Studyguide-5 - Radioactivity and Nuclear Energy

“studyguide-main” — 2017/2/17 — 19:40 — page 1 — #1
Contents
25 Radiation and Radioactivity 2
26 Rate of Decay and Uses of Radionuclides 11
27 Nuclear Energy 17
Chapter 25
Radiation and Radioactivity
A. Reminders
Ionizing radiation
• ionizing radiation = radiation with energy high enough to knock electrons

out of atoms (or molecules) and produce ion-pairs
X-rays
• X-rays = high-frequency EM waves frequency of X-rays ≈ 1018 Hz
• ionizing radiation with strong
penetrating power
• produced when fast electrons hit
a heavy metal target
Nuclear radiation
• three types of nuclear radiation: 1 a.m.u. = 1.661 × 10−27 kg
charge mass (a.m.u.)

background radiation = the small amount
α +2e ≈4 of radiation from natural and arti icial
1 sources we constantly exposed to
β −e ≈ 1800
γ 0 0
frequency of γ radiation ≈ 1020 Hz
• emitted from unstable nuclei of
atoms
Radiation and Radioactivity 3
Atomic structure
• consists of:
particle mass (a.m.u.) charge 1 a.m.u.= 1.661 × 10−27 kg
proton ≈1 +e
neutron ≈1 0
1
electron ≈ 1800 −e
• nucleons = protons + neutrons

(at centre of atom, i.e. nucleus)
Symbolic notation
name hydrogen-1 helium-4 lithium-7

symbol ZA X 1H 4He 7Li
1 2 3
mass no. A (proton + neutron no.) 1 4 7

atomic no. Z (protons no.) 1 2 3
neutron no. N = A − Z 0 2 4
Isotope
• same element (atomic no.);
different neutron no.
• same chemical properties;
different physical properties
4 Chapter 25
Radioactive decay
• spontaneous
Decay series
γ emission cannot be shown in the graphs
210Pb −−β
−→ 210
β 210 α 206 as it does not involve any change in proton
• example: 82 83Bi −−−→ 84Po −−−→ 82Pb no. and neutron no.
Ionizing power
• α>β>γ
Cloud chamber tracks

• α radiation • β radiation • γ radiation
Penetrating power
• γ>β>α
• penetrating power in air (range in air)
• penetrating power in materials

6 Chapter 25
De lection in E - ield
De lection in B - ield
Use Fleming’s left hand rule to determine
the direction of de lection.
B. Common Mistakes
• Electrons in β decay
V The electron emitted in a β decay comes from the nucleus.

• Discharging a positively charged sphere with α particles
V The ion-pairs produced by α particles can discharge a positively

charged sphere.
• Identifying radiation emitted by an unknown source

Bear in mind that a radioactive source can
emit multiple types of nuclear radiation.
V When identifying the radiation emitted by an unknown source,

eliminate all other possibilities before making conclusion.
• Speed of γ radiation in vacuum

see CE-01-2 Q44
The fact that γ radiation can penetrate an

aluminium sheet while visible light cannot
only implies that γ radiation has stronger
penetrating power.
V γ radiation is an EM wave, and so it travels at the same speed

as visible light in vacuum.
8 Chapter 25
C. Key Examples
Example 1
Uranium (U) undergoes a decay see CE-09-1 Q7
series to form lead (Pb) as shown. see also DSE-16-1B Q9(a)
(a) Write down a nuclear
equation for the decay from
protactinium (Pa) to uranium
(U). (1 mark)
(b) Determine the total number of

the α particles and that of the
β particles emitted in the
whole decay series. (4 marks)
. Solution
(a) • parent: Pa ( Z = 91; A = 91 + 143 = 234); daughter: U ( Z = 92; A = 92 + 142 = 234);
Z changes while A unchanged ⇒ β decay (β particle: −1 0e)
234Pa −−−→ 234U + 0e (1A)

91 92 −1
(b) • Write down the nuclear equation for the whole decay series:
238U −−−→ 206Pb + x 4He + y 0e
92 82 2 −1
• First consider the mass/nucleon no. (upper) as only α decay has a change in mass no.
• Then consider the atomic/proton no. (lower) to ind the no. of β particles emitted.
Let x and y be the no. of α and β particles respectively.

total nucleon no. conserved:
(146 + 92) = (124 + 82) + 4x (1M) +4x, ∵ an α particle has 4 nucleons
238 = 206 + 4x
x =8 (1A)
total proton no. conserved:

8
92 = 82 + 2
x−y (1M) +2x, ∵ an α particle has 2 protons
−y, ∵ a proton is produced in β decay
y =6 (1A)
î What-if Can we tell if any γ emission occurs in the decay series from the
graph shown? If not, why? Ans: No. γ emission involves no change in
neutron no. and proton no.
Example 2
In an experiment, different absorbers are placed in turn between the source
and a GM tube.
The experimental results are tabulated as follows.
absorber recorded count rate / counts per minute

air 753
paper 230
5 mm thick aluminium foil 237
25 mm thick lead block 102
(a) What type(s) of radiation is/are emitted by the source? Explain your
answer. (4 marks) see DSE-14-1A Q32, CE-95-1 Q7(b)
(b) Is the source suitable to be injected into a patient’s bloodstream for
medical use? Explain your answer. (2 marks)
. Solution
properties of the absorbers:
(a) • paper: block α, permit β and γ
• 5 mm aluminium foil: block α and β, permit γ
• 25 mm lead block: block α and β, reduce γ
The signi icant drop in the count rate when the paper is used as the
absorber shows that the source emits α radiation. (1A)
The small change in the count rate when the aluminium foil is used as
the absorber shows that the source does not emit β radiation. (1A)
The signi icant drop in the count rate when the lead block is used as
the absorber shows that the source emits γ radiation. (1A)
Hence the source emits both α and γ radiation. (1A)
(b) No. (1A)
α radiation has strong ionizing power and so it may damage the living
cells and tissues of the patient. (1A)
î What-if Estimate what the recorded count rate would be if a 0.5 mm

thick aluminium foil is used as the absorber. Ans: ≈ 230 counts per minute (∵ the
0.5 mm thick aluminium foil, like
paper, can block all α radiation and let
γ radiation to pass through)
10 Chapter 25
Example 3 see CE-08-1 Q12

To distinguish the types of radiation emitted by an unknown source, a see also CE-90-1 Q9, AL-02-2B Q5b
student conducts an experiment in a vacuum chamber using the set-up

shown below. He moves a GM tube slowly from X to Y , and obtains the
graph of recorded count rate along X Y as shown.
(a) Explain the function of the following components in the experimental

set-up.
(i) vacuum chamber (1 mark)
(ii) lead shield (1 mark)
(b) Brie ly explain why the count rate measured along X Y does not drop
to zero. (1 mark)
(c) Explain why it can be concluded that the radioactive source emits α
and γ radiation. (4 marks)
(d) Can we conclude that the source does not emit β radiation? Explain
your answer. (2 marks)
. Solution
(a) (i) to avoid α particles being blocked by air (1A) This is why many experiments involving α
particles have to be conducted in vacuum.
(ii) to con ine the radiation emitted /
to ensure all radiation travels in the same direction (1A)
(b) The background radiation is recorded by the GM tube. (1A) Always consider the effect of the
background radiation in experiments
(c) A peak of count rate appears near X . (1A)
on radioactivity.
Since only positively charged particles will bend towards X inside the
magnetic ield, it can be concluded that α particles are emitted. (1A)
A peak of count rate appears around O . (1A)
Only the neutral γ radiation does not de lect inside the magnetic
ield. (1A)
(d) No. (1A)

As β particles are much lighter than α particles, even if the source
emits β particles, they would be bent to a larger extent, thus not
reaching the line X Y at all. (1A)
î What-if If GM tubes are not available, how would you conduct the
experiment? Ans: use a photographic ilm
Chapter 26
Rate of Decay and Uses of Radionuclides
A. Reminders
Random nature
This is why experimental results do not it
• radioactive decay: random perfectly with the theoretical ones.
process
• no. of nuclei ↑
⇒ accuracy of prediction ↑
Half-life
• time for the no. of undecayed nuclei N (or activity A ) to reduce by half
Activity is also halved after 1 half-life

because A ∝ N (see ’Activity’).
Activity
• no. of nuclei decayed in 1 s

• activity and no. of undecayed nuclei: A = kN
• decay constant k : probability that an undecayed nucleus decays in 1 s
12 Chapter 26
• decay constant and half-life:

ln 2
T½ =
k
Exponential law of decay

Due to the random nature of radioactivity,
these curves are accurate as long as the no.
of nuclei considered is large.
Dose, equivalent dose and effective dose
quantity de inition unit

