INDUSTRIAL/ORGANIZATIONAL • Groups whose members have previously worked

PSYCHOLOGY together perform better than groups whose members

are not familiar with one another (Harrison et al,
Chapter 13: Group Behavior, Teams, and 2003)
Conflict

GROUP DYNAMICS Isolation

Gordon (2001)
For a collection of people to be called a group:
a) The members of the group must see themselves
as a unit;
b) The group must provide rewards to its members;
c) Anything that happens to one member of the
group affects every other member; and
d) The members of the group must share a common
goal
Reasons for Joining Groups
• Assignment
• Physical Proximity
• Affiliation
• Identification
• Emotional Support
• Assistance or Help
• Common Interests
• Common Goals
FACTORS AFFECTING GROUP
PERFORMANCE
1. Group Cohesiveness
• The extent to which group members like and trust
one another, are committed to accomplishing a team
goal, and share a feeling of group pride (Beake et al,
2003)
Group Homogeneity
• Homogenous and heterogeneous groups
• Slightly heterogeneous groups as best-performing
groups – dissimilar person adding tension and a
different vantage point
• Homogeneous groups result in higher member
satisfaction, higher levels of communication and
interaction, and lower turnover
• The group member who is “different” may not
have the same level of satisfaction as the rest
Stability of Membership
• Groups in which members remain for long periods
of time are more cohesive and perform better than
groups that have high turnover (Bell, 2005)
• Groups that are isolated from other groups tend to
be highly cohesive. Outside Pressure
• Psychological reactance
• Straw man
Group Size
• Groups are most cohesive and perform best when
group size is small.
• Large groups: lower productivity, less
coordination, lower morale, less cohesive, more
critical
• Groups with approximately five members perform
best and have greatest member satisfaction
• Additive Tasks: group’s performance is equal to
the sum of the performances by each group member
| each member’s contribution is important
• Conjunctive Tasks: depends on the least effective
group member
• Disjunctive Tasks: based on the most talented
group member
• Social Impact Theory (Latane, 1981): the
addition of a group member has the greatest effect
on group behavior when the size of the group is
small
• When computers are used, large groups appear to
perform best and have the most satisfied members
Group Status
• the esteem in which the group is held by people
not in the group
• Group does not need to have high status, they just
need to believe they have high status.
• Leaders can increase group status by increasing
the perception that the group is difficult to join but
that, once in, members will find the group’s
activities as special.
2. Group Ability and Confidence
• Groups consisting of highability members
outperform those with low-ability members
• Confidence about the probability for success –
better performance
3. Personality of the Group Members
• Generally, groups whose members have task
related experience and score high in openness to
experience and emotional stability will perform
better than their counterparts.
4. Communication Structure
• A good leader carefully chooses the
communication network that best facilitates the
goals of his group
5. Group Roles
• Task-oriented roles: involve behaviors such as
offering new ideas, coordinating activities, and
finding new information
• Social-oriented roles: involve encouraging
cohesiveness and participation
• Individual role: includes blocking group
activities, calling attention to oneself, avoiding
group interaction | seldom result in higher group
productivity
• Leaders assigning roles
6. Presence of Others:
Social Facilitation and Inhibition
• Social Facilitation: involves the positive effects
of the presence of others on an individual’s
behavior
• Social Inhibition: involves the negative effects of
others’ presence
• Audience Effect: effect on behavior when a group
of people passively watches an individual
• Coaction: effect on behavior when two or more
people are performing the same task in the presence
of each other
• Coaction: Shalley (1995) found that coaction
decreased creativity and productivity
• Explaining Social Facilitation Effects:
performance does not always increase in the
presence of others | performance increases when
task is easy or well-learned, decreases with difficult
ones
(1) mere presence of others naturally
produces arousal which help in performing
well-learned tasks but hinders in performing
poorly learned or unpracticed tasks;
(2) coacting audience provides a means for
comparison;
(3) evaluation apprehension
(4) presence of others is distracting
• Social Loafing: individuals in a group often exert
less individual effort than they would if they were
not in a group | little chance of individual reward for
unnoticed individual efforts
- Free-rider Theory – when things are going
well, a group member realizes that his effort
is not necessary and thus does not work hard
