SCIENCE 301

SUMMER CLASS
2022

HUMAN REPRODUCTION
PORTFOLIO

SUBMITTED BY:
ALGEN F. IGNACIO
BEED- III / SET A

SUBMITTED TO:
MRS. JULIETA SEPE
INSTRUCTOR
 TABLE OF CONTENT

TITLE PAGE 1

TABLE OF CONTENT 2

INTRODUCTION 3

CONTENT-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-

 Menstrual Cycle 4
 Fertilization & Implantation 7
 Pregnancy & Embryonic Development 8
 Parturition and Lactation 13

CONCLUSION 16

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 INTRODUCTION

Almost every growing person has wondered how babies come about. 

If you are learning with us today, you are probably a big kid, and hopefully, you shall
understand this bundle of excitement, and you shall learn to be more responsible in your
male-female interactions.

Reproduction generally means the action or process of making a copy of something. Human

reproduction specifically is a natural instance of humans making new humans (offspring) or
giving birth to new humans (babies). Reproduction is necessary for the continuity of humans.
Without it, humans will no longer exist as there will be no replacement when we grow very
old and die.

There are two types of reproduction in living things: Sexual Reproduction (SR) and Asexual
Reproduction (AR). SR involves two individuals of the same species, usually a male and
female. AR can occur without the involvement of another, and this is usually found in single-
cell organisms and some plants.

Human reproduction involves a male and a female, and traditionally, the interaction of both
male and female organs starts the process. This interaction involves the use of the male and
female organs. As children grow up to become adults, their brains work with their
reproductive organs to get them ready to reproduce. This reproductive development process
takes time, and it is called puberty.

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 MENSTRUAL CYCLE
What is the menstrual cycle (uterine cycle)?
Menstruation is part of the menstrual cycle, which prepares your body for pregnancy each month.

Between every 20 to 40 days your hormones will cause the ovary to release a mature egg (also called
ovum, oocyte, or female gamete) This egg will travel through the fallopian tube, hoping to meet a
male sperm cell for fertilization to occur. The cycle in which the immature egg in the follicle becomes
mature is known as the ovarian cycle. The release of the mature egg from the ovary into the fallopian
tube is known as ovulation.

Menstrual Cycle Phases

Your menstrual cycle begins when blood begins to come out of your vagina; this is day one of
your cycle. Most menstrual cycles are 28 days; therefore, the menstrual cycle phases are based on
a 28-day cycle. There are four main phases during your cycle:

 Day 1 – 5: Menstrual Phase

 Day 1 – 13: Follicular Phase

 Day 14: Ovulation Phase

 Day 15 – 28: Luteal Phase

1. Day 1 – 5: Menstrual Phase

This phase starts the day you begin to bleed and ends on the fifth day of your cycle. During
this phase, the soft tissue and blood vessels that make up the inner lining of your uterus are
shed through your vagina in the form of menstrual blood.

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On average you will lose about 10 ml to 80 ml of blood during this phase. The release of the
lining may cause abdominal cramping as your uterus contracts to expel the fluid.

Tips for this phase: Avoid activities such as dating or socializing. You may want to try a hot
Epsom salt bath for relief. Also control the intensity of your exercises to gentle movements
such as walking or yoga.

2. Day 1 – 13: Follicular Phase

This phase also starts on the day you begin to bleed; however, this phase focuses on follicle
development in the ovaries. When this phase begins, your uterus is thickly lined with nutrients
and fluids meant to nourish the embryo. When there is not an egg to be fertilized, the estrogen
and progesterone levels are low causing the uterus to shed its lining.

At this time, a follicle-stimulating hormone is created by the pituitary gland which causes
anywhere from 3-30 follicles to grow. These follicles each contain an egg, and eventually
begin to breakdown while one (the dominant follicle) remains. The dominant follicle produces
estrogen which causes the uterus to begin preparations for the egg and increases the
luteinizing hormone.

At the end of this phase, the egg is released. (This is known as ovulation.) This phase is the
most variable in length among all menstrual cycle phases and may last for 13-14 days.

Tips for this phase: This phase is a great time to solve problems, brainstorm new projects, or
make big decisions. Strenuous exercise will also feel extremely good at this time.

3. Day 14: Ovulation Phase

This phase begins when the luteinizing hormone surges causing dominant follicle to bulge and
rupture releasing the egg. It will usually last about 16 to 32 hours; it ends when the egg is
released.

There is a 12-hour window where the egg can be fertilized after it is released. If you want to
become pregnant, it is important that sperm is present in the reproductive system before the
egg is released.

