03 Psd-Consis-Class

CON4341 Soil Mechanics and Geology C.H.
TAI
Particle Size Distribution, Soil Consistency, Soil Jan 2023
Classification and Description
3 PARTICLE SIZE DISTRIUTION, SOIL CONSISTENCY,SOIL
CLASSIFICATION AND DESCRIPTION
3.1 Introduction
The ‘classification’ of soil is a good guide to a soil’s functional character as a material

for engineering use.
 Different soil types have different shear strength and settlement characteristics,
meaning they differ in their response to loads induced on them by structures.
 Different soil types have different seepage characteristics, meaning they differ in the
ease with which water or other liquids flow through them.
3.2 Basic Soil Groups
There are three main groups of soil:
Coarse grained soils – examples: cobbles, gravels, sands

 Individual grains can be seen with unaided eyes.
 There is no cohesion between grains (i.e., cohesionless).
 Particles flow freely when dry.
 Water can flow through them freely.
 Retain little or no water when drained.
Fine grained soils – examples: silts, clays

 Individual grains cannot be seen with unaided eyes.
 There is some form of cohesion between grains (i.e., cohesive).
 Form slumps when dry.
 Water does not drain out - retain water.
Organic - example: peat soils or muskeg (fibrous):

 Decayed plant remains mixed with silt and clay.
Page 1 of 21
CON4341 Soil Mechanics and Geology C.H. TAI
3.3 Typical features of Engineering Soils:
Major classes and features of engineering soil are summarised in Table 3.1.
Table 3.1 Major Classes and Feature of Engineering Soils
Coarse Grained Fine Grained Organic

Soil types Cobble, Gravel, Sand Silt, Clay Peat
Particle shape Round to angular Flaky Fibrous
Particle or grain size Coarse Fine ---
Porosity or void ratio Low High High
Permeability High Low to Variable
impermeable
Inter-particle cohesion None to very low High Low
Inter-particle friction High Low None to
low
Plasticity Very low Low to high Low to
moderate
Compressibility Very low Moderate to Usually
very high very high
Rate of compression Immediate Moderate to slow Moderate
to rapid
Effect of PSD Important Relatively -
on Engineering Important (silts)
Behaviour Relatively
unimportant (clay)
Effect of water on Relatively Important -
engineering unimportant
behaviour exception:
(very fine sand)
3.4 Particle Sizes
The range of particle sizes encountered in soils is very wide, from boulder size larger than
200 mm down to the colloidal size of some clays of less than 0.001 mm. Although natural
soils are mixture of various sized particles, it is common to find a predominant grading
with a relatively narrow band of sizes. Table 3.2 shows the British Standard (BS) of
particle size limits for use in soil engineering.
Page 2 of 21
Table 3.2 British Standard of Particle Size Limits of Engineering Soils
Type Range of particle size, mm

