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I- The Composition of the Nucleus

1. You have learned in chemistry that in an atom, electrons move around a central core called
the nucleus.
2. The nucleus consists of protons and neutrons. It containing almost all the mass of the atom.
3. The nucleus of an atom is very small compared to the size of the atom
4. Protons and neutrons also known as nucleons.

Nuclide Notation

1. Proton number is defined as the number of protons in a nucleus.

2. Nucleon number is defined as the total number of protons and neutrons in a nucleus. It is

also known as mass number.

3. A nuclide is a type of atom with a particular proton and nucleon number.

4. A nuclide can be represented by a nuclide notation that shows the symbol of element, proton

number and nucleon number.

5. Figure below shows the nuclide notation of a nitrogen.

atomic number
(P+) 7
N
14
mass number
( P+ + no )

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1- Complete the following table, concerning uncombined atoms:

Isotopic Atomic Mass No. of No. of No. of

Symbol Number Number Protons Electrons Neutrons

__Sn_____ __50_____ _119______ 50 __50_____ ___69____

_______ 44 _______ _______ _______ 56

_______ _______ 174 70 _______ _______

56 138 _______ _______ _______

2- Complete the following table for neutral atoms of specific isotopes:

Isotopic Atomic Mass No. of No. of No. of

Symbol Number Number Protons Neutrons Electrons

134
Xe _______ _______ _______ _______ _______

_______ 27 60 _______ _______ _______

_______ _______ 144 _______ 84 _______

_______ 22 _______ _______ 26 _______

_______ _______ _______ _______ 106 72

_______ _______ 126 52 _______ _______

_______ _______ _______ 16 18 _______

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Complete the following table for ions:

Atomic No. of No. of Net

Symbol Number Protons Electrons Charge

(a) Cl- _______ _______ _______ _______

(b) _______ 16 _______ 18 _______

(c) _______ _______ 19 18 _______

(d) _______ 26 _______ _______ 3+

(e) _______ _______ 78 _______ 2+

3- Complete the following table:

Atomic No. of No. of Net

Symbol Number Protons Electrons Charge

(a) Zn2+ _______ _______ _______ _______

(b) _______ 13 _______ _______ 3+

(c) _______ _______ _______ 10 2-

(d) _______ _______ 34 _______ 2-

(e) _______ _______ 78 76 _______

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 Multiple choice Questions
I- Periodic table Trend:
1. What alkaline earth metal is located in period 3?
(a) Li (b) Na
(c) Ca (d) Mg (e) Sr

2. Which of the following is classified as a metal?

(a) Ge (b) As
(c) F (d) V (e) Ar

3. Select the term best describing the series of elements: Mn, Fe, Co, Ni, Cu.
(a) d-transition metals (b) representative elements
(c) metalloids (d) alkaline earth metals (e) halogens

4. Which element group is the most reactive of all the metallic elements?
(a) alkali metals (b) alkaline earth metals
(c) coinage metals (d) transition metals (e) Group 2B metals

5- Which of the following has a positive charge?

(a) proton (b) neutron
(c) anion (d) electron (e) atom

6. The species that contains 24 protons, 26 neutrons and 22 electrons would be represented by the
symbol:
(a) 50V3+ (b) 26Cr2+
50 2+
(c) Cr (d) 50Mn2+ (e) none of these

7. The maximum number of electrons that can be accommodated in a sublevel for which l = 3 is:
(a) 2 (b) 10 (c) 6
(d) 14 (e) 8

8- Which of the following elements has three valence electrons?

a) Lithium c) nitrogen
b) Boron

9. How many valence electrons does an oxygen atom have?

a) 2 c) 8
b) 6 d) 16

10- -The atom having the valence-shell configuration 4s2 4p5 would be in:
(a) Group VIA and Period 5 (b) Group IVB and Period 4
(c) Group VIB and Period 7 (d) Group VIIA and Period 4
(e) Group VIIB and Period 4

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11- The identity of an element is determined by...
(a) the number of its protons. (b) the number of its neutrons.
(c) the number of its electrons. (d) its atomic mass

12- Electronegativity __________ from left to right within a period and __________ from top to bottom within
a group:
a) decreases, increases b) increases, increases
c) increases, decreases d) stays the same, increases

13- Of the atoms below, __________ is the most electronegative.

a) Br b) O c) Cl
d) N e) F

14- Of the atoms below, __________ is the most electronegative.

a) Si b) Cl c) Rb
d) Ca e) S

15- Of the atoms below, __________ is the least electronegative.

a) Rb b) F c) Si
d) Cl e) Ca

16- Which of the elements below has the largest electronegativity?

a) Si b) Mg c) P
d) S e) Na

17- Of the elements below, __________ is the most metallic.

a) Na b) Mg c) Al
d) K e) Ar

18- Between which two elements is the difference in metallic character the greatest?
a) Rb and O b) O and I c) Rb and I
d) Li and O e) Li and Rb

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 II- Isotope

1. Isotopes of an element have the same number of protons (same Z), but a different number
of neutrons (different N).

2. It can also be defined as atoms of certain elements with the same proton numbers but with
different mass numbers.

3. Isotopes have the same chemical properties but different physical properties.
4. Table below shows the proton and nucleon number of the isotopes of hydrogen and

oxygen.

Element Name Proton Mass Number of Electron

Number Number neutron Number

Hydrogen 1 1 0

Hydrogen Deuterium 1 2 1

Tritium 1 3 2

Oxygen-16 8 16 8

Oxygen Oxygen-17 8 17 9

Oxygen-18 8 18 10

THE RELATIVE ATOMIC MASS OF AN ISOTOPIC ELEMENT

Example 1: Chlorine has two common isotopes as follows:

35 Cl (24.47%), 37 Cl (75.53%). Calculate the average atomic mass of chlorine.

Solution:

Relative atomic mass =

[(isotope 1 mass × isotope 1 abundance) + (isotope 2 mass × isotope 2 abundance + …] / 100
Relative atomic mass = [(35 × 75) + (37 × 25) ] ÷ 100
= (2,625 + 925) ÷ 100 = 35.5 amu

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 Example 2- Naturally occurring copper consists of 69.17% which has a mass of 62.9396 amu,

and 30.83% which has a mass of 64.9278 amu. Calculate the atomic mass of copper.

Solution The weighted average is given by the sum of the fraction of times its mass and the
fraction of times its mass:

(69.17 x 62.9396) + (30.83 x 64.9278) = 63.55

100

Average Atomic Mass Worksheet

1) Rubidium has two common isotopes, 85Rb and 87Rb. If the abundance of 85Rb is 72.2% and
the abundance of 87Rb is 27.8%, what is the average atomic mass of rubidium? 85.56 amu

2) Uranium has three common isotopes. If the abundance of 234U is 0.01%, the abundance of 235U
is 0.71%, and the abundance of 238U is 99.28%, what is the average atomic mass of uranium
237.98 amu

3) Titanium has five common isotopes: 46Ti (8.0%), 47Ti (7.8%), 48Ti (73.4%), 49Ti (5.5%), 50Ti
(5.3%). What is the average atomic mass of titanium? 47.92 amu

4) Naturally occurring chlorine that is put in pools is 75.53 percent 35Cl (mass = 34.969 amu)
and 24.47 percent 37Cl (mass = 36.966 amu). Calculate the average atomic mass. 35.46 am

5) Magnesium consists of three naturally occurring isotopes. The percent abundance of these
isotopes is as follows: 24 Mg (78.70%), 25 Mg (10.13%), and 26 Mg (11.7%). What is the average
atomic mass of magnesium?

6) Iodine is 80% 127I, 17% 126I, and 3% 128I. Calculate the average atomic mass of iodine.

7) Calculate the average atomic mass of gold with the 50% being gold-197 and 50% being
gold-198.

8) Hydrogen is 99% 1H, 0.8% 2H, and 0.2% 3H. Calculate its average atomic mass.

9) Naturally occurring gallium consists of 60.108% , with a mass of 68.9256 amu, and 39.892% ,
with a mass of 70.9247 amu. Calculate the atomic mass of gallium.

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 III- Electronic Configurations

https://byjus.com/chemistry/electron-configuration/

Introduction to What are Electron Configurations?

The electron configuration of an element describes how electrons are distributed in its atomic orbitals.
Electron configurations of atoms follow a standard notation in which all electron-containing atomic
subshells (with the number of electrons they hold written in superscript) are placed in a sequence. For
example, the electron configuration of sodium is 1s22s22p63s1.

Electron Configurations Provide Insight on the Energy Level of the Orbital, the Type of Orbital, and the
Total Number of Electrons in the Orbital.
However, the standard notation often yields lengthy electron configurations (especially for elements
having a relatively large atomic number). In such cases, an abbreviated or condensed notation may be
used instead of the standard notation.
In the abbreviated notation, the sequence of completely filled subshells that correspond to the electronic
configuration of a noble gas is replaced with the symbol of that noble gas in square brackets. Therefore,
the abbreviated electron configuration of sodium is [Ne]3s1 (the electron configuration of neon is
1s22s22p6, which can be abbreviated to [He]2s22p6).