- Sucker Effect – social loafing occurs when
a group member notices that other group
members are not working hard and thus are
“playing him for a sucker”
7. Individual Dominance
• When one member of a group dominates the group
8. Groupthink
• Members become so cohesive and like-minded
that they make poor decisions despite contrary
information
• A state of mind in which a group is so concerned
about its own cohesiveness that it ignores important
info
INDIVIDUAL VS GROUP PERFORMANCE
• Nominal Group: when several people
individually work on a problem but do not interact
• Interacting Group: when several individuals
interact to solve a problem
• Brainstorming: ideas are generated by people in
a group setting
• The superiority of nominal groups over interacting
groups may depend on the type of task.
• Brophy (1996): nominal groups are most effective
with a single brainstorming problem, interacting
groups with complex ones
• Davis and Harless (1996): interacting groups take
better advantage of feedback and learning and thus
outperform nominal groups with complex problems
• Group Polarization: group members shifting
beliefs to a more extreme version of what they
already believe individually
TEAMS
• Work Team: a collection of three or more
individuals who interact intensively to provide an
organizational product, plan, decision or service
(Devine et al, 1999)
Factors to consider in becoming a team:
• Identification: the extent to which group
members identify with the team rather than with
other groups
• Interdependence: the extent to which team
members need and rely on other team members
• Power Differentiation: the extent to which team
members have the same level of power and respect
• Social Distance: the extent to which team
members treat each other in a friendly, informal
manner
• Conflict Management Tactics: team members
responding to conflict by collaborating, nonteam
members respond by forcing and accommodating
• Negotiation Process: team members – win-win
style, nonteam members – others win, others lose |
Donnellon (1996) – collaborative, emergent,
adversarial, nominal, doomed teams
Teams differ in ways:
• Permanency: some teams are designed to work
permanently, others are formed to solve a particular
problem and then dissolve after
• Proximity
Types of Teams:
• Work Teams: groups of employees who manage
themselves, assign jobs, plan and schedule work,
make work-related decisions, and solve work-
related problems
• Work Teams: typically formed to produce goods,
provide service, or increase the quality and cost-
effectiveness of a product or system
• Parallel Teams: cross functional teams |
representatives from other departments within an
organization | important to have a clear purpose,
receive support from each functional area, take
steps to increase trust levels
• Project Teams: formed to produce onetime
outputs | once accomplished, team is dismantled
• Management Teams: coordinate, manage,
advise, and direct employees and teams | provide
general direction
How Teams Develop:
Tuckman’s (1965) Phases
1. Forming: team members get to know each other
and decide what roles each member will play
2. Storming: the good behavior disappears |
disagreeing, challenging each other’s ideas
3. Norming: team works toward easing the tension
from the storming stage 4. Performing: team begins
to accomplish its goals
Punctuated Equilibrium Theory
• Rather than forming stages, teams develop
direction and strategy in the first meeting, follow
this direction for a time, and then drastically revise
strategy
Why Teams Don’t Always Work:
• The team is not a team
• Excessive meeting requirements
• Lack of empowerment
• Lack of skill
• Distrust of the team process
• Unclear objectives
GROUP CONFLICT
• Conflict: the psychological and behavioral
reaction to a perception that another person is
keeping you from reaching a goal, taking away your
right to behave in a particular way, or violating the
expectancies of a relationship
• Perception: one of the key components of conflict
| misperceptions
• De Dreu and Weingart (2003): most conflict
results in lower team performance and lower
member satisfaction
• Dysfunctional Conflict: keeps people from
working together, lessens productivity, spreads to
other areas, increases turnover
• Functional Conflict: moderate degree of conflict
resulting to better performance
Types of Conflict
• Interpersonal Conflict: between two individuals
• Individual-group Conflict: individual’s needs
differ from group’s needs, goals or norms
• Group-group Conflict: between two or more
groups
Causes of Conflict
• Competition for Resources: demand for
resources is greater than the resources available
• Task Interdependence: performance of some
group member depends on the performance of other
group members
• Jurisdictional Ambiguity: found when
geographical boundaries or lines of authority are
unclear
• Communication Barriers: may be physical,
cultural, or psychological
• Beliefs:
• Personality: incompatible personalities who must
work together

