Geography summary 2

2.1
24-25
Moving plates
the Earth’s crust is the outer layer of the earth on which we walk. The earths crust is 10 to 40
kilometers thick and consists of dry soil and stones. The earth’s mantle begins under that layer. It
consist red-hot rock. The top part of the mantle is so hot that it is molten: more than a thousand
degrees Celsius. It is a syrupy mass that is called Magma. When this mass emerges above the earth’s
crust, it is called lava. The bottom part of the mantle is much hotter, but the pressure at this depth is
so high that the rocks remains solid. the core an iron ball with a diameter of 4,700 kilometers and a
temperature of more than five thousand degrees Celsius.
https://youtu.be/hmgR4PiGp1E

People thought that the map of the world as we know it was always like that. German geologist
Alfred Wegener thought differently. He noticed that many continents would fit together well, such as
South America and Africa. There were also fossils found of the Mesosaurus in Africa and South
America, the Mesosaurus was a freshwater reptile and could never swum across the ocean. Wegener
conclusions: the animals ancestors must have once have shared one great prehistoric continent.
Wegener called the prehistoric continent Pangea. Parts (plates) of Pangea drifted apart. This process
is called plate tectonics.

But Weneger could not prove his theorem. The problem was that he could not explain which
enormous force causes continents to move. Around thirty years after his death, someone could. The
driving force behind the plate tectonics is the convection current. The warmth in the earth’s core
causes magma in the mantle to expand. This makes the magma lighter and it rises, like a hot air
balloon. When the magma reaches the earths crust it can only flow sideways. The plates then float
on the stream of magma like on a conveyor belt. The magma rises up where two plates drift apart, it
solidifies and creates a new piece of crust. Elsewhere sections of the earth curst disappear.
https://youtu.be/MmMX83diwl0

2.2
26-27
Plate boundaries
The earth’s crust consists of loose plates that are always moving. On the boundary of two plates (the
fault line) three kinds of movement are possible: https://youtu.be/zbtAXW-2nz0
https://youtu.be/oCPjgv2Pccc

1. Convergent plate movements: plates move towards each other.

2. Divergent plate movements: plates move away from each other.
3. Transform plate movements: plates move past each other.

2
3

Convergent and transform boundaries experience strong earthquakes. Convergent plates push
up against each other and sometimes move on with rukken. Transform plates rarely are as
straight as shown, usually the plates have jagged edges and grind past each other with much
friction, they become stuck, build up pressure and then move on with a ruk. This happens in a
spot (the hypocenter) deep down in the earths crust. The spot on the earths surface immediately
above the quake is called the epicenter. The magnitude of an earthquake is expressed in points
on the Richter scale. The scale ranges from 1 to 12 and each additional point makes an
earthquake ten times stronger.

Iceland is located on the mid-ocean ridge. This is the longest mountain range in the world. The
mountain range is on the edge of two plates which slowly drift apart. as a result magma rises
above the earth’s crust. The magma solidifies and forms new, hard rock. Because new magma is
added all the time, plates continue to grow on either side of the fault line and they drift apart. a
clear case of divergence.
what happens when two convergent fault lines meet: two plates with about the same weight
crash into each other. The rocks could only go in one direction. Up in the air. This is how fold
mountains are formed. The layers of the earths crust change shape when they are pushed up.

2.3
28-29
Subduction and volcanism
Tectonic plates below oceans are oceanic plates. They are heavier than continental plates. When
an oceanic and a continental plate move towards each other, the oceanic plate slides under the
continental plate. We call this subduction. You often recognize these spots by their elongated
through, a deep trench. When the oceanic plate disappears into the earths crust, it becomes
hotter and hotter and melts. The rocks becomes magma and gases are released. Subduction
leads to more and more gas and magma, until the earth’s crust can no longer cope. A volcano
erupts.