Standard and Abbreviated Notations for Electron Configuration

Electron Configurations are useful for:

• Determining the valency of an element.

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• Predicting the properties of a group of elements (elements with similar electron configurations tend to
exhibit similar properties).
• Interpreting atomic spectra.
This notation for the distribution of electrons in the atomic orbitals of atoms came into practice shortly
after the Bohr model of the atom was presented by Ernest Rutherford and Niels Bohr in the year 1913.

Writing Electron Configurations

Shells
The maximum number of electrons that can be accommodated in a shell is based on the principal quantum
number (n). It is represented by the formula 2n2, where ‘n’ is the shell number. The shells, values of n,
and the total number of electrons that can be accommodated are tabulated below.

Max. Electrons in the Electron

Shell and ‘n’ value
Configuration

K shell, n=1 2*12 = 2

L shell, n=2 2*22 = 8

M shell, n=3 2*32 = 18

N shell, n=4 2*42 = 32

Subshells
• The subshells into which electrons are distributed are based on the azimuthal quantum number (denoted
by ‘l’).

• This quantum number is dependant on the value of the principal quantum number, n. Therefore, when n
has a value of 4, four different subshells are possible.

• When n=4. the subshells correspond to l=0, l=1, l=2, and l=3 and are named the s, p, d, and f subshells
respectively.

• The maximum number of electrons that can be accommodated by a subshell is given by the formula 2*(2l
+ 1).

• Therefore, the s, p, d, and f subshells can accommodate a maximum of 2, 6, 10, and 14 electrons
respectively.
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 All the possible subshells for values of n up to 4 are tabulated below.

Principle Quantum Value of Azimuthal Resulting Subshell in the

Number Value Quantum Number Electron Configuration

n=1 l=0 1s

l=0 2s
n=2
l=1 2p

l=0 3s

n=3 l=1 3p

l=2 3d

l=0 4s

l=1 4p
n=4
l=2 4d

l=3 4f

Thus, it can be understood that the 1p, 2d, and 3f orbitals do not exist because the value of the azimuthal
quantum number is always less than that of the principal quantum number.

Notation
• The electron configuration of an atom is written with the help of subshell labels.

• These labels contain the shell number (given by the principal quantum number), the subshell name (given
by the azimuthal quantum number), and the total number of electrons in the subshell in superscript.

• For example, if two electrons are filled in the ‘s’ subshell of the first shell, the resulting notation is ‘1s2’.

• With the help of these subshell labels, the electron configuration of magnesium (atomic number 12) can
be written as 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2.

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 Filling of Atomic Orbitals

Aufbau Principle
• This principle is named after the German word ‘Aufbeen’ which means ‘build up’.

• The Aufbau principle dictates that electrons will occupy the orbitals having lower energies before
occupying higher energy orbitals.

• The energy of an orbital is calculated by the sum of the principal and the azimuthal quantum numbers.

• According to this principle, electrons are filled in the following order: 1s, 2s, 2p, 3s, 3p, 4s, 3d, 4p, 5s, 4d,
5p, 6s, 4f, 5d, 6p, 7s, 5f, 6d, 7p…

The order in which electrons are filled in atomic orbitals as per the Aufbau principle is illustrated below.

Writing Electron Configurations with the Aufbau Principle

It is important to note that there exist many exceptions to the Aufbau principle such as chromium and
copper. These exceptions can sometimes be explained by the stability provided by half-filled or completely
filled subshells.

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 Pauli Exclusion Principle
• The Pauli exclusion principle states that a maximum of two electrons, each having opposite spins, can fit
in an orbital.

• This principle can also be stated as “no two electrons in the same atom have the same values for all four
quantum numbers”.

• Therefore, if the principal, azimuthal, and magnetic numbers are the same for two electrons, they must
have opposite spins.

Hund’s Rule

• This rule describes the order in which electrons are filled in all the orbitals belonging to a subshell.

• It states that every orbital in a given subshell are singly occupied by electrons before a second electron is
filled in an orbital.

• In order to maximize the total spin, the electrons in the orbitals that only contain one electron all have the
same spin (or the same values of the spin quantum number).

Examples
The electron configurations of a few elements are provided with illustrations in this subsection.

Electron Configuration of Hydrogen

The atomic number of hydrogen is 1. Therefore, a hydrogen atom contains 1 electron, which will be placed
in the s subshell of the first shell/orbit. The electron configuration of hydrogen is 1s1, as illustrated below.

Electron Configuration of Hydrogen

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Electron Configuration of Oxygen
The atomic number of oxygen is 8, implying that an oxygen atom holds 8 electrons. Its electrons are filled
in the following order:

K shell – 2 electrons

L shell – 6 electrons

Therefore, the electron configuration of oxygen is 1s2 2s2 2p4, as shown in the illustration provided below.

Electron Configuration of Oxygen

Chlorine Electronic Configuration

Chlorine has an atomic number of 17. Therefore, its 17 electrons are distributed in the following manner:

K shell – 2 electrons

L shell – 8 electrons

M shell – 7 electrons

The electron configuration of chlorine is illustrated below. It can be written as 1s22s22p63s23p5 or as

[Ne]3s23p5

Electron Configuration of Chlorine

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Practice Problems
1- Write detailed electronic configurations for:

F atom 1s2 2s2 2p5 Cu

F- ion 1s2 2s2 2p6 Cu1+

Co 1S² 2S² 2P⁶ 3S² 3P⁶ 4S² 3d⁷ Cu2+

Or

1S² 2S² 2P⁶ 3S² 3P⁶ 3d⁷4S²

Co2+ 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s0 3d7 V

Or

1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d7

Co3+ 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s0 3d6 V3+

Or

1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d6

Fe 1S² 2S² 2P⁶ 3S² 3P⁶ 4S² 3d6 V5+

Or

1S² 2S² 2P⁶ 3S² 3P⁶ 3d6 4S²

Fe2+ 1S² 2S² 2P⁶ 3S² 3P⁶ 4S0 3d6 S2-

Or

1S² 2S² 2P⁶ 3S² 3P⁶ 3d6 4S²

Fe3+ 1S² 2S² 2P⁶ 3S² 3P⁶ 4S0 3d5 Cl-

Or

1S² 2S² 2P⁶ 3S² 3P⁶ 3d5

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 2- Write the outermost electronic configuration for the following:

Tl [Xe] 6s2 5d10 4f14 6p1 Pb

Tl+ [Xe] 6s2 5d10 4f14 Pb4+

Tl3+ [Xe] 5d10 4f14 Mg

Bi Mg2+

Bi3+ Mn

Mn2+

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 Electron Configuration Practice Worksheet
1- Write the electronic configuration for the fluoride ion,

F atom: 1s2 2s2 2p5

F- ion : 1s2 2s2 2p6
2- Write the detailed electronic configuration of the oxide ion, O2-
O : 1s2 2s2 2p4 ; O2- : 1s2 2s2 2p6
3- Write the outermost electronic configuration for

Tl atom: [Xe] 6s2 5d10 4f14 6p1

(a) the ion Tl+ [Xe] 6s2 5d10 4f14
(b) the ion Tl3+ [Xe] 5d10 4f14
7- Write detailed electronic configurations for Co2+ and Co3+
First, write the configuration for the cobalt atom:
Co atom: 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s2 3d7
Co2+ ion: 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s0 3d7 or 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d7
Co3+ion: 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s0 3d6 or 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d6
4- Write the outermost electronic configuration for
(a) Bi3+

(b) Pb4+
5- Write the electronic configurations of Fe2+ and Fe3+

6- Write a detailed electronic configuration for each of the following ions:

(a) Na+
(b) Al3+
(c) Zn2+

7- Write a detailed electronic configuration for each of the following ions:

(a) N3-
(b) S2-
(c) Cl-

8- Write a detailed electronic configuration for each of the following ions:

(a) Co2+
(b) Cr3+
(c) Cu2+
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 9- Which of the following electron configurations is correct for nickel?
(a) [Ar] 4s1 3d8 (b) [Kr] 4s1 4d8
(c) [Kr] 4s1 3d8 (d) [Kr] 4s2 3d8 (e) [Ar] 4s2 3d8

