Analyzing and Interpreting and

Writing Your thesis

Feyera Senbeta (PhD)

CDS/AAU/Dec2012
You have to believe that you can write something
worthwhile in an interesting manner—something
longer than a report or an essay.
• Once you have collected all of your data, your next
step is to “make sense” of the separate pieces of
accumulated information.

• All of the data which you have collected are

frequently called “raw” data because they are
untouched by you.

• These “raw” data may be standardized test

response sheets, tape recordings of interviews, or
unpublished letters.

• You will need to make inferences from these

discrete pieces of information as you analyze your
data.
Before you go any further, I must emphasize
the need to clarify your roles with your
advisor, since there are significant
variations in how the next steps evolve.
Preliminary Organization of your
Data
• standardized test answer sheets;
• coded answer sheets;
• scored standardized test answer sheets using
explicit criteria, typically the
• publisher’s established correct responses;
• scores of your participants on the standardized
test;
• topics discussed on essays;
• summaries of audio-taped classroom lessons;
• copies of your original data;
• descriptions of software programs available in the
technology laboratory
Remember to make copies of all your
materials, and place these copies where they
will not be touched by others. You never
know when a disaster will strike, causing you
to need to refer to your back-ups.
• Starting Your Analysis
• Direct Connection to Your Research Questions
• Reducing Your Data
• Quantitative Strategies
– tabulating the number of responses to each question;
– tabulating the number of correct responses to each
question;
– listing the frequency of appearance of topics
addressed in documents;
– listing scores by age or grade level;
– tabulating the number of respondents who offered
each answer;
– comparing numerical data across events or
participants;
– or comparing scores on a standardized test to scores
on a researcher created examination.
• Qualitative Strategies
– the range of topics discussed in the journal
entries;
– samples of each topic discussed in the
journals;
– typical participant responses to a short-
answer test;
– participant actions in different settings;
– interactions in different settings; or
– language used in different contexts.
 Interpreting Your Findings
• It is important for you to keep three components of
your study in mind as you interpret your findings:
1. Your initial research questions.
2. Your sample (with its limitations).
3. Your data analysis.

You want to answer your initial research questions

within the context of the specific sample you focused
on in your data collection. If your study was initially
intended to test a hypothesis, your study should
report the results of that testing. A typical outcome is
the support of the original hypothesis or the lack of
support of that hypothesis. Either finding is
important.
• Knowing What You Found
– Your goal in conducting this analysis is to figure out
what you have found.
– You will scrutinize your data, interrogate your data, in
the hopes of discovering what your data mean, or more
precisely, what meaning you can make of your data.
– When conducting tests of statistical significance, do not
dismiss findings which are not “statistically” significant.
– Statistical significance is one way of identifying a
potentially important finding.

– Researchers who equate statistical significance with

significance per se may have lost sight of the true
purpose of research.

– All findings are potentially useful and significant,

regardless of whether they are “statistically significant.”
• As you analyze your data, you may create some
figures or tables to display your data in such a way
that your readers will clearly see the issues which
you are discussing.

– Tables are typeset, rather than photographed from

artwork supplied by the author. Tables are frequently
used to present quantitative data.
– Figures are typically used to “convey structural or
pictorial concepts.”

– The types of figures can vary: graphs (line graphs,

bar graphs, circle or pie graphs, scatter graphs, and
pictorial graphs), charts, dot maps, and drawings.
– A figure may be a chart, graph, photograph, or a
drawing: “Any illustration other than a table is called a
figure”
 Drafting and Editing
• You are now ready to write up your findings in a
polished state for public scrutiny.

• You will initially draft some organizational strategies

projecting the potential contents of sections of your
thesis.