During this phase, you may feel a small pinch in your lower abdomen, on either side. The
pain can last up to a few hours.

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 Tips for this phase: This is the best time for job interviews or public speaking. Your energy
levels are extremely high during this phase, so it is a good time to get in a lot of physical
activities or schedule a date night.

4. Day 15 – 28: Luteal Phase

Of all the 4 menstrual cycle phases, this is the last in your cycle. During this phase, the egg is
in the fallopian tube for about 24 hours. If it is not inseminated during this time, the egg cell
disintegrates.

At this point, you have used up the hormone which causes the uterus to keep its endometrium.
This hormone being depleted is what causes the beginning of your next cycle to begin.

Tips for this phase: It is important that you have good self-care habits in place during this
phase. This is when you will notice the common symptoms of PMS. During this phase you
should aim to eat healthier foods and spend more time alone. It is also a good habit to practice
yoga, meditation, or other relaxation techniques during this phase.

Some menstrual Disorder

 Polymenorrhea – average length of cycle is less than 21 days (normal is 28 days)

menstruation occurs too frequently.
 Amenorrhea – it is the absence of menstruation. The most common reasons are pregnancy
and lactation, however hormonal problems may also responsible.
 Dysmenorrhea – it is a medical term that means “difficult or painful periods”.
 Pre-menstrual syndrome (PMS) – it refers to physical and emotional symptoms that occur
one or two weeks before menstruation. Symptoms include acne, fatigue, insomnia,
headaches, and irritability. Most common cause is hormonal fluctuation.

Copyright WWW.NEWHEALTHADVISOR.ORG © 2020, All rights Reserved. Last Updated 09 August, 2022.

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 FERTILIZATION AND IMPLANTATION

What happens during fertilization?

In humans, fertilization occurs when a single sperm and egg cell fuse to form a zygote.
Polyspermy, or multiple sperm cells fertilizing a single egg, will result in a zygote with several sets of
chromosomes. Humans are diploid organisms, which means they have only two sets of chromosomes
(one from each parent), and so have mechanisms to make sure that polyspermy does not occur.
The zygote then divides rapidly as it travels to the uterus, where it attaches to the endometrial lining,
and leads to pregnancy.

Cleavage and implantation

The image below summarizes the events that occur between fertilization (A) and implantation (H).

The table below lists the key features of the labelled events in the image .
A B C-F G H
Fertilization Zygote formation Cleavage Blastocyst Implantation
formation
Single sperm Single, diploid 2-8 blastomeres, Trophoblast and Uterine cells
fuses with ootid cell morula (F) with inner cell mass dividing to cover
16 blastomeres differentiated blastocyst

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 PREGNANCY & EMBRYONIC DEVELOPMENT
Stages of Prenatal Development

The life of the baby in the womb is called prenatal or intrauterine and is divided into 3 developmental
stages:

STAGES PREGNANCY PERIODS

Germinal Development From 0 to 2 Weeks

Embryonic Development From 3 to 8 Weeks

Fetal Development From 9 Weeks till Birth

3 Stages of a Child’s Prenatal Development

Stage 1: Germinal Development

Germinal development is the 1st of the 3 stages of a child’s development in his prenatal life.

Zygote Formation

Just a few hours after fertilization, the egg – now called the zygote – begins to split.

Morula Formation

When the zygote comes across the Fallopian tube to the uterus, it has already formed a cluster of cells
that are almost the size of a grain of rice. This is the so-called morula. After several days, the morula
begins to differentiate the outer layer of the cells from the inner cell nucleus.

Trophoblast Formation

The outer layer is thickened, that is the so-called trophoblast from which the fetus and the placenta of
the fetus will develop.

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Implantation

Approximately 12 to 14 days after fertilization, the outer layer of the egg cell gets a fringed surface,
by which it is attached to the mucous of the uterus. This is called implantation of the egg cell. At the
same time, two cavities are formed in the inner wall of the cell core. A cell layer remains among
them, which is differentiated into three embryonic leaves. This is the basis from which the whole
child’s organism will develop. With the implantation of the egg cell on the wall of the uterus and
creating the basis for development, ends the germinal and begins the fetal stage in the development of
the baby.

Stage 2: Embryonic Development

Embryonic development is the 2nd of the 3 stages of a child’s development in his prenatal life.

The embryo is growing rapidly, at the end of the first month of the pregnancy, its length is only 1mm,
and at the end of the second month, it is already 20mm long. Along with the weight gain, in the
embryo, the first signs of the organs are showing up. Cells are increasingly differentiated among
themselves and form various tissues, i.e., functional integrity – organs.