10- Which ground state elements correspond to the following electron configurations?
a) [Rn] 5f146d37s2 Dubnium b) [Ne] 3s23p4 Sulfur

c) [Xe] 4f145d66s2 Osmium d) [Xe] 4f145d106s1 Gold

11- In the space below, write the full (unabbreviated) electron configurations of the
following elements:

a) sodium ________________________________________________

b) iron ________________________________________________

c) bromine ________________________________________________

d) barium ________________________________________________

12- In the space below, write the Noble Gas (abbreviated) electron configurations of the following
elements:

a) cobalt ________________________________________________

b) silver ________________________________________________

c) tellurium ________________________________________________

d) radium ________________________________________________

13- Determine what elements are denoted by the following electron configurations:

a) 1s22s22p63s23p4
2 2 6 2
b) 1s 2s 2p 3s 3p 4s 3d 4p 5s
c) [Kr] 5s24d105p3
2 14
d) [Xe] 6s 4f 5d
e) [Rn] 7s25f11
____________________
6 2 10 6 1
____________________
____________________
6
____________________
____________________

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 IV-Lewis Electron Dot Diagrams

https://www.nyu.edu/classes/tuckerman/adv.chem/lectures/lecture_11/node3.html

General rules for drawing Lewis structure

The following is a list of rules that can be used to determine the Lewis structure of a molecule:

1. Count up the total number of valence electrons. First add up the group numbers of all
atoms in the molecule. If the molecule is an anion, add one electron for each unit of
charge on the anion. If it is a cation, subtract one electron for each unit of charge on the
cation.
2. Calculate the total number of electrons that would be needed for each atom to have an
octet (or doublet for H).
3. Subtract the result of step 1 from the result of step 2. This is the total number of shared
or bonding electrons.
4. Assign two bonding electrons to each bond.
5. If bonding electrons remain, assign them in pairs making some of the bonds double or
triple bonds. (Usually, only C,N,O, and S can form double bonds, and only C and N can
form triple bonds). There may be more than one way to do this. Keep all possible
structures that result.
6. Assign remaining electrons as lone pairs, giving octets to all atoms except H.
7. Determine the formal charges and put them next to the appropriate atoms. (A formal
charge of 0 need not be written explicitly). Check that the formal charges add up to the
total charge on the molecule/ion. Do this for all structures obtained in step 5. The
structure with the smallest formal charges should be considered as the preferred
structure.

Example: Ethylene (C2H4 ).

Step 1: Total valence electrons = 2x4 + 4x1 = 12

Step 2: Total electrons needed for octets/doublets = 2x8 + 4x2 = 24

Step 3: Total shared/bonding electrons = 24 - 12 = 12. Total electrons in lone pairs = 12 - 12 = 0.

Step 4:

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 Figure 2:

Note that, in order to use up all of the bonding electrons, the C=C double bond is necessary. For
this case, all of the formal charges work out to be 0, which is shown straightforwardly.

Practice Problems
. . . . .. ..
Li . Be : B: .C: .N: :O: :F : : Ne :
. . . ..

1- Draw an electron dot diagram for each of the following ions:

(a) O2-
(b) Cl-
(c) N3-
2- Draw an electron dot diagram for each of the following ions:
(a) Na+

(b) Ca2+

(c) Al3+

(d) Sn2+

3- Draw electron dot diagrams for atoms of the following elements and the ions they produce when
they combine:
(a) Al and S

(b) Ca and Br

(c) Mg and N

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 V- Types of Chemical Reaction Worksheet

Balance the following reactions and indicate which of the six types of chemical reaction are being represented:

a) 2 NaBr + 1 Ca(OH)2 → 1 CaBr2 + 2 NaOH Type of reaction: double displacement

b) 2 NH3+ 1 H2SO4 → 1 (NH4)2SO4 Type of reaction: synthesis

c) 4 C5H9O + 27 O2 → 20 CO2 + 18 H2O Type of reaction: combustion

d) 3 Pb + 2 H3PO4 → 3 H2 + 1 Pb3(PO4)2 Type of reaction: single displacement

e) 1 Li3N + 3 NH4NO3 → 3 LiNO3 + 1 (NH4)3N Type of reaction: double displacement

a) CaCO3(s) CaO(s) + CO2(g) Type of reaction: decomposition

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Section 3: Predicting the products of chemical reactions

1) 2 Ag + 1 CuSO4 → 1 Ag2SO4 + 1 Cu Type: Single Displacement

2) 2 NaI + 1 CaCl2 → 2 NaCl + 1 CaI2 Type: Double Displacement

3) 1 O2 + 1 H2 → 2 H2O Type: Synthesis

4) 2 AgNO2 + 1 BaSO4 → 1 Ag2SO4 + 1 Ba(NO2)2 Type: Double Displacement

5) 2 HCN + 1 CuSO4 → 1 H2SO4 + 1 Cu(CN)2 Type: Double Displacement

6) 1 H2O + 1 AgI → 1 HI + 1 AgOH Type: Double Displacement

7) 4 LiBr + 1 Co(SO3)2 → 2 Li2SO3 + 1 CoBr4 Type: Double Displacement

8) 1 LiNO3 + 1 Ag → 1 AgNO3 + 1 Li Type: Single Displacement

9) 1 N2 + 2 O2 → 2 NO2 Type: Synthesis

10) 1 H2CO3 → 1 CO2 + 1 H2O Type: Decomposition

11) 1 AlCl3 + 3 Cs → 3 CsCl + 1 Al Type: Single Displacement

12) 1 Al(NO3)3 + 1 Ga → 1 Ga(NO3)3 + 1 Al Type: Single Displacement

13) 1 CH3COOH + 1 O2 → 1 CO2 + 2 H2O Type: Combustion

14) 1 C4H8 + 6 O2 → 4 CO2 + 4 H2O Type: Combustion

15) 2 KCl + 1 Mg(OH)2 → 2 KOH + 1 MgCl2 Type: Double Displacement

16) 1 Zn + 1 Au(NO2)2 → 1 Zn(NO2)2 + 1 Au Type: Single Displacement

17) 1 BaS + 1 PtCl2 → 1 BaCl2 + 1 PtS Type: Double Displacement

18) 2 Na2O → 4 Na + 1 O2 Type: Decomposition

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 Type of Reaction
For each reaction, identify the type of reaction taking place.
1. H2CO3 --> H2O + CO2
a) Synthesis reaction
b) Decomposition reaction
c) Single replacement reaction
d) Double replacement reaction
e) Combustion reaction
3- 3 AgNO3 + K3PO4 --> Ag3PO4 + 3 KNO3
a) Synthesis reaction
b) Decomposition reaction
c) Single replacement reaction
d) Double replacement reaction
e) Combustion reaction
5. BaCO3 --> BaO + CO2
a) Synthesis reaction
b) Decomposition reaction
c) Single replacement reaction
d) Double replacement reaction
e) Combustion reaction
7. 8 Cu + S8 --> 8 CuS
a) Synthesis reaction
b) Decomposition reaction
c) Single replacement reaction
d) Double replacement reaction
e) Combustion reaction
9. 2 K + 2 H2O --> 2 KOH + H2
a) Synthesis reaction
b) Decomposition reaction
c) Single replacement reaction
d) Double replacement reaction
e) Combustion reaction
11. 2 C6H14 + 19 O2 --> 12 CO2 + 14 H2O
a) Synthesis reaction
b) Decomposition reaction
c) Single replacement reaction
d) Double replacement reaction
e) Combustion reaction
2. C3H8 + 5 O2 --> 3 CO2 + 4 H2O
a) Synthesis reaction
b) Decomposition reaction
c) Single replacement reaction
d) Double replacement reaction
e) Combustion reaction
4- 2 C2H2 + 5 O2 --> 4 CO2 + 2 H2O
a) Synthesis reaction
b) Decomposition reaction
c) Single replacement reaction
d) Double replacement reaction
e) Combustion reactio
6. 4 Cr + 3 O2 --> 2 Cr2O3
a) Synthesis reaction
b) Decomposition reaction
c) Single replacement reaction
d) Double replacement reaction
e) Combustion reaction
8- P4 + 5 O2 --> 2 P2O5
a) Synthesis reaction
b) Decomposition reaction
c) Single replacement reaction
d) Double replacement reaction
e) Combustion reaction
10- 2 AgNO3 + Ni --> Ni(NO3)2 + 2 Ag
a) Synthesis reaction
b) Decomposition reaction
c) Single replacement reaction
d) Double replacement reaction
e) Combustion reaction
12. 2 NaClO3 --> 2 NaCl + 3 O2
a) Synthesis reaction
b) Decomposition reaction
c) Single replacement reaction
d) Double replacement reaction
e) Combustion reaction
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 VI- Oxidation – Reduction

Oxidation and reduction are two types of chemical reactions that often work together.
Oxidation vs Reduction

• Oxidation occurs when a reactant loses electrons during the reaction. (OIL)
• Reduction occurs when a reactant gains electron during the reaction. (RIG)

When an oxidation number increases, that species has been oxidized.

When an oxidation number decreases, that species has been reduced.

Example I- Consider the reaction between zinc metal and hydrochloric acid.

Zn(s) + 2 HCl(aq) → ZnCl2(aq) + H2(g)

• Zn(s) → Zn2+(aq) + 2 e-

The zinc was oxidized into Zn2+ ions. This reaction is an oxidation reaction.