• As you obtain confidence in the fit between your

data and the inference(s), you will explicitly state the
inference(s) or general principle(s) which explain
your findings. You may also want to identify any
qualifications or limitations on those general
principles, such as age, sex, or context.
 Useful in drafting a compelling
argument
• A thorough interpretation;
• A clear interpretation;
• A logical interpretation;
• A relevant interpretation;
• A cautious interpretation.
• A Thorough Interpretation
– A thorough interpretation of your data synthesizes the individual
units of analysis (e.g. words, sentences, responses, test scores,
weight, etc.) into a more comprehensive context.
– For an interpretation to be considered “thorough,” it needs to
account for all the major dimensions which you studied, as
identified in your research question.
– You will lead your readers to focus on the larger issues, a
perspective which you have from your intimate familiarity with your
data.
– Your ability to create a cohesive whole from the isolated bits and
pieces of your data will be one factor in creating a thorough
interpretation.
– Your explanations of the potential meanings to be drawn from data
presented in spread sheets, figures, photos, excerpts from
transcripts, etc., should be multidimensional, suggesting multiple
potential perspectives on your data.
– As you guide your readers, you create a compelling argument for
interpreting your data in a specific way. On the other hand, you may
offer competing interpretations for your data.
– The choice you make is based on your data. If your data are clear
cut, there is no controversy.
– In some cases, the data are not that clear cut, requiring an honest
researcher to offer competing interpretations.
• A Clear Interpretation
– A clear interpretation is easy to follow.
– Information is presented systematically and predictably.
– Symbols in graphs and within the text are explained.
– Details are provided to enable an intelligent reader to
understand the issues.
– There is meticulous attention to getting the facts correct.
– The information presented in a table should be consistent
with the information presented in the narrative.
– When there are discrepancies, the reader is at a loss to
know which is accurate, and therefore may become
disillusioned with the quality of the research being
reported.
– When transcripts are quoted, line references should be
exact, directing your reader’s attention to the precise
words on which you are commenting.
– If a reader has difficulty following your argument, you
jeopardize the possibility that your study will be
misinterpreted or rejected.
– Your careful choice of words will reflect your clear
understanding of your findings.
• A Logical Interpretation
– Your reader will consider your interpretation
“logical” if you organize your presentation in a
systematic and predictable fashion.
– From your understanding of your data, you
decide which issue needs to be addressed first,
and which follows naturally from that first issue.
– You will also provide a sketch of the order in
which you will discuss your findings, enabling
your readers to create a mental map of your
presentation, and then to find that information as
they peruse your text.
– Your presentation should lead your readers to
understand your findings as clearly as you do.
– Usually, simultaneously with your writing of this
section, your understanding becomes
crystallized.
• A Relevant Interpretation
– Your findings must be directly related to three components
of your study:
– your research question and the theories and/or sources
which contributed to its identification;
– the data which you collected; and
– your data analysis.
• Information from other sources is irrelevant at this point.
• Your interpretation must be focused on important
issues.

• Whereas there may be many details included in the data

which you collected, and your analysis may have
focused on a multitude of elements, you now need to
decide the most important issues.

• You want to highlight the most prominent, and the

strongest findings that your study can provide.
• A Cautious Interpretation
– Some researchers make major pronouncements
from their research, implying that they have solved
all the questions in the world with their research.
– Others are timid about making any statements
beyond the data which they collected.
– While these extremes are not unusual in first drafts
of thesis, students learn to make appropriately
cautious interpretations.
– A wise researcher takes care not to over-
generalize from limited data.
– Being cautious, while making a case for what you
did find, you will find an appropriate balance.

– Seeking critical readers’ reactions to your analysis,

you will have access to others’ views on the match
between your data and your proposed findings
• Concluding Sections
– These sections may be called “Summary,” “Abstract,”
“Conclusions,” “Implications,” and/or “Recommendations.”
– The need for details required in each section varies across
institutions.

• Summary -This usually includes a total recapitulation of all the

elements of the study, including a statement of the problem,
the research design, the findings, and the conclusions.

