Contents

Introduction...............................................................................................................................................1
Aquatic Adaptation...............................................................................................................................2
Classification of Macrophytes...........................................................................................................3
Morphological Classification........................................................................................................6
Function of Aquatic Plants........................................................................................................7
The Role of Aquatic Plants....................................................................................................7
Threats to Aquatic plants..............................................................................................9
Conclusion....................................................................................................................10
Reference..................................................................................................................10
 1

Aquatic Plants

Introduction
Aquatic plants are plants that have adapted to living in aquatic environments (saltwater or
freshwater). They are also referred to as hydrophytes or macrophytes to distinguish them from
algae and other microphytes. A macrophyte is a plant that grows in or near water and is either
emergent, submergent, or floating. In lakes and rivers macrophytes provide cover for fish,
substrate for aquatic invertebrates, produce oxygen, and act as food for some fish and wildlife.

Macrophytes are primary producers and are the basis of the food web for many organisms. They
have a significant effect on soil chemistry and light levels as they slow down the flow of water
and capture pollutants and trap sediments. Excess sediment will settle into the benthos aided by
the reduction of flow rates caused by the presence of plant stems, leaves and roots. Some plants
have the capability of absorbing pollutants into their tissue. Seaweeds are multicellular marine
algae and, although their ecological impact is similar to other larger water plants, they are not
typically referred to as macrophytes.

Aquatic plants require special adaptations for living submerged in water, or at the water's
surface. The most common adaptation is the presence of lightweight internal packing cells,
aerenchyma, but floating leaves and finely dissected leaves are also common. Aquatic plants can
only grow in water or in soil that is frequently saturated with water. They are therefore a
common component of wetlands. One of the largest aquatic plants in the world is the Amazon
water lily; one of the smallest is the minute duckweed.
 2

Aquatic Adaptation
Reproduction

Although most aquatic angiosperms can reproduce by flowering and setting seeds, many have
also evolved to have extensive asexual reproduction by means of rhizomes, turions, and
fragments in general.

Photosynthesis

Submerged aquatic plants have more restricted access to carbon as carbon dioxide compared to
terrestrial plants. They may also experience reduced light levels. The diffuse boundary layers
(DBLs) around submerged leaves and photosynthetic stems. Aquatic plants have DBLs that vary
based on the leaves' thickness, shape and density and they are the main factor responsible for the
greatly reduced rate of gaseous transport across the leaf/water boundary and therefore greatly

inhibit transport of carbon dioxide transport. To overcome this limitation, many aquatic plants
have evolved to metabolise bicarbonate ions as a source of carbon.

Environmental variables affect the instantaneous photosynthetic rates of aquatic plants and the
photosynthetic enzymes pigments. In water, light intensity rapidly decreases with depth. .
Respiration is also higher in the dark per the unit volume of the medium they live in.

Morphology

Fully submerged aquatic plants have little need for stiff or woody tissue as they are able to
maintain their position in the water using buoyancy typically from gas filled lacuna or turgid
Aerenchyma cells. When removed from the water, such plants are typically limp and loose turgor
rapidly.Those living in rivers do, however, need sufficient structural xylem to avoid being
damaged by fast flowing water and they also need strong mechanisms of attachment to avoid
being uprooted by river flow.

Many fully submerged plants have finely dissected leaves, probably to reduce drag in rivers and
to provide a much increased surface area for interchange of minerals and gasses. Some species of
plants such as Ranunculus aquatilis have two different leaf forms with finely dissected leaves
that are fully submerged and entire leaves on the surface of the water.
 3

Some still-water plants can alter their position in the water column at different seasons. One
notable example is Water soldier which rests as a rootless rosette on the bottom of the water
body but slowly floats to the surface in late Spring so that its inflorescence can emerge into the
air. While it is ascending through the water column it produces roots and vegetative daughter
plants by means of rhizomes. When flowering is complete, the plant descends through the water
column and the roots atrophy.

In floating aquatic angiosperms, the leaves have evolved to only have stomata on the top surface
to make use of atmospheric carbon dioxide. Gas exchange primarily occurs through the top
surface of the leaf due to the position of the stomata, and the stomata are in a permanently open
state. Due to their aquatic surroundings, the plants are not at risk of losing water through the
stomata and therefore face no risk of dehydration. For carbon fixation, some aquatic angiosperms
are able to uptake CO2 from bicarbonate in the water, a trait that does not exist in terrestrial
plants. Angiosperms that use HCO 3- can keep CO2 levels satisfactory, even in basic
environments with low carbon levels.

