Journal of Manufacturing Processes 45 (2019) 115–122

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Journal of Manufacturing Processes

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/manpro

Joining of Zr60Ti17Cu12Ni11 bulk metallic glass and aluminum 1060 by T

underwater explosive welding method
Liang Hanlianga, Luo Ninga, , Li Xiaojieb, Sun Xina, Shen Taoa, Ma Zhanguoa
⁎

a
State Key Laboratory For Geo-mechanics and Deep Underground Engineering, School of Mechanics and Civil Engineering, China University of Mining and Technology,
Xuzhou, 221116, China
b
Department of Engineering Mechanics, Dalian University of Technology, Dalian, 116024, China

ARTICLE INFO ABSTRACT

Keywords: The Zr60Ti17Cu12Ni11 bulk metallic glass (Zr-based BMG) and Aluminum 1060 plates were welded by the un-
Zr-based bulk metallic glass derwater explosive welding technique using varied-thickness ammonium fuel oil (ANFO) explosive. The inter-
Composite material facial microstructure characterization and the element composition of the obtained composites were char-
Underwater explosive welding acterized using optical microscopy (OM), scanning electron microscopy (SEM) with element analysis, high-
Weldability window
resolution transmission electron microscopy (HRTEM) and micro-hardness tester. The weldability window was
Interface microstructure
calculated to verify the weldability of Zr-based BMG/Al, and the effects of varied-thickness explosive on the
welded interface were discussed based on the kinetic energy loss theory. The results indicated that the under-
water explosive welding technique is an effective way to produce Zr-based BMG/Al composites. The Zr-based
BMG and Al plates were successfully welded without visible defects and formed about 7 μm thick transition
layer. The hardness of Zr-based BMG and Al increases near the joining interface. The obtained experimental
results are in consistent with the theoretical calculation results.

1. Introduction welded together at an atomic scale. Jiang et al. [6] welded

Bulk metallic glasses (BMGs) are of commercial interest because of
their unique properties, such as high hardness, excellent corrosion re-
sistance, superior strength and high elastic limit as compared with
conventional metals [1,2].Due to their disordered atomic structure and
excellent properties, BMGs have shown wide potential applications in
different industries, such as soft magnetic materials and protective
materials. [3–5]. However, the crystallization and fragility of BMGs
during joining with crystalline materials is still a huge challenge for
most techniques [6]. To extend the industrial applications of BMGs,
various welding techniques have been developed, including electron
beam welding [7–10], friction welding [11,12], laser welding [13–15]
magnetic pulse welding [16] and explosive welding [17]. Among these
techniques, as a solid-state welding process, explosive welding can
realize a large-scale joining of both similar and dissimilar metals in one
step [18–21]. As compared with other welding techniques, explosive
welding also shows a significant advantage, that is the non-crystalline
structure can be preserved during the explosive welding process [6].
Up to date, some researchers have studied the joining of BMGs with
dissimilar metals by explosive welding technique. Liu et al. [17] welded
Ti40Zr25Cu12Ni3Be20 BMG with 1060 Al and found that the plates are
Zr41.2Ti13.8Cu12.5Ni10.0Be22.5 with Cu-based crystalline alloy by thick-
walled cylinder explosion and achieved a strong metallurgical bonding.
Feng et al. [22] welded Zr53Cu35Al12 bulk metallic glass with Cu by
explosive welding technique. After welding, they found that the BMG
was successfully welded with Cu without visible defects, and a diffusion
layer formed at the interface. All of the results confirmed that explosive
welding technique is an effective method to realize the joining of BMGs
with dissimilar metals.
However, the conventional explosive welding is generally carried
out in an open air environment, which poses some disadvantages to
nature environments, for instance, loud noise, air pollution, severe vi-
bration and so on. Sun et al. [23] reported that the thin foils destroys
because of the force of explosion and high temperature during the
traditional air explosive welding. Compared with traditional explosive
welding, underwater explosive welding has its unique advantages. That
is, the environmental pollution and vibration can be greatly reduced.
On the other hand, the water acts as a pressure transmitting medium.
The density of water is 800 times higher than that of air, however, the
air is around 20,000 times more compressible than water. Accordingly,
water can be considered incompressible compared with air [23,24].
This ensures that the explosion forces do not produce high temperature

