world
actual by others , • An Increasingly Existential Lifestyle
•
self concept
- =
potential > unconditional acceptance
o Abletolivefullyinthemomentwithoutdistortingexperiences
o Personcanapproachexperiencewithoutapreconceivedstructure–
accepted for who
they are each moment is new; person does not know what he or she will be
or
Able to acknowledge all needs and how they will respond in the next moment
Incongruence .

o Self-conceptandpersonalityemanatefromexperience,experienceis
not distorted and remodeled to fit the self-concept
•

Experiences contrary to self -

concept express all feelings • Increasing organismic trust

o Greatertrustintheselfforchoosingappropriatebehaviourthaninrelying
•
Exclude these experiences (deny / distort) .

congruence between potential and self

on social codes/norms, or the judgement of others
• Freedom of choice
Congruenceversusincongruenceoftheorganismicexperienceandthe
o Feelresponsiblefortheirchoicesanddeterminingownbehaviour
•

self-concept is central to Rogers’ theory

'

Ideal environment →
actualization of potential o Feelfreetoexerciseanychoicebasedontheorganismicevaluation
• Creativity
o Stemsfrombeingopentoawiderangeofexperiences,thefreedomto
•
3 ways of dealing : make choices and the ability to live fully in the moment
o Abilitytoadjusttochangingenvironmentsrelativelyeasyandina
Ignored i. irrelevant to needs .

conditional positive regard creative way

• Basic reliability and constructiveness

symbolized : internalized ↳ Rarely experience complete unconditional

o Individualcanbetrustedtoactpositivelyandconstructively
o Abletoadmitandacceptallneedsandmaintainarealisticbalance
between them
Denied / distorted :
contradict positive regard o Fullyfunctioningpersoncangivefullrecognitiontorationality–capable
of controlling different needs and living in harmony with others
A rich, full life
Non acceptance from others only feel
•
-

o Livesarerichandfullandexcitingandthattheyexperiencejoyandpain,
-

Problems arise when an individual’s needs do not match their love and heartbreak, fear and courage intensely
under conditions
•

self-concept and these needs are then denied: worthy o Canseeexperiencesas“enriching,exciting,rewarding,challengingand

o meaningful” = the good life
Deniedneedscanresultinbehaviourthatdirectlysatisfythesenee ↳ values ( based on others) that a
dsin a distorted way, but the individual is not willing to ‘own’
their behaviour afterwards self
includes in > views
person
Thegreatertheconditionalpositiveregardexperienced,themore
conditions of worth are included in the self-concept, leading to greater
•
incongruent person who is always on
incongruence (a lack of congruence between the self-concept and

open to all
> subjective experiences)
Development o Limitstheabilitytoachieveactualizationandimpairsdevelopment
defensive and cannot be

Interaction and
•
NB ! between a
person 's
experiences can never function ideally
subjective experience of reality and self - >
optimal Development may malfunction

concept -

psychological adjustment occurs when •

tension: large parts of subjective experience is denied inclusion into the self-concept

'
formation of self -

concept is NB ! in the self concept is such that all of the

-
.

Anxiety : emotional response when threatened

o Freud:defencemechanismsensurethesurvivaloftheindividual

behavior individuals experiences are / can be o Rogers:defencemechanismsprotecttheself-conceptfromincongruent

experiences
o Rogers:Idealwouldbeforindividualtobeawareofallexperiencesand
to assimilate them into self-concept so that defence mechanisms become unnecessary - ideal never attained, defence mechanisms preserve self-concept
o Distortion-incongruentexperiencesaredistortedtofittheself-concept so that it can remain intact in the face of the incongruent experience
o Denial-incongruentexperiencesareignoredandexcludedfromthe

With assimilated symbolic level

consciousness
•

increasing interaction →
begin at a
Malfunctioning:

rate
o Defensivebehaviourlowersperson'sconsciousnessofthreat

to distinguish themselves as
ve.pe ↳ all experiences are allowed into o Leadstoacomplexnetworkofmisconceptionsabouttheselfand
increases the possibility of threatening experiences
o Incongruenceleadstogreaterperceptionofthreat,whichleadsto
greater defensiveness, which leads to a more rigid structure of the self-
concept
o Certaindegreesofmalfunctioningcouldbedistinguished

self concept
o Eventuallydefencemechanismsmaynolongerbeabletofullyprotect
the
-
self-concept from incongruent experiences, resulting in psychosis
 ↳

Viktor Fincankel > Development .

>
psychopathology struggle to find own unique
meaning in their life - noögenic
>
Dynamics
• core of spiritual nucleus of personality is neurosis
influenced
by experiences as Jewish prisoner µ , g. genic neurosis
•

Present at birth →
develops over lifespan
dynamics (spiritual dimension )
"

in WWII .
Noo
respond
.

of
•
Life is given as open possibility and we have > most people lack courage to
•
opposes to reduce
functioning to level .

Dynamics
machines or animals , freedom of will potential .
to
challenge of life i. no optimal
we are force behind what we become
Humans motivated the desire to find
Responsibility avoided passed away
'

by will to or
meaning
.

in their lives : " self -

determining
meaning of life frustration
•

meaning : .