• Conclusion This section makes assertions based on the

findings.
– It usually addresses issues that support, or fail to support, a theory
which is being tested.
– For example, if a hypothesis has been supported by the data, then
the researcher may conclude that the data support the validity of
the theory which was being tested in the study.
– Some researchers use the trends which were evident in their
findings as a basis for potential theory building.
– This section states the researcher’s sense of how the study’s
findings contribute to the knowledge in a discipline.
• Implications -the researcher is free to make a range of suggestions for
the usefulness of the findings.
– The research settings may range from elementary grade
classrooms, to university-based research projects; this is the
researcher’s opportunity to explain how the findings of the just-
completed study may contribute to theories and/or practice in these
settings.
– Another way of viewing this section is for the researcher to state the
potential significance of the implications of the study on
professional practice, or on life in general.
• Recommendations- You make recommendations based on your
experiences in conducting the research as well as in any other
professional capacity.
– You may recommend that other researchers conduct additional
studies in this area, which follow from the findings and procedures
implemented in your study.
– While the liberty to speculate and tell others what to do is
tantalizing, most students, and researchers generally, restrict their
suggestions to a few targets.
– In actuality, many doctoral students follow up on their own studies,
or advocate that students in their program continue with the same
• Abstract- Most institutions require you to write an abstract of your
study.
– Often the abstract is the first part of your study which is read by your
readers.
– It is frequently the only part read by others outside your institution.
– Create an abstract which clearly represents your study, focusing on the
most significant elements.
– The information included in your abstract will influence whether
researchers proceed to look at your total study.
– You will want people who are studying issues related to yours to find your
study among all the others.
– You will also want your abstract to be an accurate representation of all
the hard work you have devoted to this project.
– Most students find it useful initially to write an extended abstract, and
then to pare down their words, so that the key issues are expressed
concisely within the imposed limits.

• The content typically includes the following:

– title;
– Problem/objectives or issue which was researched;
– the frame of reference or theoretical bases which guided the study;
– the data sources which informed your study;
– the procedures for analyzing your data; and
– the outcomes or findings.
 References
• Citation in the Text
– when more two (Jhon et al., 2010; Till, 2010)
– When two (John and Till, 2010)
– When one (Till, 2010)
– Note Ethiopian
• List of References
– From journal or periodical
• Abbott, A. (1988). `Transcending general linear reality', Sociological Theory,
6: 169-86.
– From Books
• Anthony, P. (1977). The Ideology of Work. London: Tavistock. (use may add
page no., 125 pp)
– From proceedings
• Alcoff, L. (1997) `Continental Epistemology', In: J. Dancy and E. Sosa, A
Companion to Epistemology. Oxford: Blackwell. pp. 76-81. (Different )
– Reports

• Please adopt one which is recommended

 References
Alcoff, L. (1997) `Continental Epistemology', in J.
Dancy and E. Sosa, A Companion to
Epistemology. Oxford: Blackwell. pp. 76-81.
Alvesson, M. (1995) `The Meaning and
Meaninglessness of Postmodernism:
Some Ironic Remarks', Organization Studies,
16 (6): 1047-75.
Alvesson, M. and Deetz, S. (1996) `Critical Theory
and Postmodernism Approaches to
Organization Studies', in S.R. Clegg, C. Hardy and
W.R. Nord (eds), Handbook of Organization
Studies. London: Sage.
Guidelines for Preparation of
Your Thesis

Please follow
AAU Graduate School guidelines
 Who Writes a
Thesis/Dissertation

A dissertation is required of all Ph.D. candidates.

A thesis is required in many Master’s programs

Students doing a “Project” do not need to follow

thesis format guidelines.
 The Basics
• Paper:
– Page numbers (80 page)
– Margin,
– paper size

• Fonts, Font Size, and Font Variations:

Consistent font and font size for all text
(including page numbers)
– Font size that is no less than 10 and no more than
12
 Font Variations and Spacing
• Are you using…
– Underlining, bolding, or italics? If so, use them
sparingly, consistently or, preferably, not at all.

• Spacing: Is the vertical spacing of your text…

– Consistently either 1.5 or 2?
• Figure/ table captions, footnotes, etc. may be single-spaced
 Margins
• Consistency is the key!
– Margins must be a minimum of 1 1/2 inches
(left), 1 1/2 inches (top), 1 inch (right), and 1 inch
(bottom)
• “Widows and Orphans” are the last line of a
paragraph, printed by itself at the top of a
page, or the first line, printed by itself at the
bottom of a page, or a section title printed
by itself at the bottom of a page.
– Avoid these by using using “Widow and Orphan
Control” in Word
– Insert manual page breaks, if necessary, in the
final version
 Page Numbering
• Things to watch for
– Number every page (except for the“Signature” and
“Title” pages)
– Assign lower case Roman numerals to all
“preliminary pages” (starting with the abstract as
“iii”)
– Assign Arabic numerals to all text pages (starting
with “1”)
– Place page numbers, so that the upper and right
edges are a minimum of 1 inch (26mm) from the
from the top and right edges of the page
Signature Page

