Lawrence Kohlberg’s Stages of Moral Development

Individuals, when confronted by situations where they need to make moral

decisions, exercise their own ability to use moral reasoning. Lawrence Kohlberg was
interested in studying the development of moral reasoning. He based his theory on
the findings of Piaget in studying cognitive development. Our ability to choose right
from wrong is tied with our ability to understand and reason logically.

Lawrence Kohlberg built on Piaget’s work and set the groundwork for the
present debate within psychology on moral development. If Piaget designed specific
tasks (Piagetian Task) to learn about the cognitive development of children,
Kohlberg utilized moral dilemmas (Kohlberg Dilemmas)

From his research, Kohlberg identified six stages of moral reasoning grouped
into three major levels. Each level represents a significant change in the social-moral
reasoning or perspective of the person.
Kohlberg Theory of Moral Development

Level Stag Description

Preconventional Level
Moral reasoning is based
on the consequences/result
of the act, not on the
whether the act itself is
good or bad.
Conventional Level
Moral reasoning is based
on the conventions or
“norms” of society. This
may include approval of
others, law and order
Post-Conventional
Moral reasoning is based
on enduring or consistent
principles. It is not just
recognizing the law, but the
principles behind the law.
e
Punishment/Obedience one is
1 motivated by fear of
punishment. He will act in order
to avoid punishment
Mutual benefit one is motivated
2 to act by the benefit that one
may obtain later. You scratch
my back, I’ll scratch yours.
Social Approval one is
3 motivated by what others expect
in behavior – good boy, good
girl. The person acts because
he/she values how he/she will
appear to others. He/she gives
importance on what people will
think or say.
4 Law and Orders, one is
motivated to act in order to
uphold law and order, the
person will follow the law
because it is the law
5 Social Contract laws that are
wrong cab changed. One will act
based on social justice and the
 common good
6 Universal Principle this is
associated with the
development of one’s
conscience. Having a set of
standards that drives one to
posse’s moral responsibility to
make societal changes
regardless of consequences to
oneself. Examples are Mother
Teresa and Martin Luther King.

Vygotsky’s Socio-Cultural Theory

The key theme of Vygotsky’s theory is that social interaction plays a very
important role in cognitive development. He believed that individual development could
not be understood without looking into the social and cultural context within which
development happens. Scaffolding is Vygotsky’s term for the appropriate assistance
given by the teacher to assist the learner accomplish a task.

When Vygotsky was a young boy he was educated under a teacher who used
the Socratic Method. This method was a systematic question and answer approach
that allowed Vygotsky to examine current thinking and practice higher levels of
understanding. This experience, together with his interest in literature and his work as a
teacher, led him to recognize social interaction and language as two central factors in
cognitive development. His theory became known as the Social-Cultural Theory of
Development.

Piaget and Vygotsky

Vygotsky worked on his theory around the same time as Piaget in between the
1920’s and 30’s but they had clear differences in their views about cognitive
development.

Piaget Vygotsky
More individual in focus More social in focus
Believed that there is universal stage of Did not propose stages but emphasized
cognitive development. on cultural factors in cognitive
development
Did not give much emphasis on language Stressed the role of language in cognitive
development

Social Interaction. Piaget's theory was more individual, while Vygotsky was
more social. Piaget's work on Piagetian's task. focused heavily on how an individual's
cognitive development became evident through the individual's own processing of the
tasks. Vygotsky, on the other hand gave more weight on the social interactions that
contributed to the cognitive development of individuals. For him, the social environment
or the community takes on a major role in one's development.
Vygotsky emphasized that effective learning happens through participation in
social activities, making the social context of learning crucial. Parents, teachers and
other adults in the learners' environment all contribute to the process. They explain,
model, assist, give directions and provide feedback to the learner. Peers, on the other
hand, cooperate and collaborate and enrich the learning experience.
Cultural factors. Vygotsky believed in the crucial role that culture played on the
cognitive development of children. Piaget believed that as the child develops and
matures, he goes through universal stages of cognitive development that allows him to
move from simple explorations with senses and muscles to complex reasoning.
Vygotsky, on the other hand, looked into the wide range of experiences that a culture
would give to a child. For instance, one culture's view about education, how children are
trained early in life all can contribute to the cognitive development of the child.
Language. Language opens the door for learners to acquire knowledge that
others already have. Learners can use language to know and understand the world and
solve problems. Language serves a social function but it also has an important
individual function. It helps the learner regulate and reflect on his own thinking. Children
talk to themselves. Observe preschoolers play and you may hear, "Gagawin ko itong
airplane (holding a rectangular block), tapos ito ang airport (holding two long blocks)."
For Vygotsky, this "talking-to-oneself" is an indication of the thinking that goes on in the
mind of the child. This will eventually lead to private speech. Private speech is a form of
self-talk that guides the child's thinking and action
Vygotsky believed in the essential role of activities in learning Children learn best
through hands-on activities than when listening passively. Learning by doing is even
made more fruitful when children interact with knowledgeable adults and peers.