• 2 H+ + 2 e- → H2(g)

The second part of this reaction involves the hydrogen ions.

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The hydrogen ions are gaining electrons and bonding together to form dihydrogen gas. This
reaction is a reduction reaction.

Example II-

CuSO4 + Zn ➙ ZnSO4 + Cu

In this reaction, the mini-reactions of oxidation and reduction are as follows:

Zn ➙ Zn2+ + 2e- (oxidation reaction)

Since zinc has changed its oxidation state from 0 to +2, this is an oxidation reaction.

The two electrons released from the zinc atom are accepted by the copper ion, in the
corresponding reduction reaction:

Cu2+ + 2e- ➙ Cu (reduction reaction)

Example III-

H2 + F2 → 2 HF

The overall reaction may be written as two half-reactions:

H2 → 2 H+ + 2 e− (oxidation reaction)

F2 + 2 e− → 2 F− (reduction reaction)

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Rules for Assigning Oxidation Numbers

1. The oxidation number of a free element is always 0.

The atoms in He and N2, for example, have oxidation numbers of 0.

2. The oxidation number of a monatomic ion equals the charge of the ion. For example, the
oxidation number of Na+ is +1; the oxidation number of N3- is -3.

3. The usual oxidation number of hydrogen is +1.

The oxidation number of hydrogen is -1 in compounds containing a metal, as in CaH2.

4. Oxygen generally has an oxidation state of -2 in compounds. except peroxides and superoxides

1. The oxidation number of fluorine is -1 in compounds

5. The oxidation number of a Group IA element in a compound is +1.

6. The oxidation number of a Group IIA element in a compound is +2.

7. The oxidation number of a Group VIIA element in a compound is -1, except when that element is
combined with one having a higher electronegativity. The oxidation number of Cl is -1 in HCl,
but the oxidation number of Cl is +1 in HOCl.

8. The sum of the oxidation numbers of all of the atoms in a neutral compound is 0.

9. The sum of the oxidation numbers in a polyatomic ion is equal to the charge of the ion. For
example, the sum of the oxidation numbers for SO42- is -2.

26
Example #1: Example #2: Example #3: Example #4:

What is the oxidation What is the oxidation What is the oxidation What is the oxidation
number of Cl in HCl? number of Na in number of Cl in number of Cl in
Na2O? ClO¯? ClO2¯?

Na2O = 0 , ClO¯ = -1 ClO2¯ = -1

HCl = 0 Na2 + ( -2 ) = 0, Cl + (-2) = -1 Cl + (-2 x 2) = -1

(+1) + Cl = 0 Na2 = +2 Cl = -1 +2 Cl = -1 +4

Cl = -1 Na = +1 Cl = +1 Cl = +3

Example #5: Example #6: Example #7: Example #8:

What is the oxidation What is the oxidation What is the oxidation What is the oxidation
number of Cl in number of S in SO42¯ number for each number of N and of
ClO3¯? element in NaMnO4? P in NH4H2PO4

ClO3¯ = -1
SO42¯ = -2
Cl + (-2 x 3) = -1 NaMnO4 = 0 ammonium ---> NH4+
S + (-2 x 4) = -2 NH4+ = +1
Cl = -1 + 6 +1+Mn+(-2 x 4) = 0
S = -2 + 8 N + (+1 X4) = +1
Cl = +5 Mn = -1 + 8
S= +6 N = +1 - 4 = +3
Mn = +7

Problem 1 Problem 2 Problem 3 Problem 4

Determine the What is the oxidation What is the oxidation What is the oxidation
oxidation number of number of Cr in the number of nitrogen number of copper in
carbon in K2CO3. ionic compound in the molecule N2? Cu+2?
Na2Cr2O7?

27
Problem 5 Problem 6 Problem 7 Problem 8

What is the oxidation What is the oxidation What is the oxidation What is the oxidation
number of Br in the number of S in SO32¯ number
2
of Sulphur in number of Fe in Fe3O4
S2O3 ¯, thiosulfate:
BrO3- ion?

Worksheet - Oxidation/Reduction Reactions

1. Assign oxidation numbers to each of the atoms in the following compounds:

Na2CrO4

K2Cr2O7

CO2

CH4

HClO4

MnO2

SO32-

SF4

28
2. Nitrogen has 5 valence electrons (Group V). It can gain up to 3 electrons (-3), or lose up to 5
(+5) electrons. Fill in the missing names or formulas and assign an oxidation state to each
of the following nitrogen containing compounds:

Name Formula Oxidation state

ammonia NH3

nitrogen N2

nitrite NO2-

nitrate NO3-

dinitrogen N2O
monoxide

nitrogen dioxide NO2

hydroxylamine NH2OH

nitrogen NO
monoxide

hydrazine N2H4

29
3. During chemical reactions, the oxidation state of atoms can change. This occurs when
compounds gain or lose electrons, or when the bonds to an atom change. This is illustrated
by the reaction between nitrogen and hydrogen to make ammonia:
N2(g) + 3 H2(g) → 2 NH3(g)

Assign oxidation numbers to each of the atoms in this reaction.

N (in N2) = 0 N (in NH3) = -3 (N 1 -3) ⸪ N is Reduced (Oxidizing Agent)

When an oxidation number decreases, that species has been reduced.

H (in H2) = 0 H (in NH3) = +1 (H 0 +1) ⸪ H is Oxidized (Reducing Agent)

When an oxidation number increases, that species has been oxidized.

4. In each of the following reactions, assign oxidation numbers to all of the elements
and identify the oxidizing and reducing agents and the change in oxidation number.

a. 4 Fe + 3 O2→2 Fe2O3
0 0 +3 -2
change in oxidation number

oxidizing agent O2 0 - -2

reducing agent Fe 0 +3

b. Cr2O72-+ 2OH-→2 CrO42-+ H2O

+6 -2 -2 +1 +6 -2 +1 -2
change in oxidation number

oxidizing agent no change in any oxidation numbers;

reducing agent not a redox reaction

30
 VII Chemical Bonding Worksheet

Ionic Bond Between: Example:

Metal and Non-Metal (M + NM) NaCl, KF, CaO

Metal and polyatomic (M + polyatomic Na3PO4; Ca(OH)2

ions ion)

Covalent Bond Between : Example:

a) Non polar covalent a) Identical Non-Metals (NM + NM) Cl2 , O2, N2.
b) Polar Covalent b) Different Non-Metals
Bond # NM SO2
H and Non-Metals
(H + NM) H2O, NH3, H2S

Metallic Bond between a Metal and (M+ M)

Metal

1- Determine if the elements in the following compounds are metals or non-metals.

Describe the type of bonding that occurs in the compound.

Compound Element 1 Element 2 Bond Type

(metal or non-metal?) (metal or non-metal?)

NO2 N = non-metal O = non-metal covalent

NaCl

SO2

PO43-

31
 MgBr2

CaO

H2O

K2O

O2

CuCl2

NO2-

TiO2

HF

Rb2S

Fe2O3

C6H12O22

32
2- Determine the type of bond between the following pairs of compounds

Bonding between Bond Type Bonding between Bond Type

Sulfur and Hydrogen Nitrogen and hydrogen

Sulfur and cesium Iodine and iodine

Chlorine and bromine Copper and sulfur

Calcium and chlorine Hydrogen and fluorine

Oxygen and hydrogen Carbon and oxygen

3- Describe the type of bond represented by the dash for each of the following
compounds.

a) H–H f) K–OH
b) H–CH3 g) H–OH
c) H–NH2 h) H–Br
d) Na–ONa i) F–CH3
e) Na–Br

4- Identify the type(s) of bond(s) found in the following molecules:

a. CCl4 covalent
b. Li2O ionic
c. NF3 covalent
d. CaSO4 ionic and covalent
e. SO2 covalent
f. Mg(OH)2 ionic and covalent

33
 VIII- Nomenclature

Naming Negative ions that consist of a single atom:

These are named by adding the suffix -ide to the stem of the name of the element.