.
Marturity
=
fully developed :> person seen
> View of Person as a time -

gestalt
" •
Neurosis :

Freedom of will
• Humans have freedom to be responsible • If we continue searching for power and > unplanned day -
to -

day existence
↳ animals continual choices : experience win as free = immature
simply highly developed frustrated
.

adults
fatalistic attitude for life
not : as
pleasure
: -

that have Simply allowing events to shape life is also

spiritual beings
•

primarily
conformism ( avoid authenticity stress)
freedom .
a decision optimal development
constantly face choices i not compelled .
Our freedom is contained in how we will .
function on the spiritual level Totalitarianism ( blind followers)
behave in ways
to deal with and transcend the constrains
freedom of will, find and
'

> exercise An incurably psychotic individual may lose their

cannot blame behavior on drives must
i. usefulness but yet retain the
-

experience in our lives dignity of a human being

take responsibility 1 due to tree will )
will to
meaning
meaning
noisome dimension Logo therapy
represents spiritual courage and boldness
>
• or
takes
find
.

Desire to and experience

meaning
•

Level of being beyond animals A psychotherapeutic approach that not only

Characterised by :
• .

deepest motivation
•

is
struggle to find meaning in life spirit but starts from it
>
recognises man 's

Fulfillment
J '

4 Observations to provide proof

not possible without
therapy through meaning
•
.

Distinguished from animals i. self e. manifested in circumstances of destitution

Essence Challenge people become aware
-

. : to
transcendence :
rising above conditions think as well as circumstances of Plenty responsible
,
of things which require them to be
people horrible living conditions but continue
•
trans human dimension
involvement
•

and demand love ,

care ,

strive for comes from life itself to live

>
meaning .
Socratic dialogue : evoking critical and creative
Meaning is found
satisfying physical and psychological needs
•
•

Objective existence of meaning of life is phenomenologically proved through the thought

lower needs
I

conscience which calls upon us to act responsibly 0

Aim to satisfy (Maslow) .

Meaning centered - freedom to deal with problems

L , conscience is vehicle through which we
" "" " " " " ta
,
'" '" ° "t°M " me "
'M 'T
paradox idl intention break the
•

• :
designed to
detect meaning ( ability to know
right us
wrong ) •
By product not end of hyper intention to
cycle by encouraging
-

being
-
.

,
personalized way of
incorporated wish / intend what is feared
↳ Meaning of life not into religion
will to pleasure and will to power

Each person must find and experience lifes

are dominant i. frustrated .
De reflection :
logo therapeutic technique to shift
" 9h of spiritual emptiness existential vacuum
obsessive hyper reflection
°
from
"

for themselves 1 personal ) attention -

meaning -

Life holds meaning under all circumstances and that meaning can be
Meaning of life found in 3
experienced by anyone at anytime and anywhere ways
Creative values
> Structure
•

E.g., when work is a creative expression of responsibility, then we

> have found meaning in our work

.
} levels :
physical psychological spiritual
, ,
•
Experiential values
y tins us with

Blessings were clove ( love ) limitless devotion

↳ Physical nor psychological dimensions
>

•
Manifested in good ,
beautiful , true

provide freedom or will Iincomplete picture) .

Attitudinal values

> Experienced through the right attitudes

we are more than body and psyche inevitable facts death (tragic triad)
3 :
pain , guilt ,

↳ spiritual provide freedom

'
“To live is to suffer, to find meaning in life is to find meaning in
capacities suffering. If there is a purpose in life at all, there must be a
purpose in suffering and in dying”

free to direct behavior .

NB ! Attitude towards suffering
spiritual dimension
↳ find
meaning in ✓
uttering
: core of personality
Feminist lreitical Psychology .

Women 's gender identities may be different > Feminism in African context
location
depending on .
Class, language, race, ethnicity, rural/urban divisions,
sexuality and other social
View of person adoptable
> .

Identity : changeable and identity markers make a difference

• Acc to African feminists, feminism is modeled upon
•

personality is gendered •
political : able to address a
key tenat western and eurocentric
philosophy and thus problematic for African contexts
Psychology is
gendered patriarchy
'

Changing s
An African feminist agenda seeks to address and
-

theories of person are gendered .

women experience patriarchy is far from homogenous and
explore the gender related
experiences of women, acknowledging the fact that
any universalization of women’s experience inevitably means the
many women’s experiences of gender and identity
exclusion or
development have not been fully represented in
marginalization of some women’s experiences
Feminism is psychological research and theory
>
thought and action
•
Feminism is action ,
practice or behavior aimed >
Questioning Research •
Explore and deconstruct those features

at changing those constructs and relations seen .