Terrestrial plants in aquatic environments

Terrestrial plants may undergo physiological changes when submerged due to flooding. When
submerged, new leaf growth has been found to have thinner leaves and thinner cell walls than the
leaves on the plant that grew while above water, along with oxygen levels being higher in the
portion of the plant grown underwater versus the sections that grew in their terrestrial
environment. This is considered a form of phenotypic plasticity as the plant, once submerged,
experiences changes in morphology better suited to their new aquatic environment. However,
while some terrestrial plants may be able to adapt in the short-term to an aquatic habitat, it may
not be possible to reproduce underwater, especially if the plant usually relies on terrestrial
pollinators.

Classification of Macrophytes
Based on growth form, macrophytes can be characterised as:

 Emergent
 Submerged
 Rooted: rooted to the substrate
 4

 Unrooted: free-floating in the water column

 Attached: attached to substrate but not by roots
 Floating-leaved
 Free-floating

Emergent

An emergent plant is one which grows in water but pierces the surface so that it is partially
exposed to air. Collectively, such plants are emergent vegetation.

This habit may have developed

because the leaves can
photosynthesize more
efficiently in air and
competition from submerged
plants but often, the main
aerial feature is the flower and
the related reproductive
process. The emergent habit
permits pollination by wind or by flying insects.

There are many species of emergent plants, among them, the reed (Phragmites), Cyperus
papyrus, Typha species, flowering rush and wild rice species. Some species, such as purple
loosestrife, may grow in water as emergent plants but they are capable of flourishing in fens or
simply in damp ground.

Submerged

Submerged macrophytes
completely grow under water
with roots attached to the
substrate (e.g. Myriophyllum
spicatum) or without any root
system (e.g. Ceratophyllum
demersum). Helophytes are
 5

plants that grows in a marsh, partly submerged in water, so that it regrows from buds below the
water surface. Fringing stands of tall vegetation by water basins and rivers may include
helophytes. Examples include stands of Equisetum fluviatile, Glyceria maxima, Hippuris
vulgaris, Sagittaria, Carex, Schoenoplectus, Sparganium, Acorus, yellow flag (Iris pseudacorus),
Typha and Phragmites australis.

Floating-leaved

Floating-leaved macrophytes
have root systems attached to
the substrate or bottom of the
body of water and with leaves
that float on the water surface.
Common floating leaved
macrophytes are water lilies
(family Nymphaeaceae),
pondweeds (family
Potamogetonaceae).

Free-floating

Free-floating macrophytes are

found suspended on water
surface with their root not
attached to substrate,
sediment, or bottom of the
water body. They are easily
blown by air and provide
breeding ground for
mosquitoes. Example include
Pistia spp. commonly called
water lettuce, water cabbage
or Nile cabbage.
 6

Morphological Classification
The many possible classifications of aquatic plants are based upon morphology. One example
has six groups as follows:

Amphiphytes: plants that are adapted to live either submerged or on land

Elodeids: stem plants that complete their entire lifecycle submerged, or with only their flowers
above the waterline

Isoetids: rosette plants that complete their entire lifecycle submerged

Helophytes: plants rooted in the bottom, but with leaves above the waterline

Nymphaeids: plants rooted in the bottom, but with leaves floating on the water surface

Neuston: vascular plants that float freely in the water

Many liverworts grow either submerged or on land.

Ceratophyllum submersum, a free-floating plant that grows completely submerged

Eriocaulon aquaticum, an isoetid example, grows submerged in water.

Pistia stratiotes, an example of a neuston, a plant that floats freely on the water surface
 7

Lysichiton americanus grows rooted in the bottom with leaves and flowers above the waterline.

Water lilies grow rooted in the bottom with leaves that float on the water surface.

Function of Aquatic Plants

Aquatic plants are a natural part of every inland water body. Some plant functions include:

 The production of leaves and stems that fuel the food web-they are a valuable food
source

 The production of oxygen through photosynthesis-they oxygenate the water via plant
processes

 Providing underwater cover for fish, amphibians, birds, insects and many other organisms

 Providing a surface for algae and bacteria to adhere to. These organisms break down
polluting nutrients and chemicals and are an important source of food for organisms
higher in the food chain

 Emergent plants break wave energy, reducing erosion of the shoreline, while rooted,
submersed plants stabilize bottom sediment, reducing turbidity and nutrient cycling that
can lead to algae blooms

The Role of Aquatic Plants

Aquatic plants are a food source for animals and other aquatic creatures; they provide habitat for
aquatic organisms and cover for smaller fish. Aquatic plants help keep the sediment at the
bottom of a lake, improving water clarity.
 8