Boulder >200
Cobble 200 – 60
Gravel
Coarse gravel 60 – 20
Medium gravel 20 – 6
Fine gravel 6–2
Sand
Coarse sand 2 – 0.6
Medium sand 0.6 – 0.2
Fine sand 0.2 – 0.06
Silt
Coarse silt 0.06 – 0.02
Medium silt 0.02 – 0.006
Fine silt 0.006 – 0.002
Clay Less than 0.002
3.5 Particle Size Distribution
 Both the size of particles and the distribution of particles sizes are important.
 Sieving tests (for coarse grain soils) and hydrometer tests (for fine grained soils) are
used to define the distribution of grain sizes.
 Classification of soils according to particle sizes varies slightly between different
classification systems. In Hong Kong a system based on the British Soil
Classification System (BSCS) is commonly used.
 In describing the size of a soil particle, either a dimension or name as shown in Table
3.2 is used.
 The particle size refers to an equivalent particle diameter as found from sieve
analysis.
 The British Standard Sieve Sizes as shown in Table 3.3 are commonly used in Hong
Kong.
 The range of particle sizes varies from 200 mm > D (grain size
diameter)>0.002 mm, hence the particle size distribution is examined on a
logarithmic scale as shown in Figure 3.1
Page 3 of 21
Table 3.3 British Standard Test Sieve Sizes
75 mm, 63 mm, 50 mm, 37.5 mm, 28 mm, 20 mm, 14 mm, 10 mm, 6.3 mm, 5mm, 3.36
mm, 2 mm, 1.18 mm, 600 m, 425 m, 300 m, 212 m, 150 m, 63m
(1 m = 0.001 mm)
Figure 3.1 Particle Size Distribution Chart (BS range of particle sizes)
Determination of Particle-size Distribution
Basically, in terms of grain size, soil is described as either coarse-grained or fine-grained.
Coarse-grained soil: one in which more than 65% of the grains, by weight, are greater than
0.06 mm in diameter.
Fine-grained soil: one in which more than 35% of the grains, by weight, are smaller than
0.06 mm in diameter.
Page 4 of 21
In British Standard, the size 0.06 mm is the dividing line between silt and sand (see Table 3.2)
and represents the smallest particle that can be distinguished as a discrete grain by the naked eye.
Sieving and Sedimentation
Two methods are used to determine the particle-size distribution of soils. One is for coarse-
grained material which uses sieves. The other is for fine-grained material which uses the
technique of sedimentation; one example is the hydrometer method.
Most natural soil is a mixture of coarse-grained material (sand and gravel) and fine-grained
material (silt and clay). Separation of the coarse and fine materials is necessary for proper testing.
This is done by an initial wet sieving in which the soil is completely washed through a 63µm
(0.063 mm) sieve by a stream of water. The soil retained on the sieve is greater than 0.063 mm in
grain size. The particle-size distribution of the retained fraction can then be done using other
larger sized sieves. Alternatively, the sieving of the coarse fraction can also be done on the dried
sample. This is known as dry sieving.
Sieving
Sieve Analysis is used to determine the distribution of the larger grain sizes. The soil is passed
through a series of sieves with the mesh size reducing progressively (Figure 2), and the
proportions by weight of the soil retained on each sieve are measured. There are a range of sieve
sizes that can be used, and the finest is usually a 63m sieve. Sieving can be performed either
wet or dry. Because of the tendency for fine particles to clump together, wet sieving is often
required with fine-grained soils.
Figure 3.2 Sieves and Shaker
Page 5 of 21
Sedimentation (Hydrometer)
To determine the grain size distribution of material passing the 63m sieve the Hydrometer
method is commonly used (Figure 3.3). The soil is mixed with water and a dispersing agent,
stirred vigorously, and allowed to settle to the bottom of a measuring cylinder. As the soil
particles settle out of suspension the specific gravity of the mixture reduces. A hydrometer is
used to record the variation of specific gravity with time. By making use of Stoke’s Law, which
relates the velocity of a free falling sphere to its diameter, the test data is reduced to provide
particle diameters and the % by weight of the sample finer than a particular particle size.
(Hydrometer method will not be covered in this module.)
Figure 3.3 Hydrometer
Particle Size Distribution Curve
Most soils are composed of particles of various sizes. Some soils have a more homogeneous
(same) combination of particle sizes while other soils have a mixture of grain sizes. The sieving
analysis (or together with hydrometer) of soil particle sizes is usually recorded on a Particle Size
Distribution (PSD) Chart and the curve so plotted is referred as the Particle Size Distribution
(PSD) Curve (or Grading Curve) as shown in Figure. 3.4.
Page 6 of 21
Particle Size Distribution Chart
The PSD Chart is a semi-logarithmic chart.
The horizontal scale is a logarithmic scale (log10) of the particle size diameter over a range of
0.0001 mm to > 100 mm.
The vertical scale is the percentage by weight of the soil grains that are finer than a given
size. For example, point ‘A’ in Figure. 3.4 represents 60% by weight of that soil is finer than 2.0
mm. The percentage is always designed as percent passing or finer (a certain sieve size) or as a
summation percentage.
100
80
A
% Finer
60
40
20
0
0.0001 0.001 0.01 0.1 1 10 100
Particle size (mm)
Figure 3.4 Typical Particle Size Distribution (PSD) curves
Some typical grading (PSD) curves are shown on the figure. The following
descriptions are applied to these curves
W Well graded material

U Uniform material
P Poorly graded material
C Well graded with some clay
F Well graded with an excess of fines
Another quantity analysis of grading curves may be carried out using certain geometric
values known as grading characteristics. For example, in Fig. 3.5,
D10 = diameter of grain (mm) for which 10 % is finer – (effective size)

D30 = diameter of grain (mm) for which 30 % is finer
D60 = diameter of grain (mm) for which 60 % is finer
Page 7 of 21
Coefficient of uniformity, Cu = D60/D10 - measures spread of particle size distribution
Coefficient of curvature, Cc = (D30)2/(D60 x D10) - measures slope of the grading curve
GRADING of coarse-grained soils (gravel and sand):
Well-graded soil (gravel or sand):