Focus on
methodological limitations of of society and culture that functions
subordination to men of value free
as reinforcing women 's the notion -
science that can to detriment and subordinate women

Implies role of
gender in personality be objective in its approach to
understanding •
seeks to strengthen and adapt values
•
Gender : social ,
cultural or psychological differences gender issues .
that promote and enhance African
between men and women .
Positive social science/psychology refers to the belief that social science/ women's empowerment
psychology should be interested in what is objectively observed and
measurable (think Skinner, but also many others who don’t call themselves u Some of the issues for a South African feminist
behaviourist) psychology include HIV/Aids,
schools of virginity testing, violence against women, links between
>
thought A positivist approach in psychological studies is seen by some feminist race, gender and class, sexuality, and rape
researchers as downplaying the workings of socio-political factors in a
given context

•
↳ contested by interpretive approaches
↳ Fouuses oh
subjective experience
Interpretive research also allowed for more alternative approaches
to doing
research with women – e.g., interviews/autoethographic work/
memory work
• But interpretive approach is also seen by some feminists as
problematic in
disregarding the political context within which women may generate
and sustain
meaning

> Liberal tradition

> Critical psychology .
De radicalize feminist interventions
•
Both cognisant and critical Ot different .
Moves from reductionist approach to
it
uses and abuses of psychology , ways egalitarian ways
has perpetuated oppressive social relations .

Approach is to redress representation of

•
Resists temptation to speak for all groups women as deficient by
avoiding the discourse

as it recognises philosophical underpinnings of difference

of psychology are not universal Universalis es the gender experience

•

women were/are seen as sharing the same experiences of oppression and

•
Reduce the exclusion gender by virtue of being women
• Such theoretical practice is not only misleading, but also serves to further
-

Challenges the notion of any individual self silence many women already marginalized by their race, and/or class, and/
or sexuality
 African Perspective Franz Fanon

Combination
of psychology and politics
Indigenous psychology way people
•

: the problems of national liberation and social revolution from the vantage point of psychopathology, and the problems of
personal identity through a sustained focus on the violence of the colonial encounter (McCulloch, 1983). To put this more
in other societies / cultures make sense precisely:
All of Fanon’s work falls into that category where the sciences of personality and the sciences of society converge ... [in
an attempt] to traverse the distance between an analysis of the consciousness of the individual and the analysis of social
of themselves and psychic distress
institutions (McCulloch, 1983, 206–207).

73 forms of politicisation
•
Scientific racism : use science to provide
are
ideas 1.
process by which psychological concerns
justification of racist
the sociopolitical
within politics , limited by
'

• Western culture =
norm placed . .

i
Scientific colonialism refers to the ethnocentric nature of psychology both in
and historical forces
terms of who produces it and where it is produced
• African perspectives function to critique existing psychology and as an I. process by which we
employ these concepts , modes
alternative psychology responsive to Africans
• A paradigm based on indigenous African concepts does not yet exist of experience to describe and illustrate the workings
• Impetus for the quest to Africanise psychology:
o PsychologycollaboratedintheoppressionofAmericanblacksand Africans through the comparison between of power
'primitive' and 'modern*
o Psychologyhashadlittlerelevancetotheproblemsfacingtheblacks and the poor '
3 should of power
'
o PsychologiesimportedtoAfricadonotaccuratelyportravAfricanlifeand mentality .

How we intervene in life

↳ use psychological experience as a mean of

Vrew of person
to power
•
Anthropocentric ontology : implies humans consolidating resistance

he also brings psychology into politics by analysing power through a series of

form point of departure as well as centre
.
psychoanalytic conceptualisations which help to dramatise the working and the
logic of such forms of power, in particular that of colonial racism. The objective
Ot universe of such psychological descriptions is to subject such forms of power to critique,
to understand them better so as to challenge them more effectively.
•
J cosmic orders :
macro , meso ,
micro cosmos

• Macro-cosmos - the domain of God and religion

• Maso-cosmos - a kind of no man's land where coincidence, the ancestors
and
the forces of malignant sprits and sorcerers hold sway
• Micro-cosmos - the domain of the Individual person in their everyday
collective
existence

Ubuntu - a code of ethics governing one's Interaction with others, implying

that a person is only a person because of other people

Augustine Nwoye's Account of the Fabric of the African Self

• Nwoye strives to develop a psychology that is developed from the perspective of and in relation to the culture
and worldview of Africans relevant to their lives
• For Nwoye, the Western notion of the self is incompatible with the African view and that it is not an inclusive
and extensive as the African view
• African self is an extensive entity - projects itself with varying degrees of intensity into other realms of human
existence
• Synoptic theory - a theory that aggregates rather than isolates constituent factors, and thus functions as a
holistic rather than a reductionist account
• African self is a synoptic aggregate and made up of eight complementary dimensions
The 8 personality dimensions
1. Embodied self-the aspect of self that is open and visible to others
2. Generative self-the agentic and enterprising characteristics of a person and
contains self's ambitions and plans
3. Communal self-the relational and inclusive character ofthe African self
4. Melioristic self-assists the individual in finding meaning in life
5. Narratological self-reflects these diments and influence of the cultural
memory of the people on the modern African imagination
6. Structural self-the inner seat of an Individual's thinking,feeling and will
7. Liminal self-the part of the self that is in a state of transition
8. Spiritual self-the sacred dimension of every day life