Zone of Proximal Development

When a child attempts to perform a skill alone, she may not be immediately
proficient at it. So, alone she may perform at a certain level of competency. We refer to
this as the zone of actual development. However, with the guidance of a More
Knowledgeable Other (MKO), competent adult or a more advanced peer, the child can
perform at a higher level of competency. The difference between what the child can
accomplish alone and what she can accomplish with the guidance of another is what
Vygotsky referred to as zone of proximal development. The zone represents a learning
opportunity where a knowledgeable adult such as a teacher or parent or a more
advanced peer can assist the child's development. See the illustration on the next page.
The support or assistance that lets the child accomplish a task he cannot
accomplish independently is called scaffolding. Scaffolding is not about doing the task
for the child while he watches. It is not about doing shortcuts for the child. Unzipping the
lunch bag, opening the food container and putting straw in the child's tetrapack juice for
him is not scaffolding. Scaffolding should involve the judicious assistance given by the
adult or peer so that the child can move from the zone of actual to the zone of proximal
development. When the adult unzips the zipper an inch or two, and then holds the lunch
bag still so that the child can continue to unzip the lunch bag is scaffolding. Loosening
the food container lid just a bit and letting the child open the lid himself is scaffolding.
Leading the straw to the hole and letting the child put the straw through the tetra pack
hole is scaffolding.
The examples given above shows how a right amount of assistance can allow
the child to accomplish the task. The instructor should scaffold in such a way that the
gap is bridged between the learner's current skill levels and the desired skill level. As
learners become more proficient, able to complete tasks on their own that they could
not initially do without assistance, the guidance can be withdrawn. This is called
scaffold and fade-away technique. Scaffolding, when done appropriately can make a
learner confident and eventually he can accomplish the task without any need for
assistance.
When the MKO scaffolds, the process moves in four levels:
1. I do, you watch.
2. I do, you help.
3. You do, I help.
4. You do, I watch.

Learning will depend in the skill of the MKO, and the learners readiness and
ability to learn and the difficulty of the skill being
learned.

Bronfenbrenner’s Ecological Theory

Bronfenbrenner’s model also known as the Bioecological Systems theory

presents child development within the context of relationship systems that comprise the
child's environment. It describes multipart layers of environment that has an effect on
the development of the child. Each layer is further made up of different structures. The
term “bioecological” points out the child’s own biological make-up impacts as a key
factor in one's development.
Through the child's growing and developing body and the interplay between his
immediate family/community environment, and the societal landscape fuels and steers
his development. Changes conflict in any one layer will ripple throughout other layers.
To study a child's development then, we must look not only at the child and her
immediate environment, but also at the interaction of the larger environment as well.