Cu > 4 and 1 < Cc < 3 (well-graded gravel)
Cu > 6 and 1 < Cc < 3 (well-graded sand)
Poorly-graded soil: (gravel or sand)

If Cu is small, soil is poorly-graded (uniform)
If C c > 3 or 1< , soil is poorly graded (gapped graded)
100
80
% Passing
hydrometer sieve
60
fines sands gravels
40
D10 = 0.013 mm
20
D
30 D30 = 0.47 mm
D60 = 7.4 mm
0
0.001 0.01 0.1 1 10 100
Grain size (mm)
Figure 3.5 Grading Characteristics
Curves can also be used to obtained percentages of gravel, sand and fines (silt and clay).
For example, for the curve in Figure 3.5:

gravel = (100-46) = 54%
sand = (46-18) = 28%
Fine (silt + clay) = (18-0) = 18%
Page 8 of 21
3.6 Consistency of Fine-grained Soils
Atterberg Limits
If we take a very soft (high moisture content) clay specimen and allow it to dry we would obtain
a relation similar to that shown in Figure 3.6.
As the soil dries its strength and stiffness will increase. Three limits are indicated, the
definitions of which are given below. The liquid and plastic limits appear to be fairly
arbitrary, but recent research has suggested they are related to the strength of the soil.
Volume Decreasing Strength
Semi-solid/
Semi-plastic
PI
Solid Plastic Liquid
SL PL LL
Moisture Content (%)
Figure 3.6. Volume - Moisture Content relationship for fine-grained soils
 (SL) The Shrinkage Limit - This is the moisture content the soil would have had if it were
fully saturated at the point at which no further shrinkage occurs on drying.
 (PL) The Plastic Limit - This is the minimum water content at which the soil will deform
plastically (i.e., the soil can be molded)
 (LL) The Liquid Limit - This is the minimum water content at which the soil will flow under
a small disturbing force
 (PI or Ip) The Plasticity Index. This is derived simply from the LL and PL
IP = LL - PL (3)
It measures the range of water within which the soil is plastic.
 (LI) The Liquid Index – This is defined as
𝐿𝐼 (4)
where w = the natural moisture content
Page 9 of 21
It tells which state (semi-solid, plastic, or liquid) the soil is at its natural condition.
The Atterberg Limits and relationships derived from them are simple measures of the water
absorbing ability of soils containing clay minerals. For example, if a clay has a very high LI and
LL it is capable of absorbing large amounts of water, and for instance would be unsuitable for
the base of a pavement. The LL and PL are also related to the soil strength.
Remember that only the fraction finer than 425m is tested in the Atterberg Tests. If this fraction
is only small (that is, the soil contains significant amounts of sand or gravel) it might be expected
that the soil would have better properties. While this is true to some extent it is important to
realise that the soil behaviour is controlled by the finest 10 - 25 % of the particles.
Page 10 of 21
Liquid Limit Tests
These tests are only used for the fine-grained fraction (silt and clay) of a soil (the % passing a
425m sieve).
Determination of Liquid Limit (Cone Penetrometer Method)
Figure 3.7 Conepenetrometer
Figure 3.8 Typical results of Cone Penetration Test
Page 11 of 21
Determination of Liquid Limit (Casagrande Method)
Figure 3.9 Casagrande Method
Figure 3.10 Typical results of Casagrande Method
Page 12 of 21
3.7 British Soil Classification System
The standard system discussed here is the British Soil Classification System (BSCS)
which is used in Hong Kong. Soils are identified by symbols (Figure 3.11) determined
from sieve analysis and Atterberg Limit tests.
Figure 3.11 Symbols used for BSCS