The basic principle in the development of the embryo and later the fetus is seen precisely in the
constant formation of an increasing number of special elements in the human organism
(individualization) and in their stronger interconnection in one entity (integration).

Interestingly, a similar principle applies to the overall psychological and social development of the
child after birth. It is first formed as an individual, developing increasingly individual physical and
psychological characteristics (the process of individualization). Later it seeks to become an integrated
unit in the human community, to become its member, and to put their individual abilities in the
service of social interests (the process of integration). When the development of the child’s
personality takes place in a natural way, the child at the same time grows into a differentiated
individual and adjusts according to the positive aspirations and activities of the community in which
it lives. Regarding normal development, both individualization and integration are developing in
parallel. The task of the environment, his parents, teachers, and others who educationally affect the
child is to enable and support such a development.

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Stage 3: Fetal Development

Fetal development is the 3rd of the 3 stages of a child’s development in his prenatal life.

Beginning of fetal development

With the development of the placenta and the onset of its function, the embryo stage in the prenatal
development period of the baby ends and the fetal stage begins.

Placenta and uvulas development

While the inner organs are formed inside the embryo, the tissue in which the embryo is wrapped starts
to form fetus scrolls and placenta. The uvulas from the outer side, which are on the surface of the
placenta, start to embed into the blood vessels from the uterus. The uvulas serve to absorb food
through the mother’s blood, oxygen, and other ingredients that are essential to the baby’s life. They
also prevent the mother’s blood from mixing with the baby’s blood and the penetration of various
unwanted substances from the mothers in the baby’s organism.

Human appearance of the fetus

At the beginning of the fetal stage of development, the baby is already an independent – autonomous
organism with its own blood circulation and metabolism. The baby depends on the mother and
together they are a biological unity, but it is clearly separated by the placenta from the mother’s body.
For the onset of the fetal stage, it is characteristic that the fetus has a completely human appearance
and keeps it.

First noticeable organs functions of the embryo

Along with the development of individual organs, the first noticeable functions of the embryo appear.
The heart is the first organ to begin its function. The basis for the formation of the heart as a fully
functional organ appears in the 3rd week after conception. During this period, the heartbeat is still in
its primitive stage and is not fully formed, and at the same time, it is an indication that the fetus is
alive. At 7 weeks, bowel movements can be seen, and after 8 weeks, occasional but very weak muscle
contractions as well. The muscles around the mouth are activated first, then the cheeks, and from

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there the mobility spreads to the shoulders, torso, and upper extremities, and finally to the lower
extremities.

Occurrence of organs differentiation in the fetus

The beginning of all organs is created, they now only need to grow, continue to differentiate, and
become capable of functions that are designed for life support since birth. For example, besides the
heart, the lungs develop much earlier than the child begins to breathe, also at the end of pregnancy,
the fetus has a fully developed organ of sight, although it cannot see yet. What is characteristic of
fetal development is that many organs have been formed to carry out their function earlier than it is
possible to activate them. This is a rule in the fetus development, and it is called anatomic
anticipation of organ functions.

A certain tissue structure must appear in the body, to develop an appropriate function. In other words,
the baby’s organism is not able to start using a function if its organ is not mature enough. But when
the baby reaches a certain degree of maturity, it instinctively demonstrates an interest in starting and
using a particular function.

First stronger movements of the fetus

The movement of the fetus becomes even stronger. In the 14th week, they can be already heard with a
stethoscope and when the babies turn 17 weeks, their movements can also be felt by the mother. Fetal
motor functions mature in such a way that the first notable motor reactions of the larger parts of the
body turn into more and more precise movements that are provided by the smaller muscle groups. At
the same time, even more, individual movements are associated and organized in complex
movements. And here, in fact, the rule on individualization and integration appears.

First reflex movements-reactions of the fetus

Already in the 12th week, the fetus reacts to external stimuli with reflective movements. Simple
reflexes grow into defensive reactions – complex limb movements, when they are experimentally
irritated – (such experiments are usually performed on fetuses that have been surgically removed due
to the mother’s disease or are born prematurely). The 20-week-old fetus is already showing
movements in the chest area and imitates breathing. In the 25 weeks, the child can already produce a
very weak voice. Shortly after, the appearance of the motor function appears the sensation. By the

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10th to 12th week, the child acquires the ability to react to stimuli of the skin and mucous
membranes, firstly on the lips and nostrils. Later the sensitivity to mechanical stimuli spreads
concentrically to the periphery of the body. Aside from the sense of touch, the heat sensitivity
differences appear, especially to the cold. The feeling of pain in the fetus is poorly developed.