• Title must be in CAPS and

double spaced
• No degree listed with your
name
• Exact number of lines and
committee members
• Titles must be EXACT
• All signatures must be
original, no exceptions or
substitutes
• Margins must be within
limits, 1” on bottom and right,
1.5” on top and left
Common Formatting Mistakes For
the Signature Page
– Numbering your signature page “i.” This is incorrect. There is no number
physically printed on either the signature or title pages (although both pages
are included in the Roman numeral counting and have page numbers listed
in the Table of Contents).
– Text should be centered within the page margins (i.e., 1.5 inches left/top,
1.0 inch bottom/right, etc.)
– You should have the EXACT number of signature lines for your committee
chair and committee members. No blank lines allowed.
– The outside examiner does not sign the signature page.
– The original signature page must have all the original signatures, except the
signature of the Graduate Dean, before turning into the Graduate School.
– Titles of persons signing must be correct.
– Only the Graduate School Dean dates the signature page.

• FAXED SIGNATURES ARE NOT ACCEPTED!

Title Page
• Title should be in CAPS and
double spaced
• Degree being received should
be written out, not abbreviated
• Name should agree with name
being written on diploma
• All previous degrees should be
listed, no repeats
• Location will always be
Fairbanks, Alaska
• Date will be May, August or
December
• No comma between month
and year
Common Formatting Mistakes
For the Title Page
– Numbering your title page “ii” This is incorrect. There is no
number physically printed on either the signature or title pages
(although both pages are included in the Roman numeral
counting and listed with a page number in the Table of
Contents).
– Text should be centered within the page margins (i.e., 1.5
inches left/top, 1.0 inch bottom/right, etc.)
– Correct thesis title! Don’t abbreviate or use acronyms, except
in a very few cases where they would be universally
understood.
– Correct degree title, not abbreviated: Master of Arts, Master of
Science, Master of Fine Arts, Doctor of Philosophy, etc.
– Correct month/year of graduation (August 2007) Note: there is
no comma between month and year.
– Text should be evenly spaced or “balanced” on the page
Common Formatting Mistakes
For Abstracts

– Pagination: This is the first page that has its

number printed (Roman numeral “iii”)
– Correct page margins
– Maximum length for Masters thesis is 200
words (unless microfilming is desired, then it is
150 words)
– Maximum length for a Ph.D. dissertation is 350
words
Table of Contents
• Word “Page” above column of
page numbers
• Leader dots
• Left & right justified
• Include all chapters and
sections (at all levels)
• Each title in the TOC must
match the title in the text
EXACTLY
• If only one Appendix, list it in
TOC without title. If there are
multiple appendices, use “List
of Appendices”
Common Formatting Mistakes For
Table of Contents