dose amount of radiation absorbed per unit mass Gray (Gy)
equivalent dose biological effect on a tissue/organ by different types of radiation Sievert (Sv)
effective dose biological effect on the entire human body exposed to radiation Sievert (Sv)
Rate of Decay and Uses of Radionuclides 13
B. Common Mistakes
• Half-life and number of nuclei
V A radioactive sample takes one half-life for the number of undecayed

nuclei to decrease by half.
• Half-life and strength example:
V Radiation with a longer half-life is not necessarily stronger than that

of a shorter half-life.
• Finding half-life from count rates corrected count rate (c. r.)=
recorded c. r. − background c. r.
V Take the background count rate into account when inding the half-life
from count rates.
14 Chapter 26
C. Key Examples
Example 1
Rn-222 undergoes α decay as shown. Note that X denotes the daughter
nuclide.
222Rn −−−→ A X +α
86 Z
(a) Find A and Z . How many neutrons are there in X ? (3 marks)

(b) A sample of Rn-222 decays at a rate of 120 disintegrations per second.
After how long would the sample decay at 15 disintegrations per
second? Given that the half-life of Rn-222 is 3.8 days. (2 marks)
see CE-10-1 Q7
see also DSE-16-1B Q9(b)
. Solution
(a) • Identify α particle: helium nucleus 4
2He
• Total nucleon no. (mass no.) and total proton no. (atomic no.): conserved
A = 222 − 4 = 218 (1A)
Z = 86 − 2 = 84 (1A)
neutron number = A − Z = 218 − 84 = 134 (1A)
(b) Repeatly dividing the initial activity by 2 to see whether the time needed is an integer
multiple of half-life.
120 → 60 → 30 → 15
no. of undecayed nuclei:

120 → 60 → 30 → 15 (1M)
∴ time needed = 3 half-lives = 3 × 3.8 = 11.4 d (1A)
î Alternative Algebraic method:

Let n be the number of half-lives needed.
( ) n
15 1
= ⇒n=3
120 2
time needed = 3 × 3.8 = 11.4 d
î What-if Would your answers in (a) and (b) differ if the parent nuclide
undergoes β decay instead? Ans: (a) yes (b) no
Rate of Decay and Uses of Radionuclides 15
Example 2
The igure below shows a simple circuit of a smoke detector.
(a) Explain why a small current lows across the electrodes under normal
operation. (2 marks)
(b) Describe and explain what would happen to the smoke detector when
smoke particles enter it. (2 marks)
(c) How would you convince the public that the smoke detector poses no
health hazard in normal use? (1 mark) see CE-04-01 Q9
. Solution
(a) • For a current to low, a complete circuit is needed.
• The circuit can be completed if ion-pairs are present between the electrodes.
• α radiation has strong ionizing power.
The α particles emitted by the source ionize the air molecules between
the two electrodes, producing ion-pairs. (1A)
The ions are attracted towards the charged electrodes, completing the
circuit. Hence, a current lows. (1A)
(b) The smoke particles attach to and neutralize the ions. (1A)
As fewer ions reach the electrodes, the current in the circuit drops, and
the alarm is triggered. (1A)
(c) The radiation dose from the radioactive source is small (compared B As the question focuses on health
with that from the background radiation). (1A) hazard, merely stating the properties of α
particles (e.g. short range in air) may not
î What-if Would the smoke detector still work if a weak β source is used gain full mark.
instead? Ans: no (∵ ionizing power of β radiation is

weak)
16 Chapter 26
Example 3
Carbon-14 (C-14) dating is a common technique used for determining the
age of ancient remains. The half-life of C-14 is about 5730 years.
Take 1 year = 3.15 × 107 s.
(a) Calculate the decay constant of C-14 in s−1 . (2 marks)
(b) Find the activity of a sample containing 1011 C-14 atoms. (2 marks)
(c) The count rate measured from a bone is 124 counts per minute while
that measured from a living plant of the same mass is 210 counts per
minute. Estimate the age of the bone in years. (2 marks)
see DSE-15-1A Q33, AL-09-1B Q8
. Solution
(a) decay constant:
ln 2
k=
T½
ln 2
= ( ) (1M)
5730 × 3.15 × 107
= 3.840 × 10−12 ≈ 3.84 × 10−12 s−1 (1A)
(b) activity:
( )
A = kN = 3.840 × 10−12 × 1011 = 0.384 s−1 (1M+1A)
(c) The age is NOT an integer multiple of the half-life: 210 → 105 (< 124)
⇒ Use the exponential law of decay.
age of the bone:
A = A 0 e−kt
A
ln = −kt
A0
1 A
t = − ln
k A0
( )
1 124
=− ln (1M)
3.840 × 10−12 210
= 1.372 × 1011 s
≈ 4355 yr (1A)
î What-if The radiation released in open-air nuclear tests induces the