Sensory development of the fetus

At the end of the prenatal (intrauterine) period in life, other senses such as taste, smell, sight, and
hearing are fully developed. But those senses of the fetus remain passive as there aren’t proper stimuli
yet that would have activated them, and they are activated as soon as the baby is born, although in
newborns they are not as sharp as they would be later in life. However, the baby will be able to
distinguish from sweet, salt, and bitter, frowns to sharp odors, reacts to light narrowing the pupils and
blinking, and shivers from a sudden louder sound.

End of Pregnancy and Child’s Birth

From the date of conception to birth should pass 38-40 weeks, to be able to say that the baby is
mature and that is born fully carried. Due to incomplete certainly with the date when a baby is
conceived, the most probable term for birth is determined. The duration of the pregnancy is calculated
from the first day of the last menstrual cycle and then 280 days or 40 weeks are added, the duration of
a normal pregnancy.

It is wrong to say that the baby “comes to life” during the 5th month of pregnancy when the mother
feels its movements in the womb for the first time. But that doesn’t mean they are it’s first. The baby’s
first movements are so weak, that the mother cannot feel them, and they become noticeable when the
baby develops some muscle strength.

So, the baby is born with the ability to receive and register irritations from the environment and react
to them. Now it depends on it to adapt and harmonize these abilities to the environment and its needs
and demands. After birth, the child continues to grow – a period of maturation, which lasts for years.
Along with the maturation, the child will acquire various skills, it will recognize life in its
environment by adjusting the inherited traits of the specific conditions to it. It is the process of
developing conditioned responses in the child to the events around it. This natural maturation of
various inclinations, opportunities, needs, and abilities is constantly combined with learning,

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adaptation, and gaining experience. Everything is listed in an indivisible whole, and this is the
essence of the child’s growth.

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PARTURITION AND LACTATION

Parturition is the completion of pregnancy and giving birth to the baby. The series of events that
expels the infant from the uterus is collectively called “labour”. Throughout pregnancy the uterus
undergoes periodic episodes of weak and strong contractions. These contractions called Braxter-
Hick’s contractions lead to false labour. As the pregnancy progresses, increase in the oestrogen
concentration promotes uterine contractions. These uterine contractions facilitate moulding of the
foetus and downward movement of the foetus. The descent of the foetus causes dilation of cervix of
the uterus and vaginal canal resulting in a neurohumoral reflex called Foetal ejection
reflex or Ferguson reflex. This initiates the secretion of oxytocin from the neurohypophysis which in
turn brings about the powerful contraction of the uterine muscles and leads to the expulsion of the
baby through the birth canal. This sequence of events is called as parturition or childbirth.

Relaxin is a hormone secreted by the placenta and found in the corpus luteum. It promotes parturition
by relaxing the pelvic joints and by dilatation of the cervix with continued powerful contractions. The
amnion ruptures and the amniotic fluid flows out through the vagina, followed by the foetus. 

The placenta along with the remains of the umbilical cord called “after birth” is expelled out after
delivery.

Lactation is the production of milk by mammary glands. The mammary glands show changes during
every menstrual cycle, during pregnancy and lactation. Increased level of oestrogens, progesterone
and human Placental Lactogen (hPL) towards the end of pregnancy stimulate the hypothalamus
towards prolactin – releasing factors. The anterior pituitary responds by secreting prolactin which
plays a major role in lactogenesis.

Oxytocin causes the “Let-Down” reflex-the actual ejection of milk from the alveoli of the mammary
glands. During lactation, oxytocin also stimulates the recently emptied uterus to contract, helping it to
return to pre - pregnancy size.

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The mammary glands secrete a yellowish fluid called colostrum during the initial few days after
parturition. It has less lactose than milk and almost no fat, but it contains more proteins, vitamin A
and minerals.

Colostrum is also rich in IgA antibodies. This helps to protect the infant’s digestive tract against
bacterial infection. Breast milk is the ideal food for infants as it contains all the constituents in
suitable concentration and is easily digestible. It is fully sufficient till about 6 months of age and all
infants must be breast fed by the mother to ensure the growth of a healthy baby.

CAESAREAN

When normal vaginal delivery is not possible due to factors like position of the baby and nature of the
placenta, the baby is delivered through a surgical incision in the woman’s abdomen and uterus. It is
also termed as abdominal delivery or Caesarean Section or ‘C’ Section.

Colostrum

Colostrum, a nutrient rich fluid produced by the human female immediately after giving birth, is
loaded with immune, growth and tissue repair factors. It acts as a natural antimicrobial agent to
actively stimulate the maturation of the infant’s immune system. No artificial feed can substitute the
first milk, with all its natural benefits and therefore should be fed to the baby after birth.