Conflict Styles
• Avoiding Style: choose to ignore the conflict and
hope it will resolve itself | withdrawal from the
situation; triangling – an employee discusses the
conflict with a third party
• Accommodating Style: a person is so intent on
settling a conflict that he gives in and risks hurting
himself
• Forcing Style: handling a conflict in a win-lose
fashion, doing what it takes to win, with little regard
for the other
• Collaborating Style: wanting to win, but also
wants to see the other person to win; winwin
solutions
• Compromising Style: adopting a give-and-take
tactics enabling each side to get some of what it
wants but not everything it wants

Determining Conflict Styles

• Rahim Organizational Conflict Inventory II
• Cohen Conflict Response Inventory

Resolving Conflict
• Prior to Conflict Occurring: organizational
policy, training on conflict (causes, prevention,
strategies for resolution)
• When Conflict First Occurs: to resolve – reduce
tension and increase trust
• Third-Party Intervention: Mediation (p. 499 –
Lovenheim and Guerin, 2004)| Arbitration – a
neutral third party listens to both sides’ arguments
and then makes a decision; binding or nonbinding
decisions
Chapter 12: Leadership
LEADER EMERGENCE
• The idea that people who become leaders possess
traits or characteristics different from people who
do not become leaders
• People high in openness, conscientiousness, and
extraversion, and low in neuroticism are more likely
to emerge as leaders than their counterparts
• High self-monitors: people who adapt their
behavior to the social situation | emerge as leaders
more often than low selfmonitors
• More intelligent people are more likely to emerge
as leaders than are less intelligent people.
• Looking at patterns of abilities and personality
traits is more useful than looking at individual
abilities and traits
MOTIVATION TO LEAD
MOTIVATION
• Become leaders because they enjoy being in-
charge and leading others
• Tend to have the most leadership experience
• Having high leadership potential
NON-CALCULATIVE MOTIVATION
• Seek leadership positions when they perceive that
such positions will result in personal gain
• E.g. increase in status or pay
SOCIAL-NORMATIVE MOTIVATION
• Become leaders out of a sense of duty
• E.g. agreeing to chair a committee out of a sense
of commitment to the university
LEADERSHIP
LEADER PERFORMANCE
• Involves the idea that leaders who perform well
possess certain characteristics that poorly
performing leaders do not
• E.g. an excellent leader must be intelligent,
assertive and friendly
COGNITIVE ABILITY
• Needs: a personal characteristic that has received
some support pertains to a leader’s need for power,
need for achievement, need for affiliation
• Leadership Motive Pattern: high performance
managers have high need for power and low need
for affiliation; this need is NOT for personal power
but for organizational power
• TAT and JCE (Job Choice Exercise): tests used
to measure need for power, affiliation and
achievement
TASK vs PERSON ORIENTATION
• Person-oriented Leaders (Theory Y Leaders):
leaders high in consideration act in warm and
supportive manner and show concern for their
subordinates
- believe that employees are intrinsically
motivated, seek responsibility, are self-
controlled and do not necessarily dislike
work; tend to appreciate humor
• Task-oriented Leaders/Taskcentered Leaders
(Theory X Leaders): leaders high in initiating
structure define and structure their own rules and
those of their subordinates to attain the group’s
formal goals
- see employees as lazy, extrinsically
motivated, wanting security, undisciplined
and shirking responsibility; tend to produce
humor
• Initiating Structure: the extent to which leaders
define and structure their roles and the roles of their
subordinates
LEADERS
• Team: are both task- and person-oriented
• Impoverished: are neither task- nor person
oriented
• Middle-of-the-Road: moderate amounts of both
orientations
• LOQ (Leadership and Orientation or Opinion
Questionnaire) and LBDQ (Leader Behavior
Description Questionnaire: a leader’s task or
person orientation can be measured by several
instruments
• LOQ (Leadership and Orientation or Opinion
Questionnaire) and LBDQ (Leader Behavior
Description Questionnaire: tests used to measure a
leader’s self perception of his/her leadership style
• Managerial Grid: a measure of leadership that
classifies a leader into one of five leadership styles