F- fluoride O2- oxide

Cl- chloride S2- sulfide
Br- bromide N3- nitride
I- iodide P3- phosphide
H- hydride C4- carbide

Naming Acids:
Acids containing ions ending with ide often become hydro -ic acid
Cl- chloride HCl hydrochloric acid
F- fluoride HF hydrofluoric acid
S2- sulfide H2S hydrosulfuric acid

Acids containing ions ending with ate usually become -ic acid
CH3CO2- acetate CH3CO2H acetic acid
CO32- carbonate H2CO3 carbonic acid
BO33- borate H3BO3 boric acid
NO3- nitrate HNO3 nitric acid
SO42- sulfate H2SO4 sulfuric acid
ClO4- perchlorate HClO4 perchloric acid
PO43- phosphate H3PO4 phosphoric acid
MnO4- permanganate HMnO4 permanganic acid
CrO42- chromate H2CrO4 chromic acid
ClO3- chlorate HClO3 chloric acid

Acids containing ions ending with ite usually become -ous acid
ClO2- chlorite HClO2 chlorous acid
NO2- nitrite HNO2 nitrous acid
SO32- sulfite H2SO 3 sulfurous acid
ClO- hypochlorite HClO hypochlorous acid

34
 Practice Problems: Ionic Compounds

Write the correct name for

1) MgS 1) magnesium sulfide 11) K2S 11) potassium sulfide 21) Cs2O 21) cesium oxide

2) KBr 2) potassium bromide 12) LiBr 12) lithium bromide 22) RbI 22) rubidium iodide

3) Ba3N2 3) barium nitride 13) Sr3P2 13) strontium phosphide 23) MgO 23) magnesium oxide

4) Al2O3 4) aluminum oxide 14) BaCl2 14) barium chloride 24) CaBr2 24) calcium bromide

5) NaI 5) sodium iodide 15) NaBr 15) sodium bromide 25) LiI 25) lithium iodide

6) SrF2 6) strontium fluoride 16) MgF2 16) magnesium fluoride 26) BeBr2 26) berylium bromide

7) lithium sulfide 17) sodium oxide 27) potassium oxide

7) Li2S 17) Na2O 27) K2O
8) radium chloride 18) strontium sulfide 28) strontium iodide
8) RaCl2 18) SrS 28) SrI2
9) calcium oxide 19) boron nitride 29) boron fluoride
9) CaO 19) BN 29) BF3
10) aluminum 20) aluminum nitride 30) aluminum sulfide
10) AlP phosphide 20) AlN 30) Al2S3

Practice Problems II
Write the correct formula for:
1) magnesium oxide 1) MgO 11) cesium sulfide 11) Cs2S 21) rubidium oxide 21) Rb2O

2) lithium bromide 2) LiBr 12) potassium chloride 12) KCl 22) calcium iodide 22) CaI2

3) calcium nitride 3) Ca3N2 13) strontium phosphide 13) Sr3P2 23) cesium oxide 23) Cs2O

4) aluminum sulfide 4) Al2S3 14) barium iodide 14) BaI2 24) magnesium iodide 24) MgI2

5) potassium iodide 5) KI 15) sodium fluoride 15) NaF 25) lithium chloride 25) LiCl

6) strontium chloride 6) SrCl2 16) calcium bromide 16) CaBr2 26) beryllium bromide 26) BeBr2

7) sodium sulfide 7) Na2S 17) beryllium oxide 17) BeO 27) sodium oxide 27) Na2O

8) radium bromide 8) RaBr2 18) strontium sulfide 18) SrS 28) calcium fluoride 28) CaF2

9) magnesium sulfide 9) MgS 19) boron fluoride 19) BF3 29) boron phosphide 29) BP

10) aluminum nitride 10) AlN 20) aluminum phosphide 20) AlP 30) aluminum oxide 30) Al2O3

35
 Examples for Transition Metal Compounds

Write the correct name for:

1) CuS 1) copper(II) sulfide 11) CuCl2 11) copper(II) chloride 23) AuCl3 23) gold(III) chloride

2) PbBr4 2) lead(IV) bromide 12) CuBr 12) copper(I) bromide 24) MnO 24) manganese(II) oxide

3) Pb3N2 3) lead(II) nitride 13) PbO 13) lead(II) oxide 25) CrCl3 25) chromium(III) chloride

4) Fe2O3 4) iron(III) oxide 14) Fe2S3 14) iron(III) sulfide 26) CoO 26) cobalt(II) oxide

27) manganese(III) oxide

5) FeI2 5) iron(II) iodide 15) PbCl2 15) lead(II) chloride 27) Mn2O3
28) chromiun(II) bromide
6) Sn3P4 6) tin(IV) phosphide 16) SnO 16) tin(II) oxide 28) CrBr2
29) gold(I) fluoride
7) Cu2S 7) copper(I) sulfide 17) Cu2O 17) copper(I) oxide 29) AuF
30) cobalt(III) sulfide
8) SnCl2 8) tin(II) chloride 18) PbO2 18) lead(IV) oxide 30) Co2S3

9) HgO 9) mercury(II) oxide 19) FeO 19) iron(II) oxide

10) 10) mercury(I) 20) SnO2 20) tin(IV) oxide

Hg2F2 fluoride

Write the correct Formula for:

1) iron(II) chloride 1) FeCl2 11) iron(III) chloride 11) FeCl3 21) tin(II) sulfide 21) SnS

2) copper(I) sulfide 2) Cu2S 12) copper(II) sulfide 12) CuS 22) mercury(I) sulfide 22) Hg2S

3) lead(IV) iodide 3) PbI4 13) lead(II) bromide 13) PbBr2 23) gold(III) bromide 23) AuBr3

4) tin(II) fluoride 4) SnF2 14) tin(IV) iodide 14) SnI4 24) manganese(II) 24)
oxide MnO
5) mercury(I) bromide 5) Hg2Br2 15) mercury(II) fluoride 15) HgF2
25) chromium(II) 25) CrCl2
6) tin(II) oxide 6) SnO 16) tin(IV) oxide 16) SnO2 chloride
26)
7) chromium(III) oxide 7) Cr2O3 17) manganese(III) 17) MnCl3 26) lead(IV) nitride Pb3N4
chloride
8) gold(I) iodide 8) AuI 18) Cr3N2 27) cobalt(III) oxide 27) Co2O3
18) chromium(II) nitride
9) manganese(II) nitride 9) Mn3N2 19) Au2O3 28) copper(II) iodide 28) CuI2

36
10) cobalt(III) 10) CoP 19) gold(III) oxide 20) Co3P2 29) tin(IV) fluoride 29) SnF4
phosphide
20) cobalt(II) phosphide 30) iron(II) phosphide 30) Fe3P2

Common Polyatomic Negative Ions

-1 ions
hydrogen sulfate
HCO3- bicarbonate HSO4-
(bisulfate)
OH- hydroxide ClO4- perchlorate
NO3- nitrate ClO3- chlorate
NO2- nitrite ClO2- chlorite
MnO4- permanganate ClO- hypochlorite
CN- cyanide CH3CO2- acetate
-2 ions
CO32- carbonate CrO42- chromate
SO42- sulfate Cr2O72- dichromate
SO32- sulfite O22- peroxide
S2O32- thiosulfate HPO42- hydrogen phosphate
-3 ions
PO43- phosphate BO33- borate
PO33- phosphite AsO43- arsenate

Write the formulas for the following compounds:

1) lead (IV) sulfate 1) Pb(SO4)2

2) silver cyanide 2) AgCN

3) copper (II) chlorate 3) Cu(ClO3)2

4) chromium (IV) phosphate 4) Cr3(PO4)4

5) vanadium (IV) carbonate 5) V(CO3)2

6) ammonium oxide 6) (NH4)2O

7) tin (II) nitrite 7) Sn(NO2)2

37
 8) 8) chromium (III) hydroxide 8) Cr(OH)3

9) titanium (II) bicarbonate 9) Ti(HCO3)2

10) cobalt (III) chromate 10) Co2(CrO4)3

Name the following acids and bases:

1) HCN hydrocyanic acid
2) H2SO3 sulfurous acid
3) H3PO4 phosphoric acid
4) H2S hydrosulfuric acid
5) H3P hydrophosphoric acid
6) NH3 nitrogen trihydride (ammonia)
7) NaOH sodium hydroxide
8) Ca(OH)2 calcium hydroxide
9) Fe(OH)3 iron (III) hydroxide

Practice Problems for Naming Inorganic Compounds

1- Write the name for each of the following inorganic compounds:

1. Pb(ClO2)2 ……………………….. 13. MgSO4 ………………………..

2. Co2O3 ……………………….. 14. Zn(HCO3)2 ………………………..

7. CaF2 ……………………….. 15. KMnO4 ………………………..

3.NaNO3 ……………………….. 16. NBr3 ………………………..

4. Al(ClO4)3 ……………………….. 17. KOH ………………………..

5. Na2CrO4 ……………………….. 18. Fe3N2 ………………………..

6. SnCl4 ……………………….. 19. Al2(SO4) ………………………..

7. NiCr2O7 ……………………….. 20. Fe2O3 ………………………..

8. HI ……………………….. 21. (NH4)2SO3 ………………………..

38
 9. HCl ……………………….. 22. MgS ………………………..

10. H2SO4 ……………………….. 23. AlPO4 ………………………..

11. H3PO4 ……………………….. 24. AgCN ………………………..

12. HNO3 ……………………….. 25. KMnO4 ………………………..

2- Write the formula for each of the following inorganic compounds:

26. barium carbonate ……………………….. 40. ammonium ………………………..
hydrogen sulfate
27. zinc bromide ……………………….. ………………………..
41. iron(II) sulfate
28. nickel(II) chloride ……………………….. ………………………..
42. magnesium nitrite
29. chromic acid ……………………….. ………………………..
43. copper(II)
30. Silver nitrate ……………………….. ………………………..
hydroxide
31. lithium fluoride ……………………….. ………………………..
44. Calcium phosphide
32. phosphoric acid ……………………….. ………………………..
45. lithium chromate
33. Zinc sulfide ……………………….. ………………………..
46. potassium
34. Iron II carbonate ……………………….. dichromate ………………………..