⁎
Corresponding author.
E-mail address: nluo@cumt.edu.cn (L. Ning).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jmapro.2019.06.035
Received 3 March 2019; Received in revised form 22 June 2019; Accepted 29 June 2019
Available online 09 July 2019
1526-6125/ © 2019 The Society of Manufacturing Engineers. Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
L. Hanliang, et al.
Fig. 1. The XRD pattern of Zr-based BMG plate.
in water, but allow the water propagate explosion force to weld the
flyer plate and base plate. The underwater explosive welding can ensure
that the bulk metal glasses do not crystallize during the welding of bulk
metal glasses with other dissimilar materials.
In this paper, the composite plates of Zr-based BMG and pure alu-
minum were obtained using underwater explosive welding technique
with varied-thickness ANFO explosive. After welding, the interfacial
microstructure characterization and the element composition of the
obtained composites were investigated using OM, SEM with elemental
analysis, HRTEM and micro-hardness tester. The weldability window
was calculated to verify the weldability of Zr-based BMG/Al, and the
effects of varied-thickness explosive on the welded interface were dis-
cussed based on the kinetic energy loss theory.
2. Experimental procedures
The Zr60Ti17Cu12Ni11 (at.%) BMG (160 mm X 140 mm X 5 mm) and
pure aluminum (160 mm X 140 mm X 3 mm) plates were prepared for
underwater explosive welding. The amorphous nature of the Zr-based
BMG was confirmed by X-ray diffraction (XRD) in a Bruker D8 Advance
diffractometer with Cu Ka radiation. As shown in Fig. 1, the XRD pat-
tern shows only broad diffraction maxima, and there are no visible
peaks of crystalline phase, indicating an amorphous structure. As illu-
strated in Fig. 2, the flyer plate and base plate were set above a stainless
steel anvil with a fixed stand-off distance at 5 mm using spacers placed
at the edges. The air gap between the bonded plates was sealed against
Fig. 2. The schematic diagram of underwater explosive welding experiments.
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Journal of Manufacturing Processes 45 (2019) 115–122
Table 1
The related material parameters used for calculating weldability window.
Material (kg•m−3) Hv (MPa) Thickness (mm)
Al 2700 110 3
Zr-based BMG 5640 1740 5
water. The water depth from the explosive to the flyer plate was set to
30 mm using spacers placed. A special mixed ANFO explosive was
employed. The density of ANFO explosive is about 0.7 g/cm3 and the
detonation velocity is approximately 2600 m/s. The ANFO explosive
need to be placed in high-wall open boxes and was not fully submerged
in the water because it cannot be detonated under the water. In order to
study the effect of explosive thickness on welded interface, three dif-
ferent explosive thickness was designed. The thickness of explosive was
adjusted from 20 to 40 mm. The detonation velocity was measured by
recording the time interval between two probes. By detonating the
electric detonator, the underwater shock wave drove the flyer plate to
the base plate and made two materials join together.
To investigate the microstructure characteristics of the joining in-
terface, the specimen was cut from the resulted product parallel to the
explosion direction after welding. The cross-section of the specimen
was polished using emery papers up to 3000 grit followed by diamond
polishing using 1 µm diamond slurries. A HNL 300 TP L type optical
microscope was used for the microstructure characteristic. Higher re-
solution examination of the specimen was carried out using a FEI
Quanta TM 250 scanning electron microscope (SEM) at 30 kV with
Point element analysis, Line scanning analysis and Mappings. The high-
resolution transmission electron microscope (HRTEM) observations
were carried out using a FEI Tecnai G2 20 S-Twin transmission electron
microscope, the HRTEM specimen was prepared by focused ion beam
(FIB) system (FEI Quanta 3D FEG). The micro-hardness experiments
were carried out using a HVS-1000A type micro-hardness testing ma-
chine (load: 4.903 N/1KG; loading time: 10 s).
3. Results and discussion
3.1. Underwater explosive weldability window theory
During the explosive welding process, explosive detonation drived
the flyer plate to a certain speed, and the accelerated flyer plate at a
velocity VP collided with the base plate at a collision angle [25]. The
collision velocity VP and the collision angle are proportional based on
the following formula.
L. Hanliang, et al. Journal of Manufacturing Processes 45 (2019) 115–122