Bronfenbrenner's Bioecological Model: Structure of Environment

The microsystem. The microsystem is the layer nearest the child. It comprises
structures which the child directly interacts with. It includes structures such as one's
family, school and neighborhood. As such, the microsystem covers the most basic
relationships and interactions that a child has in his/her immediate environment. Does
the child have strong and nurturing relationships with the parents and family? Are
his/her needs met? In this layer, relationship effects happen in two directions - both
away from the child and toward the child. This means that the child is affected by people
with whom he interacts, and in turn these people are also affected by the child. For
example, a mother's deep affection for her child moves her to answer to the baby's
needs and keep the baby safe. In turn the baby's smiles and coos bring the mother
feelings of warmth and an affirmation that indeed she is a good mother. The child is
affected by the behavior and beliefs of the parents; however, the child also affects the
behavior and beliefs of the parents. Bronfenbrenner calls these bi-directional
influences, and he shows how they occur among all levels of environment. This is quite
similar to what Erikson termed as "mutuality” in his psychosocial theory.
Bronfenbrenner's theory looks into the interaction of structures within a layer and
interactions of structures between layers. At the microsystem level, the child is most
affected by these bi-directional influences. However, interactions at outer layers
influence the structures of the microsystem.
The mesosystem. This layer serves as the connection the structures of the
child's microsystem. For example, the mesosystem will include the link or interaction
between the parents and the teachers, or the parent and health services or then
community and the church
The exosystem. This layer refers to the bigger social system in which the child
does not function directly. This includes the city government, the workplace, and the
mass media. The structures in this layer may influence the child's development by
somehow affecting some structure in the child's microsystem. This includes the
circumstances of the parents' work like the location, schedules. We see a change in the
children's routine when for example the mother works in a call center. That was seen in
that burger chain commercial where the mom and the children meet up at the fastfood
for breakfast just before the children go to school and the mom going home from work in
a call center. The child may not interact directly with what is in the exosystem, but he is
likely feel the positive or negative impact this system creates as it interacts with the
child's own system.
The macrosystem. This layer is found in the outermost part in the child's
environment. The macrosystem includes the cultural values, customs, and laws. The
belief system contained in one's macrosystem permeates all the interactions in the other
layers and reaches the individual. For example, in western countries like the US, most
of the young people are expected to be more independent by the time they end their
teen-age years, while in Asian countries like ours, parents are expected to support or at
least want to support their children for a longer period of time. It is not uncommon to see
even married children still living with their parents. In China and also in other parts of
the world, sons are more valuable than daughters. This may pose challenges for girls as
they are growing up. Because of differences in beliefs and customs, children from
different parts of the world experience different child-rearing practices and therefore
differences in development as well.
 The chronosystem. The chronosystem covers the element of time as it relates
to a child's environments. This involves “patterns of stability and change" in the child's
life. This involves whether the child's day is characterized by an orderly predictable
pattern, or whether the child is subjected to sudden changes in routine. We can also
look into the pace of the child's everyday life. Is it a hurried or relaxed pace? This
system can affect or influence the child externally, like the timing of other siblings
coming or the timing of parental separation or even death. Effect can also be internal,
like in the bodily changes that occur within the developing child, like the timing of
menstrual onset for girls. As children get older, they may react differently to
environmental changes. The children may have also acquired the ability to cope and
decide to what extent they will allow changes around them to affect them.
No longer Nature vs. Nurture, but Nurturing Nature!
The long debate may be coming to an end. For decades, if not for centuries,
there was a long-drawn debate on which had more impact on child development, nature
or nurture. Another way of putting it is, is it heredity or environment that influences child
development more. More and more research now points out that both a child's biology
and his environment play a role in the child's growth and development. Development
theories now stress on the role played by each and the extent to which they interact in
ongoing development.
The ecological systems theory focuses on the quality and context of the child's
environment. Bronfenbrenner pointed out that as a child develops, the interplay within
the layers of environment systems becomes more complex. This dynamic interaction of
the systems happens meantime, while the child's physical and cognitive structures also
grow and mature. This bioecological theory helps us determine how the different
circumstances, conditions and relationships in the world affect the child as he or she
goes through the more or less predictable sequence of natural growth and
development.

The Role of Schools and Teachers

Bronfenbrenner co-founded Head Start, the publicly-funded early childhood
program in the US. He concluded that "the instability and unpredictability of family life is
the most destructive force to a child's development.” Researches tell us that absence or
lack of children's constant mutual interaction with important adults has negative effects
on their development. According to the bioecological theory, “if the relationships in the
immediate microsystem break down, the child will not have the tools to explore other
parts of his environment. Children looking for the affirmations that should be present in
the child/parent (or child/other important adult) relationship look for attention in
inappropriate places. Thesedeficiencies show themselves especially in adolescence as
an social behavior, lack of self-discipline, and inability to provide self-direction."
Bronfenbrenner's theory reminds the school and the teacher of their very
important role. If there is a lack of support, ca and affection from the home, if there is a
serious breakdown the basic relationships in a child's life, what can the school th.
teachers in particular do? This theory helps teachers look into ever child's
environmental systems in order to understand more about these characteristics and
 needs of each child, each learner. The schools and the teachers can contribute stability
and long-term relationships but only to support and not replace the relationships in the
home. Bronfenbrenner believes that, “the primary relationship needs to be with
someone who can provide a sense of caring that is meant to last a lifetime. This
relationship must be fostered by a person or people within the immediate sphere of the
child's influence.”
Schools and teachers' crucial role is not to replace the lack in the home if such
exists, but to work so that the school becomes an environment that welcomes and
nurtures families. Bronfenbrenner also stressed that society should value work done on
behalf of children at all levels, and consequently value parents, teachers, extended
family, mentors, work supervisors, legislators.

I. LEARNING ACTIVITIES

1. Identify the stage of moral development (Kohlberg) shown in the following:

________ a. Joy allows her classmates to copy her homework so that they will
think she is kind and will like her to be their friend.
________ b. Ricky does everything to get passing grades because his mom will
take his play station away if he gets bad grades
________ c. A civic action group protests the use of pills for family planning,
saying that although the government allows this are abortifacient
(causes abortion)
________ d. Jinky lets Hanna copy during their math test because agreed to let
her copy during their Sibika test.
________ e. Karen decides to return the wallet she found in the canteen so that
people will praise her honesty and think she’s a nice girl
________ f. John decides to return the wallet he found in the canteen because he
believes it’s the right thing to do.
________ g. Lyka weas her ID inside the campus because she likes to follow the
schools’ rules and regulations.
________ h. A jeepney driver looks if there a policeman around before he U-turns
in a no U-turn spot.
________ i. Liza volunteers to tutor children-at-risk children in her community for
free so they will learn to love school and stay school.
________ j. Little Riel behaves so well to get a star stamp from her teacher.