35. tin(II) acetate ……………………….. 47. potassium nitrate ………………………..

36. cobalt(II) nitride ……………………….. 48. silver perchlorate ………………………..

37. silver ……………………….. 49. ammonium oxide ………………………..

hypochlorite
……………………….. 50. iron(III) chlorate ………………………..
38. sodium phosphate
……………………….. 51. strontium(II) sulfate
39. vanadium(V) ………………………..
………………………..
oxide ………………………..

39
3- Write correct formulas of the compounds formed when the positive ions in the vertical column
combine with the negative ions listed across the top row.

carbonate hydroxide nitrate oxide phosphate sulphate

aluminum Al2(CO3)3 ……………… ……………… ……………… ……………… ………………

ammonium (NH4)2CO3 ……………… ……………… ……………… ……………… ………………

barium ……………… ……………… ……………… ……………… ……………… ………………

calcium ……………… ……………… ……………… ……………… ……………… ………………

cobalt(III) ……………… ……………… ……………… ……………… ……………… ………………

copper(I) ……………… ……………… ……………… ……………… ……………… ………………

……………… ……………… ……………… ……………… ……………… ………………

copper(II)

……………… ……………… ……………… ……………… ……………… ………………

iron(III)

……………… ……………… ……………… ……………… ……………… ………………

lead(II)

……………… ……………… ……………… ……………… ……………… ………………

lead(IV)

……………… ……………… ……………… ……………… ……………… ………………

magnesium

……………… ……………… ……………… ……………… ……………… ………………

manganese(II)

……………… ……………… ……………… …………… ……………… ………………

potassium

silver

sodium

zinc

40
 5- Complete the following table by writing the formula of the compound formed by
the cation on the left and the anion at the top:

O2- Br- N3- ClO3- SO4 2- PO4 3- Cr2O7 2-

K+

Ca2+

Al3+

Zn2+

Cr3+

NH3+

5- Write the formula for each 6- Name the following

of the following compounds: compounds

Magnesium sulfide MgS CuS

Sodium iodide Cu2S

Lead(IV) oxide BaSO4.

Aluminum oxide Zn(NO3)2

Chromium(III) oxide H3PO4

Aluminum oxide H2SO3

platinum(II) oxide HNO3

41
 MCQ Nomenclature

1- What is the formula for cobalt(III) phosphate?

a) Co3(PO4) b) CoPO4 c) Co3(PO3)

d) Co3P4 d) Co3(PO4)3

2- The correct formula for sodium carbonate is:

a) Na2CO3 b) NaCO3 c) Na2CO2

3- The correct formula for magnesium nitride is:

a) MgN b) Mg3N2 c) Mg2N

4- The correct formula for chromium(V) cyanide is:

a) CrCN b) Cr(CN)2 c) Cr(CN)5

5- The correct formula for dinitrogen tetraoxide is:

a) NO2 b) N2O4 c) N2O2

6- The correct formula for lithium chlorate is:

a) LiClO2 b) LiClO4 c) LiClO3

7- The correct name for Na2S is:

a) sodium sulfide
b) disodium sulfide
c) sodium(I) sulfide

8- The correct name for Cu3(PO4)2 is:

a) copper(II) phosphate
b) copper(I) phosphate
c) tricopper diphosphate

9- The correct name for Zn(OH)2 is:

a) zinc(II) hydroxide
b) zinc dihydroxide
c) zinc hydroxide

42
 IX- Net Ionic Equation

Net Ionic Equation Worksheet Answers

Write balanced molecular, ionic, and net ionic equations (NIE) for each of the following
reactions. Assume all reactions occur in aqueous solution.

1. 2NaCl(aq) + Pb(NO3)2(aq) → PbCl2(s) + 2NaNO3(aq)

Ionic Equation: 2Na (aq) + 2Cl (aq) + Pb (aq) + 2NO3 (aq) → PbCl2(s) + 2Na+(aq) + 2NO3-(aq)
+ - 2+ -

NIE: 2Cl-(aq) + Pb2+(aq) → PbCl2(s)

2. Na2CO3(aq) + FeCl2(aq) → FeCO3(s) + 2NaCl(aq)

Ionic Equation: 2Na (aq) + CO3 (aq) + Fe (aq) + 2Cl (aq) → FeCO3(s) + 2Na+(aq) + 2Cl-(aq)
+ 2- 2+ -

NIE: CO32-(aq) + Fe2+(aq) → FeCO3(s)

3. Mg(OH)2(aq) + 2HCl(aq) → MgCl2(aq) + 2H2O(l)

Ionic Equation: Mg (aq) + 2OH (aq) + 2H (aq) + 2Cl (aq) → Mg (aq) + 2Cl-(aq) + 2H2O(l)
2+ - + - 2+

NIE: 2OH-(aq) + 2H+(aq) → 2H2O(l)

(your final answer would be: OH-(aq) + H+(aq) → H2O(l))

4. K2(C2O4)(aq) + CaCl2(aq) → 2KCl(aq) + Ca(C2O4)(s)

Ionic Equation: 2K (aq) + C2O4 (aq) + Ca (aq) + 2Cl (aq) → 2K (aq) + 2Cl-(aq) + Ca(C2O4)(s)
+ 2- 2+ - +

NIE: C2O42-(aq) + Ca2+(aq) → Ca(C2O4)(s)

5. Na2CO3(aq) + 2HCl(aq) → 2NaCl(aq) + CO2(g) + H2O(l)

Ionic Equation: 2Na (aq) + CO3 (aq) + 2H (aq) + 2Cl (aq) → 2Na (aq) + 2Cl (aq) + CO2(g) + H2O(l)
+ 2- + - + -

NIE: CO32-(aq) + 2H+(aq) → CO2(g) + H2O(l)

6- Zr(OH)4(s) + 4HNO3(aq) → Zr(NO3)4(aq) + 4H2O(l)

Ionic Equation: Zr(OH)4(s) + 4H+(aq) + 4NO3-(aq) → Zr4+(aq) + 4NO3-(aq) + 4H2O(l)

NIE: Zr(OH)4(s) + 4H+(aq) → Zr4+(aq) + 4H2O(l)

43
7- Na2SO3(s) + 2HCl(aq) → 2NaCl(aq ) + H2O(l) + SO2(g)

Ionic Equation: Na2SO3(s) + 2H+(aq) + 2Cl-(aq) → 2Na+(aq) + 2Cl-(aq) + H2O(l) + SO2(g)

NIE: Na2SO3(s) + 2H+(aq) → 2Na+(aq) + H2O(l) + SO2(g)

(note that the sodium ions do not cancel out since they are part of the solid phase in the reactants
And part of the aqueous phase in the products)

8. Mg(NO3)2(aq) + Na2CrO4(aq) → 2NaNO3(aq) + MgCrO4(s)

Ionic Equation:

NIE:

9. 2FeCl3(aq) + 3Mg(s) → 3MgCl2(aq) + 2Fe(s)

Ionic Equation:

NIE:

10. BaBr2(aq) + Na2SO4(aq) → BaSO4(s) + 2NaBr(aq)

Ionic Equation:

NIE:

11. 2AgNO3(aq) + MgI2(aq) → 2AgI(s) + Mg(NO3)2(aq)

Ionic Equation:

NIE:

44
12. Ni(NO3)2(aq) + 2NaOH(aq) → Ni(OH)2(s) + 2NaNO3(aq)

Ionic Equation:

NIE:

13. 2KF(aq) + Mg(NO3)2(aq) → 2KNO3(aq) + MgF2(s)

Ionic Equation:

NIE:

45
 X- Percent Composition,

Percent Composition by Mass –

Different elements have different masses and this must be taken into consideration.

How to find the percent composition of a compound:

1. Write a correct formula for the compound

2. Find the molar mass of the compound

2. Divide the total atomic mass of EACH ELEMENT by the molar mass
3. Multiply by 100 to convert your results to a percent
4. Since you have no significant figures to go by, express your answer to TWO decimal places with the %
sign.

The use of percentages is a common way of expressing the concentration of a solution. The percentages can
be calculated using volumes as well as weights, or even both together.

Example 1:

Atomic mass of H 2x1

% composition of H in H2O = x 100 = x 100 = 11%
molar mass of water 18

Atomic mass of O 16
% composition of O in H2O = x 100 = x 100 = 88.9 %
molar mass of water 18

Practice:

1- Find the percentage composition by mass of sodium carbonate Na2CO3:

2. Find the percentage of nitrogen by mass in ammonium nitrate NH4NO3.

3. Find the percentage composition by mass of aluminum oxalate Al2(C2O4)3.

46
 XI- Empirical Formulas & Molecular Formula

A- Empirical Formulas

These are formulas which have been reduced to their lowest terms (we write all formulas for
ionic compounds as empirical formulas).