formation of C-14. How would these nuclear tests affect the result of C-14
dating? Ans: The estimated age would be younger
than the actual age.
Chapter 27
Nuclear Energy
A. Reminders
Nuclear ission
• a heavy nucleus split into two or
more lighter nuclei
• spontaneous reaction
• example:
235U + 1n −−−→ 141Ba + 92Kr + 3 1n
92 0 56 36 0
Chain reaction
• neutrons emitted in a ission
reaction initiate further reactions
• conditions for chain reaction:
more than one neutron are
emitted in the ission reaction
suf iciently high concentration
of the reactant (e.g. U-235)
Nuclear fusion
• light nuclei fuse to form a heavier
nuclei
• non-spontaneous reaction
• example:
2H + 3H −−−→ 4He + 1n
1 1 2 0
18 Chapter 27
Mass–energy relation
• mass and energy are interchangeable: ∆E = ∆mc 2
B. Common Mistakes
• Conditions for chain reaction

see CE-09-2 Q27
V For a chain reaction to occur, there must be at least two neutrons

emitted in the ission reaction.
• Energy released in nuclear ission and fusion
V The amount of energy released in the ission of U-235 is larger than

that released in the fusion of H-2 and H-3. But for the same mass of fuel,
more energy is released in the fusion reaction.
Nuclear Energy 19
C. Key Examples
Example 1
(a) State two similarities and two differences between nuclear ission and
radioactive decay. (4 marks) see AL-00-2 Q5(b)
(b) In nuclear power plants, uranium-235 (U-235) nuclei undergo chain
reactions.
(i) Explain what is meant by ‘chain reactions’. (2 marks)
(ii) State one condition on the nuclear fuel for a chain reaction to
occur. Explain your answer. (2 marks)
. Solution
(a) similarities (any two): (2A)
• Both release energy.

• Both involve a split of larger nuclei into smaller parts.
• Charge is conserved in both processes.
• Mass–energy is conserved in both processes. Accept any other reasonable answers.
differences (any two): (2A)
• Nuclear ission is ‘triggered’ by neutron bombardment while

radioactive decay is spontaneous.
• Nuclear ission may give three or more particles as products while
radioactive decay always gives two particles as products.
• Nuclear ission can be initiated and controlled manually while
radioactive decay involves a characteristics half-life.
• Nuclear ission of a particular nuclide may result in a combination
of products while radioactive decay always results in the same
products. Accept any other reasonable answers.
(b) (i) The ission of a U-235 nucleus produces two or more neutrons
that trigger further ission of U-235 nuclei. (1A)
Hence the ission reaction multiplies and goes on as a chain

reaction. (1A)
(ii) The concentration of U-235 in the fuel must be high enough.

(1A)
This is to ensure the neutrons emitted can bombard two or

more U-235 nuclei to trigger further reactions. (1A)
î What-if In (b), if the neutrons released in the ission reaction move at a

very high speed, how would the chain reaction rate be affected? Ans: decreases (∵ the faster the neutrons
move, the lower is the probability that
they are captured by U-235 nuclei.)
20 Chapter 27
Example 2
At a temperature of about 107 K, a hydrogen-2 nucleus and a hydrogen-3 see DSE-15-1B Q10
nucleus may fuse into a helium-4 nucleus.
2H + 3H −−−→ 4He + 1n
1 1 2 0
Given:
mass of 21H nucleus = 2.014 102 u c = 3 × 108 m s−1
mass of 31H nucleus = 3.016 049 u 1 u = 1.661 × 10−27 kg
mass of 42He nucleus = 4.002 603 u

mass of neutron = 1.008 665 u
(a) Why is such a high temperature needed for the nuclear fusion reaction
to occur? (2 marks)
(b) Calculate the mass defect, in kg, between the reactants and products in
the fusion reaction. (2 marks)
(c) If a total of 2 mg of hydrogen-2 and hydrogen-3 nuclei undergoes the

fusion reaction in each second, calculate the rate of energy release.
(3 marks) see AL-93-1 Q12(b)
see also DSE-10-1B Q10(b)
. Solution
(a) As both hydrogen-2 and hydrogen-3 nuclei are both positively charged,
they repel each other due to electrostatic repulsion. (1A)
At such a high temperature, the nuclei possess high enough KE to

overcome the electrostatic repulsion and initiate the reaction. (1A)
(b) mass defect = total mass of reactants − total mass of products