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 CONCLUSION
In conclusion, the human reproductive system is an example of sexual reproduction
involving reproductive organs (with respective functions) of male and female humans. The
occurrence of fertilization which is the process of fusion b e t w e e n m a l e a n d f e m a l e g a m e t e
d e t e r m i n e s w h e t h e r i t w i l l p r o c e e d t o pregnancy or menstrual cycle in female human
body. Hormones play essential roles to allow optimum development in certain aspects of either
process. The objectives of the lesson, which was to understand the menstrual cycle, menstrual
phases, Fertilization & Implantation, Pregnancy & Embryonic Development, Parturition and
Lactation.

A menstrual cycle begins with the first day of your period, or menstruation and starts over again
when the next period begins. Throughout a monthly menstrual cycle, your body makes different
amounts of chemicals called hormones to prepare for pregnancy. While the menstrual phases is is
the first stage of the menstrual cycle. It’s also when you get your period. This phase starts when an
egg from the previous cycle isn’t fertilized. Because pregnancy hasn’t taken place, levels of the
hormone’s estrogen and progesterone drop.

Fertilization and implantation are the most critical events in the reproduction process. In this
process, both egg and sperm are fused together to form a zygote. Later it gets implanted into the
uterus and the development of an organism.

Fertilization is the natural life process, which is carried out by the fusion of both male and female
gametes, which results in the formation of a zygote. In humans, the process of fertilization takes place
in the fallopian tube.

Both sperm and egg can show their vitality only to a limited period. Sperm is alive for 48-72 hours in
a female reproductive system, whereas the egg can be fertilized for 24 hours before it is released.

Once fertilization happens, the cell starts to divide and multiply within 24 hours in the fallopian tube.
This detached multi-celled structure is called a zygote. Later, after 3-4 days it travels to the uterus and
now, we call it as an embryo.

The embryo develops and undergoes various stages and gets attached to the endometrial layer of the
uterus. This process of attachment is known as implantation.

Pregnancy is the presence of a developing offspring in the uterus. The production of fertilization is
a zygote with 46 chromosomes. The developing offspring moves down the uterine tube to the uterus,

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where it implants in the endometrium. The most import-ant hormones involved in pregnancy include
hCG, estrogens, progesterone, and relaxin. The embryonic period extends from the beginning of the
second week through the eighth week of development. The embryo is encircled almost entirely by
the amniotic sac, except for a break that allows passage of the umbilical cord. Embryonic
development proceeds from gastrulation, in which the first structures form, through organogenesis,
when the organs develop. By the beginning of the eighth week, the embryo is recognizable as human.

The fetal period extends from the end of the eighth week until birth. Placentation is the formation of
the placenta, a temporary structure that controls production of progesterone and estrogen, beginning
between the second and third months of gestation. The fetus is full term at the end of 38 weeks. Birth
is also known as parturition and involves three stages of labor: dilation of the cervix, expulsion of
the fetus, and placental birth.

During postnatal development, the mammary glands of the mother begin to secrete milk. The
neonatal period extends from birth to the end of the fourth week. The newborn’s respiratory and
digestive systems are the least well-developed of all body systems. Regarding human development,
growth is defined as an increase in size. Development is the process of changing from one life phase
to another.

Lactation, Production of milk by female mammals after giving birth. The milk is discharged by
the mammary glands in the breasts. Hormones triggered by delivery of the placenta and by nursing
stimulate milk production. Colostrum (milk that the mother produces in the first few days after giving
birth) has more proteins, minerals, and antibodies and fewer calories and fats than the mature milk
that develops later. Mature milk supplies nutrients, hormones, and substances that provide the infant
with immunity against infectious agents. Most physicians recommend that babies be fed mother’s
milk exclusively for the first six months and that nursing continue through the first year. As the child
is weaned, lactation tapers off; while nursing continues, fertility is reduced. Problems with lactation
may involve hormones, suckling pattern, physical difficulties, or emotional factors. Mothers taking

certain drugs or with some diseases (e.g., AIDS) should not nurse, because of risks to the baby.

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Males produce sperm in
the wake of arriving at
adolescence.
Fertilization happens in
the fallopian tube
(oviduct) of the female
reproductive system.
Upon fertilization, the egg
connects to the
covering of the uterus. It
turns into a chunk of cells
after some

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time, at that point created
in the uterus of the female
to turn into
a baby.
I could not access
additional resources due
to Covid-19. I was
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