Table 2
Three different underwater explosive welding experimental conditions.
Test no. Flyer plate thickness (mm) Base plate thickness (mm) Stand-off distance (mm) Water depth (mm) Explosive thickness (mm)

a 3 5 5 30 20
b 3 5 5 30 30
c 3 5 5 30 40

Table 3
Three different thickness explosive weldability window calculation results.
Test no. Flyer plate velocity, Vp (m/s) Collision angle, (°) Collision point velocity, Vc (m/s) Kinetic energy loss, KE (MJ/m2)

a 900 22.6 2300 2.55

b 937 23.0 2350 2.76
c 970 23.3 2400 2.96

Fig. 3. Before and after welding characteristics of Zr-based BMG plate and Zr-
based BMG/Al compsites (a) Photograph of the Zr-based BMG plate before
Fig. 4. SEM images of welded interface under different explosive thickness
welding (b) The specimen of the Zr-based BMG/Al compsite plate cut parallel to
conditions (a) 20 mm explosive thickness condition, (b) 30 mm explosive
detonation direction (c) Optical micrograph of the welded interface.
thickness condition, (c) 40 mm explosive thickness condition.

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L. Hanliang, et al. Journal of Manufacturing Processes 45 (2019) 115–122

Fig. 5. (a) Weldability window of Zr-based BMG/Al showing lower limit and kinetic energy loss, (b) Magnified view of weldability window for Zr-based BMG/Al
joints using three different explosive thickness.

VP = 2VC sin
2 (1)
Where VC is collision point velocity toward horizontal direction.
The collision angle was calculated based on the following equa-
tion [26].

k+1 r
= 1 • •
k 1 2 r + 2.71 + 0.184te /s (2)
Where r is the loading ratio (mass of the explosive for unit mass of flyer
plate), te is the thickness of the explosive layer and s is the stand-off
distance between flyer plate and base plate. The parameter ‘k ’ in Eq.(2)
ranges from 1.96 to 2.6 depending on the thickness of the explosive
[26].
The energy that the bonding interface achieved is a very significant
factor contributing to the welded quality of explosive welding. In the
process of collision, the kinetic energy of the flyer plate is converted into
other forms of energy, which produce high pressure at the bonding in-
terface. The metals flows in the impact region because of the very high
Fig. 6. High-resolution SEM image of the Zr-based BMG/Al welded interface.
pressure, and promote solid-state welding [25]. To calculated the kinetic
energy lost by collision, the following equation was adopted [27].

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L. Hanliang, et al. Journal of Manufacturing Processes 45 (2019) 115–122

Fig. 7. Line scan analysis across the bonding interface from Al to Zr-based BMG plate.

Fig. 8. Point element analysis of the welded interface.

mD mC Vp2 energy is lower than the regular cases. The upper limit may not be
KE = considered during the design process of welding parameters [28]. The
2(mD + mC ) (3)
lower limit should be considered carefully, which was calculated using
Where mD is the mass of the flyer plate per unit area (kg/m2), mC is the the following empirical equation.
mass of the collided plate per unit area (kg/m2).
Hv
In the conventional explosive welding theory, the upper limit and sin = k1
the lower limit all should be considered to achieve the successful 2 Vc2 (4)
welding. However, in the case of underwater explosive welding tech-
Where, Hv is the Vickers hardness, is the density. The value of k1 is 0.6.
nique, because the thickness of the plates are very thin, so the kinetic
The related material parameters used for calculating weldability