∆m (in u) = (2.014 102+3.016 049)−(4.002 603+1.008 665) = 0.018 883 u
(1M)
∆m (in kg) = (0.018 883)(1.661 × 10−27 ) = 3.136 × 10−29 ≈ 3.14 × 10−29 kg

(1A)
(c) rate of energy release (i.e. amount of energy released in 1 s)

= energy released in one reaction × no. of reaction taken place in 1 s
energy released in one fusion reaction:

∆E = ∆mc 2 = (3.136 × 10−29 )(3 × 108 )2 = 2.823 × 10−12 J (1M)
no. of fusion reaction taken place in 1 s:

2 × 10−6 mass of the fuel reacted in 1 s
n= = 2.394 × 1020 (1M) n=
(2.014 102 + 3.016 049)(1.661 × 10−27 ) mass of the reactants in one reaction
rate of energy release:

E (2.394 × 1020 )(2.823 × 10−12 )
P= = ≈ 6.76 × 108 W (1A)
t 1
î What-if In (c), If the mass of the fuel reacted in each second is doubled,
would the rate of energy release be doubled? Ans: yes

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“studyguide-main” — 2017/2/17 — 19:40 — page 1 — #1

25 Radiation and Radioactivity 2

26 Rate of Decay and Uses of Radionuclides 11

• ionizing radiation = radiation with energy high enough to knock electrons

charge mass (a.m.u.)

Radiation and Radioactivity 3

• nucleons = protons + neutrons

name hydrogen-1 helium-4 lithium-7

mass no. A (proton + neutron no.) 1 4 7

Radiation and Radioactivity 5

Cloud chamber tracks

• penetrating power in air (range in air)

• penetrating power in materials

V The electron emitted in a β decay comes from the nucleus.

Radiation and Radioactivity 7

• Discharging a positively charged sphere with α particles

V The ion-pairs produced by α particles can discharge a positively

• Identifying radiation emitted by an unknown source

V When identifying the radiation emitted by an unknown source,

• Speed of γ radiation in vacuum

The fact that γ radiation can penetrate an

V γ radiation is an EM wave, and so it travels at the same speed

(b) Determine the total number of

234Pa −−−→ 234U + 0e (1A)

Let x and y be the no. of α and β particles respectively.

(146 + 92) = (124 + 82) + 4x (1M) +4x, ∵ an α particle has 4 nucleons

total proton no. conserved:

Radiation and Radioactivity 9

The experimental results are tabulated as follows.

absorber recorded count rate / counts per minute

Hence the source emits both α and γ radiation. (1A)

(b) No. (1A)

î What-if Estimate what the recorded count rate would be if a 0.5 mm

Example 3 see CE-08-1 Q12

student conducts an experiment in a vacuum chamber using the set-up

(a) Explain the function of the following components in the experimental

(ii) lead shield (1 mark)

A peak of count rate appears around O . (1A)

(d) No. (1A)

Activity is also halved after 1 half-life

• no. of nuclei decayed in 1 s

• decay constant and half-life:

Exponential law of decay

Dose, equivalent dose and effective dose

quantity de inition unit

Rate of Decay and Uses of Radionuclides 13

• Half-life and number of nuclei

V A radioactive sample takes one half-life for the number of undecayed

• Half-life and strength example:

V Radiation with a longer half-life is not necessarily stronger than that

(a) Find A and Z . How many neutrons are there in X ? (3 marks)

A = 222 − 4 = 218 (1A)

neutron number = A − Z = 218 − 84 = 134 (1A)

no. of undecayed nuclei:

∴ time needed = 3 half-lives = 3 × 3.8 = 11.4 d (1A)

î Alternative Algebraic method:

Rate of Decay and Uses of Radionuclides 15

instead? Ans: no (∵ ionizing power of β radiation is

age of the bone:

î What-if The radiation released in open-air nuclear tests induces the

• mass and energy are interchangeable: ∆E = ∆mc 2

• Conditions for chain reaction

V For a chain reaction to occur, there must be at least two neutrons