Empirical formulas can be calculated from 2 types of data:

a. you may be given the percentage of each element present in the compound

b. you may be give the actual number of grams of each element present in the compound

Here are the steps to follow to determine an empirical formula:

1. Take either the GRAMS of each element given or the PERCENTAGE of each element given and

divide it by the atomic mass of that element. Leave the result of each division in AT LEAST 4
SIG FIGS.

2. Compare all the results from Step 1 by selecting the SMALLEST value and dividing ALL
values by this smallest one.
3. The results of Step 2 will either be VERY close to whole numbers or will be
recognizable mixed number fractions (decimals such as 1.5, 2.333, 6.67, etc).

4. If any result from Step 3 is a mixed number, you must multiply ALL values by some
number to make it a whole number. Ex: 1.33 x 3, 2.25 x 4, 2.50 x 2, etc.

5. Use these whole number results as SUBSCRIPTS and write the empirical formula, listing the
elements in the order they are given in the problem. (HINT: don’t be surprised if the

subscripts in some formulas are VERY large-many organic molecules are huge)

47
Example 1:

100. grams of a compound contains 22.430 grams of carbon, 6.542 grams of hydrogen, 44.8598
grams of oxygen and 26.1682 grams of nitrogen. Find the empirical formula

C H O N

Find mole: 22.430 6.542 grams 44.8598 grams 26. 1682 grams

12 1 16 14
= 1.869 = 6.542 2.803 1.896

Divide by the 1.869 =1 6.542 = 3.500 2.803 = 1.499 1.896 = 1.014

smallest number
1.869 1.869 1.869 1.869
Multiply by 2

To get a whole 2C 7H 3O 2N
number H & O

Empirical
Formula
C2H7O3N2

Example 2:

Find the empirical formula for a compound which contains 26.8% Sn, 16.0% Cl and 57.2% I

48
B. Molecular Formulas –

are either the same as it’s experimentally determined empirical formula or it’s some whole number

multiple of it.

To determine the molecular formula, you must know the compound’s empirical formula AND the
molar mass of the molecular compound.

How to find the molecular formula:

1. Calculate the mass of the empirical formula (which you have already found or it will be given to
you )

2. Divide the known molar mass of the molecular formula by the molar mass of the empirical
formula.

3. Multiply that number by the subscripts of the empirical formula to get the subscripts for the
molecular formula.

Example 3:

The molar mass of a compound is 181.50 g/mol and the empirical formula is C2HCl. What is the

molecular formula?

MM of the compound = 181.50 g/mol

MM of the Empirical Formula C2HCl = 60.5 g/mol

Ratio: 181.50 g/mol / 60.5 g/mol = 3

The MF will be = 3(C2HCl) = C6H3Cl3

Example 4:

A sample with a molar mass of 34.00 g/mol is found to consist of 0.44g H and 6.92g O.

Find its molecular formula.

49
 H O

Find mole: 0.44 grams 6.92 grams

1 16
= 0.44 0.4325

Divide by the smallest 0.44 = 1 0.4325 = 1

0.4325 0.4325
number

Multiply by 2
To get a whole number 1H 1O
H&O
Empirical Formula HO
Molar Mass = 1 + 16 = 17 g/mole

Molecular Formula 34 / 17 = 2
‫ ؞‬H2O2

1- Find the empirical formula for a compound containing only carbon and hydrogen if it is
known to contain 84.21% carbon.

b. If the molar mass is 114 g/mol, what is the molecular formula of this compound?

50
2- Caffeine has the following percent composition: carbon 49.48%, hydrogen 5.19%, oxygen
16.48% and nitrogen 28.85%. Its molecular weight is 194.19 g/mol. What is the empirical
formula?What is its molecular formula? Empirical formula is C4H5N2O
The molecular formula is C8H10N4O2

3- What are the empirical and molecular formulas for a compound with 86.88% carbon and
13.12% hydrogen and a molecular weight of about 345?

4- What are the empirical and molecular formulas for a compound with 83.625% carbon and
16.375% hydrogen and a molecular weight of 388.78?

5- A compound composed of sulfur and fluorine is found to contain 25.24% by mass of sulfur.
If the molar mass of the compound is 254.11 g/mol, what is the molecular formula?

Empirical formula is SF5

The molecular formula is S2F10

51
 XII- Stoichiometry

Mole = mass / MM Dilution Reactions:

M1 V1 = M2 V2 M1 V1 = M2 V2

n1 n2

Mole = M x VL Acid Base: Number of atoms or Molecules =

moles x Avogadro's number =
Ma Va = Mb Vb
Moles x 6.02 x1023
na nb

Part 1: Mole ←→ Mass Conversions

I- Convert the following number of moles of chemical into its corresponding

mass in grams.

1. 0.436 moles of ammonium chloride

2. 2.360 moles of lead (II) oxide

3. 0.031 moles of aluminium iodide

4. 1.077 moles of magnesium phosphate

5. 0.50 moles of calcium nitrate

II- Convert the following masses into their corresponding number of moles.

6. 23.5 g of sodium chloride

7. 0.778 g of sodium cyanide

8. 0.250 g of water

9. 169.45 g of calcium acetate

10. 79.9 g of potassium permanganate

52
Part 2: Moles ←→ Number of Particles Conversions

II- Convert the following number of moles into their corresponding

number of particles.

11. 0.0455 moles of hydrochloric acid

12. 1.2 moles of glucose (C6H12O6)

13. 0.32 moles of sodium bicarbonate

Part 3: Preparation of solutions

1. What mass of solute is needed to prepare each of the following solutions?

a. 1.00 L of 0.125 M K2SO4 21.75 g K2SO4

b. 375 mL of 0.015 M NaF 0.236 g NaF

c. 500 mL of 0.350 M C6H12O6 31.5 g C6H12O6

Part 4: Molarity Calculation

1- Calculate the molarity of each of the following solutions:

a. 12.4 g KCl in 289.2 mL solution 0.576 M KCl

b. 16.4 g CaCl2 in 0.614 L solution 0.241 M CaCl2

c. 48.0 mL of 6.00 M H2SO4 diluted to 0.250 L 1.15 M H2SO4

53
Part 5: Dilution Problems

Problem #1: If you dilute 175 mL of a 1.6 M solution of LiCl to 1.0 L, determine the new
concentration of the solution.

Solution:

M1V1 = M2V2

(1.6 mol/L) (175 mL) = (x) (1000 mL)

x = 0.28 M
Note that 1000 mL was used rather than 1.0 L. Remember to keep the volume units consistent.

Problem #2: You need to make 10.0 L of 1.2 M KNO3. What molarity would the potassium
nitrate solution need to be if you were to use only 2.5 L of it?

Solution:

M1V1 = M2V2
(x) (2.5 L) = (1.2 mol/L) (10.0 L)

x = 4.8 M

Problem #3: How many milliliters of 5.0 M copper(II) sulfate solution must be added to 160 mL
of water to achieve a 0.30 M copper(II) sulfate solution?

Solution:

M1V1 = M2V2
(5.00 mol/L) (x) = (0.3 mol/L) (160 + x)

5x = 48 + 0.3x
4.7x = 48 x = 10. mL
The solution to this problem assumes that the volumes are additive. That's the '160 + x' that is V2.

54
Practice Dilution Problems
2- How would you prepare 400 ml of a 0.24 M NaCl solution (MW = 58.44 g/mole)?

5.61 g NaCl dissolved

in/brought up to 400 ml water

2. How would you prepare 750 ml of a 0.35 M Na2PO4 solution (MW = 141.96 g/mole)?

(37.265 g Na2PO4 brought up to 750 ml water)

3. How would you prepare 225 ml of a 0.15 M citric acid solution (453.6 g/mole)?

(15.309 g citric acid brought up to 225 ml water )

4. What volume of stock 0.24 M NaCl is needed to prepare 75 ml of 0.1 M NaCl?

31.25 ml of stock NaCl

5. What volume of stock 0.35 M Na2PO4 is needed to prepare 150 ml of 0.2 M Na2PO4?

85.714 ml of stock Na2PO4

6. What volume of stock 0.15 M citric acid is needed to prepare 230 ml of 2.5x10‐3 M citric acid?

3.833 ml of stock citric acid

7. How much (ml) 3x10‐3 M Na2PO4 can be prepared from 20 ml of 0.2 M Na2PO4?

V = 1333.33 ml

55
Part 6- Acid Base Titration Problems

Example #1: If 20.60 mL of 0.0100 M aqueous HCl is required to titrate 30.00 mL of an aqueous
solution of NaOH to the equivalence point, what is the molarity of the NaOH solution?