Relationship to freshwater ecosystem functions:

• Food and nesting sites for aquatic animals

• Water quality maintenance and pollution retention

• Sediment retention and control – increasing light availability and reducing turbidity

• Amelioration of flood waves and high flows

• Persistence of stream flows throughout a year

• Slowing of shallow sheet flows and streams to facilitate groundwater recharge

• Oxygenation of water for other organisms

In the coastal and marine realm, aquatic plants:

Mangroves provide breeding and growing sites for many off-shore and benthic organisms –
including crustaceans, molluscs and fishes (through their high productivity and leaf-fall
providing nutrients as well as refuges for growing larvae).Seagrass “meadows” provide food and
shelter for a range of marine organisms.

Both mangroves and seagrasses ameliorate destructively rough seas, storm surges and high
tides for the protection of marine organisms, land plants and terrestrial ecosystems.
 9

Economic benefits of aquatic plants include:-

 Food, shelter and nesting sites for both inland and marine fisheries

 Purification and de-silting of water – in lakes, rivers and wetlands

 Food products from various aquatic plants such as taro, water yams, water chestnuts,
water greens (e.g. Ipomoea aquatica), water cress, (paddy and wild rice) + medicinals
and food additives from algae

 Stock feed (grazing and stall-fed)

 Green mulch and fertilizer for crops

 Plants for aquarium trade and “water gardens”

 Building materials and mats from reeds and other types

 Fuelwood from swamp forests and fuel from riparian and floodplain plants (e.g. Mimosa
pigra)

Threats to Aquatic plants

The main threats to aquatic plants are:

• Human destruction and alteration of aquatic habitats– both freshwater and marine

• Over-harvesting of aquatic plants

• Pollution (land-based, agricultural, urban, industrial and water-based pollution from

shipping)

• Global change affecting temperatures and water availability parameters as well as floods
and storms

• Plant diseases (seemingly rare)

• Aquatic plant herbivores – especially alien and invasive insects, mites, crustaceans,
molluscs, fishes and waterbirds

• Invasive plants
 10

Threats by/from Aquatic plants

When aquatic plants are introduced to an ecosystem in which they were not indigenous, some
species may become invasive

They can then have negative impacts on human livelihoods and health, human development, and
biodiversity – i.e. they can become “pests”

This can apply to any type of aquatic plant – in freshwater, brackish water or marine water in the
same way it does to terrestrial species (called “weeds”)

All of the types of aquatic plants described have examples of species that have become invasive
when introduced to new situations – or when their present ecosystems have been changed by
human activity or natural processes and natural disasters (such as salination, water level
changes, flow regime changes, impacts of storms and floods, conversions of water

Conclusion
All land plants have evolved from aquatic ancestors. Species from nearly one hundred flowering
plant families, along with some ferns, mosses, and liver-worts, have reinvaded the water. Many

land plants can tolerate flooding for some time. Many aquatic habitats, and the aquatic plants
that live in them, however, are under constant threat from pollution and from drainage for urban
and industrial development across the globe. Aquatic plants can help remove pollutants and
purify our water supplies. They are also a vital part of a fully functional aquatic ecosystem for
fish and other wildlife.

Reference
Cook, Christopher D. K., Bernardo J. Gut, E. Martyn Rix, Jacob Schneller, and Marta
Seitz. Water Plants of the World. The Hague: Dr W. Junk b.v. Publishers, 1974.
Crawford, R. M. M. Plant Life in Aquatic and Amphibious Habitats. Oxford: Blackwell
Scientific Publications, 1987.
 11

Sculthorpe, C. D. The Biology of Aquatic Vascular Plants. London: Edward Arnold,

1967. Re Cook, C.D.K. (ed). 1974. Water Plants of the World. Dr W Junk Publishers,
The Hague. ISBN 90-6193-024-3.print, Konigstein: Koeltz Scientific Books, 1985.
Tomlinson, P. B. 1986. The Botany of Mangroves. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge
University Press.
Mommer, Liesje; Wolters‐Arts, Mieke; Andersen, Charlotte; Visser, Eric J. W.;
Pedersen, Ole (2007). "Submergence-induced leaf acclimation in terrestrial species
varying in flooding tolerance"

External links

 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aquatic_plant
 https://www.lgsonic.com/importance-of-aquatic-plants-and-algae-in-a-lakes-ecosystem
 https://web.archive.org/web/20200410235322/https://aquaplant.tamu.edu