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L. Hanliang, et al.
Fig. 9. Elemental mappings of the welded interface.
Fig. 10. HRTEM image of Zr-based BMG/Al welded interface and corre-
sponding SAED patterns (a) HRTEM image of Zr-based BMG/Al welded inter-
face, (b) the SAED patterns of the upper part of interlayer, (c) The SAED pat-
terns of interlayer, (d) The SAED patterns of the lower part of interlayer.
window are showed in Table 1. The experimental conditions, collision
point velocity Vc , collision angle , the velocity of flyer plate Vp and the
kinetic energy loss KE are given in Table 2 and Table 3.
Using the underwater explosive welding technique, the Zr-based
BMG and Al plates are successfully welded together. Fig. 3a shows the
Zr-based BMG plate before welding. After welding, the specimen was
cut parallel to detonation direction as shown in Fig. 3b, and no visible
cracks appeared at the Zr-based BMG side. In Fig. 3c, the optical me-
tallographic micrograph of the welded interface presents an almost flat
structure, and no obvious defects or pores are found at or near the
joining interface.
Interfaces of Zr-based BMG/Al plates welded under different ex-
plosive thickness of 20, 30, and 40 mm are shown in Fig. 4. As shown in
Fig.4a, an almost flat interface has been formed when the explosive
thickness is 20 mm, and no apparent transition layer are formed. Fig. 4b
shows the welded interface under the explosive thickness of 30 mm. An
apparent transition layer was formed at the welded interface, and no
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Journal of Manufacturing Processes 45 (2019) 115–122
obvious defects like cracks or pores are found. As shown in Fig. 4c,
when the explosive thickness inceeased to 40 mm, cracks are found in
the side of Zr-based BMG plate due to the tensile residual stress caused
during the cooling process. Hokamoto has also reported that cracks
were found in such molten zone at the side of amorphous after welding
[28].
Fig. 5 shows the weldability window with the lower limit drawn for
the present experiments and the kinetic energy loss KE . The three
points a, b and c respresent three experimental conditions of explosive
thickness 20, 30 and 40 mm respectively. The collision point velocity Vc
and the collision angle were calculated and the values were found to
be 2300 m/s, 2350 m/s, 2400 m/s and 22.6°, 23.0°, 23.3°. All three
points are above the lower limit, which indicated that underwater ex-
plosive welding technique is successful in welding Al/Zr-based BMG
plate. The kinetic energy loss under three different explosive thickness
were 2.55 MJ/m2, 2.76 MJ/m2 and 2.96 MJ/m2 respectively. With the
increased of the kinetic energy loss, the welded interface shows dif-
ferent characteristics. For more detailed discussions, further experi-
ments should be made in future.
3.2. Microstructure, elemental analysis and TEM tests of welded interface
In order to obtained high magnification figures, SEM was used to
characterize the welded interface. According to Fig.6, an visible tran-
sition layer with a thickness of approximate 7 μm has been formed,
indicating the formation of a metallurgical bonding interface. For fur-
ther study of the transition layer, Line scan analysis across the welded
interface from Al to Zr-based BMG side was conducted as shown in
Fig. 7. The result indicates that the width of the transition layer is ap-
proximate 7 μm, which is consistent with the size in SEM micrograph.
The change of elements composition is expressed linearly with different
color in Fig. 7. In regions far away from the bonding interface, the
elements composition of Al and Zr-based BMG remain almost un-
changed. However, as the distance from the bonding interface de-
creases, the concentration of elements gradually changed from one side
to the other, which indicates that the phenomenon of elemental
L. Hanliang, et al.
Fig. 11. Hardness profile across the welded interface (the position X = 0 cor-
responds to the interface).
diffusion may appears between Zr-based BMG and Al. In the explosive
welding theory, the inter-diffusion is a significant factor during the
welding of dissimilar metals, and the welding quality is related to the
atomic diffusion across the bonding interface. During the welding
process, high temperature will be generated at the joining interface due
to explosive detonation, which makes the welding metals melt at the
joining interface, thus the phenomenon of elemental diffusion may
occurs [29].
To confirm the composition of elements at both side of the welded
interface and the transition layer, the point element analysis was con-