Page 13 of 21
Coarse-grained Soils
If more than 65% of the material is coarser than the 60 m, the soil is classified as coarse. The
following steps are then followed to determine the appropriate symbols (Primary–prefix and
Secondary–suffix).
Steps:
1. Determine the prefix
If more than half of the coarse fraction is sand then use prefix S
If more than half of the coarse fraction is gravel then use prefix G
2. Determine the suffix
This depends on the uniformity coefficient Cu and the coefficient of curvature Cc obtained from
the grading curve, on the percentage of fines, and the type of fines.
First determine the percentage of fines, that is the % of material smaller than the 60m.
Then if % fines is
 < 5% use W or P (Pu or Pg) as suffix
 between 5% and 15% add M or C as suffix in addition to W or P(Pu or Pg)
 between 15% and 35% use M or C together with degree of plasticity (L, I, H, V, E)as suffix
and no W or P(Pu or Pg) is required
If W or P are required for the suffix then Cu and Cc must be evaluated
𝐷
𝐶
𝐷
D
𝐶
𝐷 𝐷
If prefix is G then suffix is W if Cu > 4 and Cc is between 1 and 3, otherwise use (Pu or Pg)
If prefix is S then suffix is W if Cu > 6 and Cc is between 1 and 3, otherwise use (Pu or Pg)
If M or C are required they have to be determined from the procedure used for fine-grained
materials discussed below. Note that M stands for Silt and C for Clay. This is determined from
whether the soil lies above or below the A-line in the plasticity chart shown in Figure 3.12.
Page 14 of 21
Fine-grained Soils
These are classified solely according to the results from the Atterberg Limit Tests. Values of the
Plasticity Index and Liquid Limit are used to determine a point in the plasticity chart shown in
Figure 3.12. The classification symbol is determined from the region of the chart in which the
point lies.
Examples CH High plasticity clay

CL Low plasticity clay
MH High plasticity silt
ML Low plasticity silt
Figure 3.12 Plasticity chart for laboratory classification of fine grained soils
Page 15 of 21
Fine-grained Soils
If more than 35% of the material is finer than the 60m, the soil is classified as fine. The
following steps are then followed to determine the appropriate symbols.
Steps:
1. Determine the prefix
If the point (PI, LL) is plotted above the “A’-line, the soil is Clay and use symbol C
If the point (PI, LL) is plotted below the “A’-line , the soil is Silt and use symbol M
2. Determine the suffix
This depends on the amount of fine materials and the types of coarse materials present in the soil:
Then if % fines is:

 from 65% - 100% use degree of plasticity (L, I, H, V, E) as suffix (no need to worry the
coarse materials)
 from 35% - 65%, in addition to plasticity (L, I, H, V, E), add G to the suffix if the coarse
material is Gravel or S if the coarse material is Sand
The complete procedure for BSCS is summarised in Table 3.4
Page 16 of 21
Table 3.4 British Soil Classification System (BSCS)

Page 17 of 21
The final stage of the classification is to give a description of the soil to go with the symbol class.
For a coarse grained soil this should include:
 the percentages of sand and gravel

 maximum particle size
 angularity
 surface condition
 hardness of the coarse grains
 local or geological name
 any other relevant information
If the soil is undisturbed mention is also required of
 stratification
 degree of compactness
 cementation
 moisture conditions
 drainage characteristics
All information required can be found in the list of reference (GEO Guide 3: Guide to Soil and
Rock Description).
Page 18 of 21
Example - Classification using BSCS
Classification tests have been performed on a soil sample and the following grading curve
and Atterberg limits obtained. Determine the BSCS classification.
100
80
% Finer
60
40
20
0
0 .0 0 0 1 0 .0 0 1 0 .0 1 0 .1 1 10 100
Particle size (mm)
Given Atterberg limits: Liquid limit LL = 32, Plastic Limit, PL =26
Step 1: Determine the % fines from the grading curve

%fines (% finer than 60 m) = 10% (<35%, therefore Coarse grained)
Step 2: Determine % of different particle size fractions (to determine G or S), and D10, D30 and
D60 from grading curve (to determine W or P)
D10 = 0.06 mm, D30 = 0.25 mm, D60 = 0.75 mm

Cu = 12.5, Cc = 1.38, and hence Suffix1 = W
Particle size fractions: Gravel 17%

Sand 73%
Silt and Clay 10%
Of the coarse fraction about 80% is sand, hence Prefix is S
Step 3: From the Atterberg Test results determine its Plasticity chart location
LL = 32, PL = 26. Hence Plasticity Index Ip = 32 - 26 = 6

From Plasticity Chart point lies below A-line, and hence Suffix = M
Step 4: Symbols are SWM (Fines is between 5% to 15%)
Step 5: Complete classification by including a description of the soil
Page 19 of 21
Home Exercises:
1 The results of a sieve analysis on a soil sample are tabulated below.
Sieve 20 10 5 2 1.18 0.6 0.3 0.212 0.15 .063 pan