– Correct page margins/pagination

– “Leader dots” are preferred (no “dashes”) and should extend completely
and consistently to the page number
– Page numbers on right-hand side should be “justified”
– Each title in the Table of Contents must match the title in the text EXACTLY
– The Table of Contents must be spaced in the same manner as the text.
– If TABLE OF CONTENTS is more than one page, subsequent pages start
at 1 1/2 inches from the top
– The word “Page” should be repeated above the right-hand listing of page
numbers
– Signature page, title page and Table of Contents must be listed in the Table
of Contents
Common Formatting Mistakes for
List of Figures/List of Tables:
– “Leader dots” are preferred (no “dashes”) and
should extend completely and consistently to
the page number
– Page numbers on right-hand side should be
“justified”
– If List of Figures or :List of Tables is more than
one page, subsequent pages start at 11/2
inches from the top
– Titles in the text and in the List of Figures and
List of Tables must match EXACTLY
– Both the List of Figures and List of Tables
must be spaced in the same manner as the
text. However, if a second line if required for
the title, it can be single-spaced
 Figure Example
• Anything that is not a Table is
considered a Figure.
90
• Figure captions must appear
80 BELOW the Figure.
70
• All writing in figures should be at
60
50 East
least 6 pt., legible, and
40 West
North
reproducible. If possible use the
30
same font size as in the text.
20
10
Small fonts are used only when
0 there isn’t room for a larger one.
1st Qtr 2nd Qtr 3rd Qtr 4th Qtr
• Page numbering must be the same
Figure 1.13 Plot of Regional Earnings in 1993. orientation and location on all
This shows the net income in the Orange pages including landscape oriented
Flavored Cracker market in the year of the Great pages.
Citrus. • Color figures are permitted.
However, if you are intending to
publish, many journals charge a
high price for color figures.
 Table Example
• Table captions must appear
Table 2.1 Artifacts Collected at the Black
River Site Feb. 19-25, 2006. These artifacts
ABOVE the table.
were collected in the third week of a study
• Table text font and size should
by the special method of collection and a
big group of people. be consistent with the text.
Arrowhead Bone Gems • Each table and figure should
s s have 8-10 word title.
• Tables, Figures and captions
Mon 7 42 0 must be within the margins.
• Color is permitted in tables, but
Wed 20 57 1 use only as necessary for
clarity.
Fri 25 0 0 • Landscape figures and tables
must be oriented so the top is
Sun 5 35 5 on the left-hand side of the
page. The page number must
be in the normal position on the
top right.
Common Formatting Mistakes
• Text of thesis:
– Consistent heading format. Capitalization, use of bold, italics, or
underlining must be consistent for a particular level of heading or
subheading throughout a monograph and within each chapter
(consistent with journal requirements) for the manuscript format

– Consistent indentation/spacing at the beginning of paragraphs

– Figures and Tables must be numbered in order of appearance in the

text. Imbedded Figures and Tables should be placed within a page
of their first mention (i.e., on the same page or on the following
page)
 Common Formatting Mistakes
(cont’d)
• Text of thesis (cont’d):
– Define all abbreviations and acronyms the first time they
appear in the text, except for those which are generally
understood by almost everyone.
– The numbers one to ten should be written out, unless the
number is a value with associated units (e.g., 1 g or 1 gram,
not one gram, but “one large beaker was used to collect the
sample” not “1 large beaker was used…”)
– Spell-check AND proofread, carefully.

– “Data” is plural, “datum” is singular; “criteria” is plural,

“criterion” is singular. “Affect” is a verb, “Effect” is a noun
Common Formatting Mistakes
(cont’d)
• Quotes:
– Quotations over three lines must be typed
block style with indentation and no quotation
marks or in the style appropriate to the field,
and must be spaced consistent with the
body of the text
Common Formatting Mistakes
(cont’d)
• REFERENCES:
– Use a heading (e.g., REFERENCES, LIST OF
REFERENCES, LITERATURE CITED, etc.) consistent
with the style manual applicable to your discipline
– Avoid splitting entries between pages. These must be
kept together on the same page
– Keep your references in alphabetical order
– References should be single-spaced within an entry and
must be double-spaced between entries
– List your reference section(s) in the Table of Contents
– DOUBLE and TRIPLE check that the references you
have cited are listed in the reference section and cited
correctly.
Questions?
 Outlines of your thesis
• Title (There is AAU
• Literature Review
format)
• Materials and methods
• Acknowledgement - Description of the study
• Abstract area
• Table of contents - Methods
• Introduction = Sampling design
= Sample size
– Background
- Data analysis
– Problem statement •Results
– Objectives •Discussion
– Research questions •Conclusion
– Limitation of the study •References
•Appendices, where
– Organization of the
applicable
thesis
 Citation and listing references
• Citation
……………. (Thomas, 2012).
According to Thomas (2012)…………
……………………. (Thomas, 2012; Ali, 2013).
According to Thomas (2012) and Ali
(2013)……...
…… (Thomas et al., 2012).
Ordering to Year
 Listing references
– Alphabetical ordering
– Indention
– Book
• Feyera Senbeta 2012. Edible Wild plants of Ethiopia.
AAU Printing Press, 450 pp.
• Bracket or without (2012) or 2012
– Journal
• Feyera Senbeta 2012. Coffee production in Ethiopia.
Journal of Biological Sciences 23: 156-200.
– Proceeding
– Reports
– Website
– News paper
– Interview
Thank You for Attending!