ducted. As shown in Fig. 8, the point 1 at the aluminum side consists of
97.95% Al and 2.05% Si. The point 2 at the transition layer consists of
55.02% Zr, 16.01% Ti, 11.51% Cu, 9.74% Ni and 7.72% Al (in atomic
percent). The point 3 at the Zr-based BMG side consists of 60% Zr,
17.36% Ti, 11.8% Cu and 10.84% Ni. The differences in elements
composition between point 2 and 3 indicate that the phenomenon of
elemental diffusion may occurs at the bonding interface during the
welding process.
The bonding interface was also characterized by elemental map-
pings. Fig. 9 shows the mapping of the Zr, Cu, Ti, Ni and Al elements in
different colors respectively. The elements of Zr, Cu, Ti and Ni at the Zr-
based BMG side diffused to the aluminum side and the element of Al
diffused to the Zr-based BMG side. In the bonding interface, these ele-
ments mixed and formed the transition layer. The elemental mapping
results were in consistent of the point element analysis and the line
scanning analysis.
To inspect the phase nature of the Zr-based BMG after underwater
explosive welding, the specimen of the Zr-based BMG/Al was prepared
by FIB for HRTEM observation. Three positions, corresponding to the
upper part of the interlayer, the interlayer and the lower part of the
interlayer, were chosen for electron diffraction tests. As shown in
Fig. 10b, the selected area electron diffraction (SAED) patterns shows a
typical crystalline lattice structure of Al phase. In Fig. 10c, due to the
atomic inter-diffusion, the SAED patterns taken from the interlayer
show a mixed phase consisting of lattice structure and an inapparent
halo ring, which is different from the Al side or Zr-based BMG side,
indicating that the interlayer may crystallize and have nanocrystals. In
Fig.10d, SAED patterns only have halo ring, suggesting that the Zr-
based BMG retains amorphous structure after underwater explosive
welding.
To evaluate the mechanical property of the welded samples, the
Vickers hardness of the welded samples and the as received Zr-based
BMG were measured using a micro-hardness tester. As shown in Fig.11,
the hardness of welding transition zone increases slightly than that of Al
interface, but it is still much smaller than that of Zr-based BMG side
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Journal of Manufacturing Processes 45 (2019) 115–122
interface, which is mainly due to the work hardening occurred near the
joining interface from the detonation shockwaves [30]. Otherwise, Liu
et al [17] has also studied the mechanical property of Al/
Ti60Zr25Cu12Ni3Be20 welded samples using nanomechanical tester, and
find that the hardness of Al and BMG increases near the joining inter-
face after explosive welding. The experimental results are basically si-
milar to that, and the subsequent research on the evolution mechanism
will be further revealed.
4. Conclusions
The Zr60Ti17Cu12Ni11 BMG and Al composite plates were success-
fully achieved by underwater explosive welding using varied-thickness
ANFO explosive. Three different interfacial microstructure character-
istics composites were obtained. By contrasting the interfacial micro-
structure characteristics, the obtained Zr-based BMG/Al composite
plate using 30 mm thickness explosive has better weld quality com-
pared with the other two conditions. A flat and defect-free bonding
interface was formed with about 7 μm thick transition layer between
two different plates. HRTEM analysis revealed that the interlayer
crystallized during the welding process. The micro-hardness experiment
results indicated that the hardness of Al and Zr-based BMG increases
near the joining interface than Al side interface. The weldability
window was also calculated to verify the weldability of Zr-based BMG/
Al, and the effects of varied-thickness explosive on the welded interface
were discussed based on the kinetic energy loss theory. To further
study, the numerical simulation and more comparative experiments
will be conducted in the future.
Declaration of Competing Interest
☒ The authors declare that they have no known competing financial
interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influ-
ence the work reported in this paper.
☐The authors declare the following financial interests/personal re-
lationships which may be considered as potential competing interests:
Acknowledgements
This research was financially supported by the Fundamental
Research Fund for the Central Universities No. 2017XKQY013. The
authors are grateful to the Advanced Analysis and Computation Center
of China University of Mining and Technology.
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