Size (mm)
Mass 59 38 33 27 30 22 15 17 16 9 40
Retained (g)
LL and PL of the fine portion (<0.063 mm) of the soil has been determined to be 32%
and 24% respectively.
Plot the PSD curve for the soil sample and determine D10, D30, D60, Cu, Cc, the
percentages of gravel, sand and (silt+clay). Classified the soil according to the BSCS
(symbol and description).
2 In a cone penetration test on a soil sample, the following results were recorded:
Test W1 W2 W3 Cone penetration (mm)

1 11.6 21.26 19.03 14.3
2 11.35 21.21 18.77 15.9
3 10.17 19.47 16.96 17.5
4 10.53 19.98 17.14 19.6
5 10.24 20.47 16.96 23.3
where W1 = mass of container (g)
W2 = mass of container and wet soil (g)
W3 = mass of container and soil after oven drying (g)
Determine the liquid limit of the soil sample. Calculate the plasticity index and liquidity index if
the plastic limit was 20 % and the natural moisture content 33%. What is the classification of this
soil according to the plasticity chart.
3 The following results were obtained from a liquid limit test using the Casagrande
apparatus:
No. of blows 6 8 12 26 28 31
Water content (%) 53.4 52.5 48.3 40.0 38.8 37.1
(a) Determine the liquid limit of the soil.

(b) If the plasticity limit of the soil was found to be 22 %,
determine itsplasticity index and classify the soil.
Page 20 of 21
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CON4341 Soil Mechanics and Geology C.H.

The ‘classification’ of soil is a good guide to a soil’s functional character as a material

3.2 Basic Soil Groups

There are three main groups of soil:

Coarse grained soils – examples: cobbles, gravels, sands

Fine grained soils – examples: silts, clays

Organic - example: peat soils or muskeg (fibrous):

Table 3.1 Major Classes and Feature of Engineering Soils

Coarse Grained Fine Grained Organic

3.4 Particle Sizes

Table 3.2 British Standard of Particle Size Limits of Engineering Soils

Type Range of particle size, mm

3.5 Particle Size Distribution

Table 3.3 British Standard Test Sieve Sizes

Determination of Particle-size Distribution

Basically, in terms of grain size, soil is described as either coarse-grained or fine-grained.

Sieving and Sedimentation

Figure 3.2 Sieves and Shaker

(Hydrometer method will not be covered in this module.)

Figure 3.3 Hydrometer

Particle Size Distribution Curve

Particle Size Distribution Chart

The PSD Chart is a semi-logarithmic chart.

W Well graded material

D10 = diameter of grain (mm) for which 10 % is finer – (effective size)

Coefficient of uniformity, Cu = D60/D10 - measures spread of particle size distribution

Coefficient of curvature, Cc = (D30)2/(D60 x D10) - measures slope of the grading curve

GRADING of coarse-grained soils (gravel and sand):

Well-graded soil (gravel or sand):

Poorly-graded soil: (gravel or sand)

Grain size (mm)

Figure 3.5 Grading Characteristics

For example, for the curve in Figure 3.5:

Volume Decreasing Strength

Solid Plastic Liquid

Moisture Content (%)

Figure 3.6. Volume - Moisture Content relationship for fine-grained soils

It measures the range of water within which the soil is plastic.

 (LI) The Liquid Index – This is defined as

where w = the natural moisture content

Liquid Limit Tests

Determination of Liquid Limit (Cone Penetrometer Method)

Figure 3.7 Conepenetrometer

Figure 3.8 Typical results of Cone Penetration Test

Determination of Liquid Limit (Casagrande Method)

Figure 3.9 Casagrande Method

Figure 3.10 Typical results of Casagrande Method

3.7 British Soil Classification System

Figure 3.11 Symbols used for BSCS

1. Determine the prefix

2. Determine the suffix

If W or P are required for the suffix then Cu and Cc must be evaluated

Examples CH High plasticity clay

1. Determine the prefix

2. Determine the suffix

Then if % fines is:

The complete procedure for BSCS is summarised in Table 3.4

Table 3.4 British Soil Classification System (BSCS)

 the percentages of sand and gravel

If the soil is undisturbed mention is also required of

Given Atterberg limits: Liquid limit LL = 32, Plastic Limit, PL =26

Step 1: Determine the % fines from the grading curve

D10 = 0.06 mm, D30 = 0.25 mm, D60 = 0.75 mm