UNSUCCESSFUL LEADERS
• Lack of training
• Cognitive Deficiencies: unable to learn from
experience and are unable to think strategically
• Personality: most important source of poor
leadership
• Paranoid/ PassiveAggressive Type: source of
insecurity is some incident in their life in which
they felt betrayed; deeply rooted but perhaps
unconscious resentment and anger
• High-Likeability Floater Type: leader who is
insecure and seldom rocks the boat or causes
trouble; goes along with the group; is friendly to
everyone and never challenges anyone’s ideas
• Pleaser: a type of person who wants to make
everyone happy and is usually cooperative and
helpful
• Laissez Faire Leader: hands-off leaders
• Narcissists Type: leaders who overcome their
insecurity by overconfidence; like to be the center
of attention, promote their own accomplishments
and take most of, if not all, the credit for the success
of their group but they avoid all blame for failure
• Country-Club Leadership: the leader is
concerned about the wellbeing of employees but is
not task-oriented
INTERACTION BETWEEN LEADER AND
SITUATION
FIEDLER’S CONTINGENCY MODEL
• Any individual’s leadership styles is effective only
in certain situations; training should concentrate in
helping people understand their style of leadership
• Task Structuredness: tasks have goals that are
clearly stated and known by group members
• Leader Position Power: the greater the position
or legitimate power of the leader, the MORE
favorable the situation
• Leader-Member Relations: the more the
subordinates like their leader, the more favorable
the situation
• Leader Match: to improve leader’s abilities
through four-hour workshops on how to diagnose
situations then change these situations to fit their
particular leadership styles
GEIER DOWNEY and JOHNSON: IMPACT
THEORY
• Believed that each leader has one of six behavioral
styles that is effective only in a particular situation
called “Organizational Climate”
INFORMATIONAL Style in a Climate of
IGNORANCE
• Where important info is missing from the group
• Ignorance: an OC in which important info is not
available
MAGNETIC Style in a Climate of DESPAIR
• Leads through energy and optimism and
characterized by low morale
• Charismatic individual
• Despair: an OC characterized by low morale
POSITION Style in a Climate of INSTABILITY
• Leads by virtue of the power inherent in that
position • Effective during corporate mergers
• Instability: an OC in which people are not sure
what to do
AFFILIATION Style in a Climate of ANXIETY
• Leads by liking and caring about others
• Leaders using affiliation when worry and anxiety
predominates
• Anxiety: an OC in which worry predominates
COERCIVE Style in a Climate of CRISIS
• Leads by controlling reward and punishment
• “do it or you’re fired”
• Crisis: a critical time or OC in which the outcome
to a decision has extreme consequences
TACTICAL Style in a Climate of
DISORGANIZATION
• Leads through the use of strategy
• Class that breaks into small groups to complete an
assignment
• Disorganization: has the necessary knowledge
and resources but does not know how to efficiently
use the knowledge or the resources
SUBORDINATE ABILITY
• Abilities and attitudes of the leader’s followers
and how these abilities and attitudes interact with
the style and characteristic of the leader
PATH-GOAL THEORY
• A leader can adopt one of four behavioral
leadership styles to handle each situation
• Instrumental Style: calls for planning,
organizing, and controlling the activities of
employees
• Supportive Style: leader shows concern for
employees
• Participative Style: leader shares info with
employees and lets them participate in decision-
making
• Achievement-oriented Style: leader sets
challenging goals and rewards increase in
performance
HERSEY AND BLANCHARD: SITUATIONAL
LEADERSHIP THEORY
• Effective leaders must adapt their style of
leadership to fit both the situation and the followers
• Postulated that a leader typically uses one of four
behavioral styles
• Follower Readiness: the ability and willingness
to perform a particular task
• R1: Directing Approach: leader directs the
follower by telling him what to do and h0w to do it;
unable and unwilling or insecure