HCl + NaOH ---> NaCl + H2O

Ma Va Mb Vb

na nb
HCl : NaOH = 1:1

Where Ma, Va and Mb, Vb are respectively molarity and volume of acid and base used.
(0.0100 mol/L) (20.60 mL) = Mb (30.00 mL)
1 1

Mb = 0.00687 M

Example #2: 27.0 mL of 0.310 M NaOH is titrated with 0.740 M H2SO4. How many mL of H2SO4
are needed to reach the end point?

2NaOH + H2SO4 ---> Na2SO4 + 2H2O

Ma Va Mb Vb

na nb
0.740 mol/L x Va ml = 0.310 mol/L x 27.0 ml
1 2

Va = 5.66 ml

56
 Practice Problems Acid -Base Titration

1- How many milliliters of 0.105 M HCl are needed to titrate 22.5 mL of 0.118 M NH3 to the
equivalence point:

HCl + NH3 ---> NH4Cl V HCl= 25.3 ml

2- H2SO4 reacts with NaOH, producing water and sodium sulfate. What volume of 2.00 M
NaOH will be required to react completely with 75.0 mL of 0.500 M H2SO4? (37.5 mL)

2NaOH + H2SO4 ---> Na2SO4 + 2H2O

3- How many milliliters of 0.116 M H2SO4 will be needed to titrate 25.0 mL of 0.00840 Ba(OH)2
to the equivalence point. H2SO4 + Ba(OH)2 ---> BaSO4 + 2H2O (V = 1.81 ml)

4- A solution of 0.3094 M KOH is used to neutralize 19.50 mL of a H3PO4 solution. If 28.93 mL

of the KOH solution is required to reach the endpoint, what is the molarity of the H3PO4
solution? H3PO4(aq) + 3KOH(aq) ---> K3PO4(aq) + 3H2O(ℓ) (0.1503 M)

5- If 32.8 mL of a 0.162 M NaOH solution is required to titrate 25.0 mL of a solution of H2SO4,

what is the molarity of the H2SO4 solution? (0.106 M)

2NaOH + H2SO4 ---> Na2SO4 + 2H2O

6- What is the concentration of a Ca(OH)2 solution if 10.0 ml of 0.600 M H3PO4 solution is

required to completely neutralize 12.5 ml of the Ca(OH)2 solution? (0.720 M)

3Ca(OH)2 + 2H3PO4 ---> Ca3(PO4)2 + 6H2O

57
Part 7: Solve the following stoichiometry grams-grams problems:

1- How many grams of potassium chloride are produced if 25 g of potassium chlorate decompose?

2KClO3 → 2KCl + 3O2

Part 8: Solve the following stoichiometry mixed problems:

2- How many moles of O2 can be produced by reacting 12.0 moles of KClO3?

Given the following equation:

2 KClO3 → 2 KCl + 3 O2 18.0 mol O2

3- How many grams of KCl (74.55 g/mol) is produced from 2.50 mol of K?

Given the following equation: 2 K + Cl2 → 2 KCl 186 g KCl

4- How many grams of KCl (74.55 g/mol) is produced from 106 g of Cl2?

Given the following equation: 2 K + Cl2 → 2 KCl 223 g KCl

5- How many grams of NaOH (40.00 g/mol) is produced from 120 grams of Na2O (61.98
g/mol)? 155 g NaOH

Given the following equation: Na2O + H2O → 2 NaOH

58
 6- How many moles of Na2O are required to produce 160 grams of NaOH (40.00 g/mol)?
Na2O + H2O --> 2NaOH 2.00 mol Na2O

7- What mass of iron, Fe, is needed to react with 16.0 grams of sulfur, S8 (256.48 g/mole)?

Given the following equation: 8 Fe + S8 → 8 FeS 27.9 g Fe

8- How many grams of iron, Fe, are reacted to form 16.0 grams of FeS (87.91 g/mol)?

Given the following equation: 8 Fe + S8 → 8 FeS 10.2 g Fe

9- 12.0 moles of NaClO3 will produce how many grams of O2? 576 g O2

Given the following equation: 2 NaClO3 → 2 NaCl + 3 O2

10- How many grams of NaCl (58.44 g/mol) are produced when 80.0 grams
of O2 are produced? Given the following equation:
2 NaClO3 → 2 NaCl + 3 O2 97.4 g NaCl

11- How many moles of Cu are needed to react with 350 g AgNO3 (169.88 g/mol)?
Given the following equation: Cu + 2 AgNO3 → Cu(NO3)2 + 2 Ag 1.03 mol Cu

12- If 89.5 grams of Ag were produced, how many grams of Cu reacted?

Given the following equation: Cu + 2 AgNO3 → Cu(NO3)2 + 2 Ag 26.4 g Cu

13- How many grams of silver chloride are produced from 5.0 g of silver nitrate reacting with an
excess of barium chloride?
2AgNO3 + BaCl2 → 2AgCl + Ba(NO3)2

59
14- How many grams of sodium sulfate will be formed if you start with 200 grams of sodium
hydroxide and you have an excess of sulfuric acid? (355.3g Na2SO4)
Using the following equation:
2 NaOH + H2SO4 → 2 H2O + Na2SO4

15- How many grams of lithium nitrate will be needed to make 250 grams of lithium sulfate,
assuming that you have an adequate amount of lead (IV) sulfate to do the reaction?
(386.3g of LiNO3)
Using the following equation: Pb(SO4)2 + 4 LiNO3 → Pb(NO3)4 + 2 Li2SO4

16- Calculate how many grams of iron can be made from 16.5 grams of Fe2O3 by the
following equation.

Fe2O3 + 3 H2 -------------> 2 Fe + 3 H2O

60
 XIII- The Limiting Reagent

Although the chemical reaction can describe the ratio of reactants needed, that is not the same

as the amount of reactants available. Since all reactants must be present for the reaction to occur,
if one of the reactants gets used up, the reaction will stop regardless of how much of the other

reactants may be available. The reactant that gets used up first is called the limiting reactant.
Since the reaction stops when the limiting reactant is gone, the limiting reactant determines how

much product is made.

Worked example
Sulfuric acid (H2SO4 ) reacts with ammonia (NH3) to produce the fertilizer ammonium sulfate
((NH4)2SO4 according to the following equation:

H2SO4(aq)+2NH3(g)→(NH4)2SO4(aq)
A factory worker carries out the above reaction (using 2,0kg of sulfuric acid and 1,0 kg of

ammonia) and gets 2,5 kg of ammonium sulfate.

a) Determine which is the limiting reagent

b) What is the percentage yield of the reaction?

Solution:
H2SO4(aq) + 2NH3(g) → (NH4)2SO4(aq)
2g 1g 2.5 g obtained

Mole of H2SO4 mole of NH3 =

2/ 98.08 = 0.0204 mole 1/ 17 = 0.05882 mole

a) Determine LR:
acid mole / acid coefficient mole of NH3/ NH3 coefficient mole (NH4)2SO4 = 0.0204

0.0204 / 1 = 0.0204 mole < 0.05882 / 2 = 0.02941 mole Theoretical yield = n x MM

⸪ H2SO4 is the LR 0.0204 x 132.14 = 2.6956g

% yield = [2.5g/2.6956g]x100

= 92.74 %

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 Practice Problems: Limiting Reagents

1- If the reaction has 35.4 g of CO and 10.2 g of H2 how many grams of CH3OH will be
produced? CO + 2H2 --> CH3OH (40.5 g)

2- If 5.00 g magnesium is combined with 10.0 g of Chlorine, show by calculation which

substance is the limiting reactant, and calculate the theoretical yield of magnesium chloride for
the reaction.

Mg (s) + Cl2 (g) ---> MgCl2 Cl2 is the limiting reagent.

Theoretical yield MgCl2 = 13.4 g

3- The reaction of 4.25 g of Cl2 with 2.20 g of P4 produces 4.28 g of PCl5. What is the percent
yield? Cl2 is the limiting reagent.
P4 + 10Cl2 ---> 4PCl5 0.0239754 mol of PCl5 produced
4.99 g of PCl5
% yield: 85.8%

62
4. Take the reaction: NH3 + O2 NO + H2O. In an experiment, 3.25 g of NH3 are allowed to
react with 3.50 g of O2.

a. Which reactant is the limiting reagent? O2

b. How many grams of NO are formed? 2.63 g NO

5. If 4.95 g of ethylene (C2H4) are combusted with 3.25 g of oxygen.

a. What is the limiting reagent? O2

b. How many grams of CO2 are formed? 2.98 g CO2

6. Consider the reaction of C6H6 + Br2 C6H5Br + HBr

a. What is the theoretical yield of C6H5Br if 42.1 g of C6H6 react with 73.0 g of Br2?
71.6 g C6H5Br

b. If the actual yield of C6H5Br is 63.6 g, what is the percent yield? 88.8%

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