A volcanic eruption that rises through subduction is called explosive volcanism. High pressure
causes lava, stones and ash to be ejected high up in the air. These explosive volcanoes are called
stratovolcanoes. They have steep side because the lava they eject is tough and cannot flow far.
Volcanism also occurs along divergent plate boundaries. Here the magma is calmer when it
emerges and it is more fluid. It makes it flow further and the volcano becomes less steep. We call
these volcanoes shield volcanoes and this type of volcanism is called effusive volcanism.
The lahar is a mud flow that carries all the debris from the volcanic eruption on its way down.
People settle in the neighborhood of volcanoes because volcanic ash makes the soil very fertile,
near a volcano they can expect good harvest and that Is attractive for many farmers.
2.4
How to use the atlas
30 and 31

There are four methods to search something in the atlas, you want to know were in Turkey is the
highest risk of earthquakes and why for example.

1- Use the table of contents at the front of the atlas. Browse to the heading Europe and look for
a map of Turkey.

2- If you know more or less where a region is, you can use the bookmarkers. They are the
general maps right at the back of the atlas. A frame will tell you where you can find the
relevant .

3- If you are looking for a particular place, you could use the index of topographic names. You
will find it at the back of the atlas. It Is not necessarily the easiest way to find the full map of
Turkey. But it is useful if you are looking for example volcano Ararat. In the index, Ararat is
followed by the map number and the grid square in which Ararat is to be found.

4- You will also find a keyword index following the index of topographic names. If you are
looking for a map on a particular theme, this is the quickest way.

Now looking up information about the earthquakes in turkey, in 4 steps:

Step 1 Map reading: find the information you need on the map
On the map aardbevingsrisico you will see that the earthquake risk for turkey, except for the
center of the country, high is. You need more info why.
Step 2, classifying: looking for patterns
Go to the physical map of turkey and look for patterns on the map. In this case you will notice
that the regions which are prone to earthquakes have mountains near them.
Step 3, relating: find connections between the patterns.
It seems obvious that earthquakes are related with plate boundaries and mountains.
Step 4, Interpreting: try to explain the relationship between the patterns
In this case you may conclude that earthquakes often occur in the mountainous regions and that
they are caused by moving plates.
2.5
Active volcanism, strange volcanoes, earthquakes and tsunamis
32-33
Two of the most active volcanoes are on Hawaii, this is strange because Hawaii is in the middle of
the Pacific plate, there is no subduction or divergence zone nearby. And yet there are plenty
volcanoes active. Hawaii lies on a hotspot, a weak spot in the earth’s crust through which magma
rises up so that volcanoes are formed. Because the pacific plate moves with the hotspot, more
volcanoes are formed. Only the volcanoes connected with the hotspot are still active. The older
islands in the north west no longer grow. They slowly disappear due to erosion.
Kilauea is a active volcano, and at the top there is a crater which is called a Caldera. A caldera is a
crater formed by a volcanic eruption. Mauna Kea is a dormant volcano, it has been not active for
5 thousand years, but it still can become active. It is obvious that Hawaii is volcanic, there are
many fumaroles. A fumarole is a hole in the earth’ crust where gases and vapors are released.
These fumaroles are created when water in volcanic soil is heated and finds a way out.

Hawaii has earthquakes regularly too. Stronger earthquakes are the result of Hawaii’s location on
a weak spot in the earth’s crust. Earthquakes can also cause dangerous tidal waves: Tsunami’s.
an alert was set up in 2004 for tsunamis in Hawaii that should warn people in time, however if an
earthquake is near Hawaii, there is almost no time to escape. Distant earthquakes can also cause
huge tsunamis but in that case there is more time to run away
2.6
34-35
Recognizing rocks
Stones can develop in 3 different ways:
Igneous rock: rock created by the solidification of magma. The type of rock that solidified deep
down in the earth, such rocks finally appear at the surface after millions of years trough
movement plates or erosion. https://youtu.be/PrN7jygu4cQ https://youtu.be/aCnAF1Opt8M
Sedimentary rock: rock consisting of compressed materials that have worn off rocks or are the
remains of marine animals. It is made out of materials worn down by wind, water and ice.
https://youtu.be/Etu9BWbuDlY
Metamorphous rock: rock created by deformation of other rock under high pressure or heat.
Heat forces and/or pressure cause existing rocks to be changed. It happens when for example an
oceanic plate dives under continental plate, the heat causes crystal and minerals to melt
together. https://youtu.be/1oQ1J0w3x0o

https://youtu.be/qFEBPD3JEOM https://youtu.be/6qaG3MqI-4o