• R2: Coaching Approach: leader explains and
clarifies how work should be done; unable but
willing or confident
• R3: Supporting Approach: these followers
already know what to do but are not sure whether
they want to do it; able but unwilling or insecure
• R4: Delegating Approach: these followers are
able and willing or confident to perform the task
LEADER-MEMBER EXCHANGE (LMX)
THEORY
• Originally called Vertical Dyad Linkage (VDL)
Theory
• Unique situational theory that makes a good
intuitive sense
• Concentrates on the interactions between leaders
and subordinates
• The theory originally took its name from the
relationship between two people (dyad), the
position of the leader above the subordinate
(vertical) and their interrelated behavior (linkage)
• In-group: characterized by a high quality
relationship with the leader
• Out-group: characterized by a low-quality
relationship with the leader
LEADERSHIP THROUGH DECISION-
MAKING
VROOM-YETTON MODEL
• A flowchart that can tell a leader what process to
go through to make a decision in a particular
situation
PORTER LAWLER MODEL
• A variation of the original expectancy model by
Vroom which included additional factors such as
abilities/traits, role perception, intrinsic/extrinsic
reward, etc
LEADERSHIP THROUGH CONTACT:
MANAGEMENT BY WALKING AROUND
• Leaders and managers are most effective when
they are out of their offices, walking around and
meeting with and talking to employees and
customers about their needs and progress.
LEADERSHIP THROUGH POWER
• It increases the leader’s potential to influence
others
EXPERT POWER
• Leaders who know something useful
• Most effective type of power
• They can persuade others to do things for them
using trust and respect
INFORMATIONAL POWER
• Could be positive or negative propaganda
• From persuading “by the numbers” or making up a
“statistic” to manipulate opinions
• Used to measure and improve tasks, processes,
and strategies
LEGITIMATE POWER
• Basis of their positions
• Acts as a formalized way of ensuring that there is
someone to make a decision and that someone is
responsible
• This power’s ability to persuade and convince
others is weak
REWARD POWER
• Involves having control over financial rewards –
praise or more favorable work assignments
• Second weakest form LEADERSHIP THROUGH PERSUASION
• Useful as long as the reward is perceived as Persuasion by Communication
having value • Expertise: the amount of knowledge or skill
• Can be used to increase morale possessed by a leader
• Trustworthiness: the extent to which a leader is
COERCIVE POWER believed and trusted by his/her followers
• It is important that others believe she is willing to • Attractiveness: the extent to which a leader is
use her ability to punish – firing or not promoting appealing to look at
• Least effective but most employed (and abused)
type of power
• Forcing someone to do something against their
will or setting up “consequences”
• Rely on threats, bullying, and “or-else” language
to “motivate” those who are beneath them
• Often leads to fear, dissatisfaction, and resentment

REFERENT POWER
• Positive feelings that others hold for him –
complimenting others, doing favors, and generally
being friendly and supportive
• Attract others and build loyalty within them
• Also the power of respect

LEADERSHIP THROUGH VISION

TRANSACTIONAL LEADERSHIP
• Contingent Reward: leaders reward followers for
engaging in desired activity
• Management by Exception-Active: leaders
actively monitor performance and take corrective
action when needed
• Management by Exception-Passive: leaders do
not actively monitor follower behavior and who
take corrective action only when problems are
serious

TRANSFORMATIONAL LEADERSHIP
• Focuses on changing or transforming the goals,
values, ethics, standards, and performance of others
• Charisma: leaders with high moral and ethical
standards who have a strong vision of where they
want their followers to go; uses enthusiasm to
motivate
• Intellectual Stimulation: leaders encourage
change and open thinking; challenge the status quo
and appreciate diversity
• Individual Consideration: leaders encourage
individual growth and take time to mentor and
coach their followers