energies

Article
Numerical Analysis of an Organic Rankine Cycle
with Adjustable Working Fluid Composition,
a Volumetric Expander and a Recuperator
Peter Collings and Zhibin Yu *
School of Engineering, University of Glasgow, Glasgow G12 8QQ, UK; p.collings.1@research.gla.ac.uk
* Correspondence: Zhibin.Yu@glasgow.ac.uk; Tel.: +44-141-330-2530

Academic Editors: Andrew J. Haslam and Christos N. Markides

Received: 31 January 2017; Accepted: 22 March 2017; Published: 27 March 2017

Abstract: Conventional Organic Rankine Cycles (ORCs) using ambient air as their coolant cannot
fully utilize the greater temperature differential available to them during the colder months. However,
changing the working fluid composition so its boiling temperature matches the ambient temperature
as it changes has been shown to have potential to increase year-round electricity generation. Previous
research has assumed that the cycle pressure ratio is able to vary without a major loss in the isentropic
efficiency of the turbine. This paper investigates if small scale ORC systems that normally use
positive-displacement expanders with fixed expansion ratios could also benefit from this new
concept. A numerical model was firstly established, based on which a comprehensive analysis
was then conducted. The results showed that it can be applied to systems with positive-displacement
expanders and improve their year-round electricity generation. However, such an improvement is
less than that of the systems using turbine expanders with variable expansion ratios. Furthermore,
such an improvement relies on heat recovery via the recuperator. This is because expanders with
a fixed expansion ratio have a relatively constant pressure ratio between their inlet and outlet.
The increase of pressure ratio between the evaporator and condenser by tuning the condensing
temperature to match colder ambient condition in winter cannot be utilised by such expanders.
However, with the recuperator in place, the higher discharging temperature of the expander could
increase the heat recovery and consequently reduce the heat input at the evaporator, increasing the
thermal efficiency and the specific power. The higher the amount of heat energy transferred in the
recuperator, the higher the efficiency improvement.

Keywords: dynamic; Organic Rankine Cycle; positive displacement expander; zeotropic fluid; recuperator

1. Introduction
Global energy use is predicted to continue to grow over the coming decades. Diminishing fossil
fuel reserves and concerns about climate change mean that this extra energy demand will have to be
supplied from non-conventional sources, many of which provide heat at temperatures too low to be
exploited with traditional methods. Steam power plants become uneconomical for heat sources with
temperatures below 400 ◦ C due to declining efficiency combined with increasing component sizes
due to low-pressure operation [1,2]. Several alternative methods exist for exploiting heat sources at
such low temperatures, including the Stirling Cycle, Organic Rankine Cycle (ORC), and Kalina Cycle.
However, Bianchi and De Pascale [3] have identified the Organic Rankine Cycle as the most promising
technology for their utilisation. Typical heat sources for the Organic Rankine Cycle include solar,
geothermal, biomass and industrial waste heat [4]. These heat sources have temperatures ranging
from 80 ◦ C for solar ponds, to over 500 ◦ C for high-grade industrial waste heat [4], of which most exist
at temperatures between 100 ◦ C and 300 ◦ C [5,6].

Energies 2017, 10, 440; doi:10.3390/en10040440 www.mdpi.com/journal/energies

Energies 2017, 10, 440 2 of 21

Organic Rankine Cycles replace water with an organic working fluid, which can exhibit superior
thermal characteristics at low temperatures [7]. Most cycles use pure, single-component working
fluids [8,9], however, there is also the potential to use a working fluid mixture. Organic Rankine
Cycles are a relatively mature technology, with some market penetration, especially for geothermal
applications. Their efficiency is often improved by the utilisation of a recuperative cycle [10,11],
in which an internal heat exchanger is used to recover thermal energy from the expander exhaust
that would otherwise be rejected in the condenser and use it to preheat the working fluid before it
enters the evaporator. In this way, the heat that would otherwise be rejected from the cycle through
the condenser is used to reduce the demand for input energy in the evaporator.
Drescher and Brüggemann [12] performed an in-depth analysis of working fluids for biomass
ORCs, between temperatures of 90 ◦ C and 350 ◦ C, finding a maximum efficiency of 25% for a
recuperative cycle operating towards the higher end of this range. Andreasen et al. [13] performed a
working fluid screening for lower heat source temperatures of 90 ◦ C and 120 ◦ C, with a maximum
efficiency of 10.3% for the higher temperature heat source. Bruno et al. [14] analysed solar powered
ORCs for reverse osmosis desalination, and found that the efficiency of the cycle strongly depended
on the selection of working fluid, and also the heat source temperature, varying from 7% to over 30%
at the highest heat source temperatures.
Organic Rankine Cycles do suffer from several issues. Firstly, the constant temperature during
phase change increases the temperature mismatch in the heat exchangers, increasing exergy destruction,
and reducing the utilisation of the heat source for non-isothermal heat sources and sinks [15].
Yu et al. [16] identified a linear relationship between the integrated average temperature difference
in the heat exchanger and the rate of exergy destruction. Secondly, the choice of pure working
fluid is limited, meaning that not every application has an ideal working fluid. Organic Rankine
Cycles are generally designed with a working fluid to match the temperatures of the heat source and
heat sinks. Xu and Yu [17] showed that the efficiency of a subcritical ORC is related to the critical
temperature of the working fluid. They found that the cycles tended to be less efficient when the
difference between the heat source temperature and the critical temperature of the fluid becomes
greater. Single-component working fluids have a particular critical temperature, and so if the critical
temperature doesn’t match the operational conditions, a loss in efficiency will result. Thirdly, the small
temperature differential provided by a low-enthalpy heat source means that the cycles are very
sensitive to changing temperature of coolant, which can be proportionally significant compared to
the cycle’s driving temperature differential. This has been identified as a problem hindering thermal
cycles across the world [18]. It is of particular concern for cycles using air-cooled condensers, which are
common for applications where portability or modularity is considered important, or where cooling
water is too scarce or expensive. The heat sink for these cycles is the ambient air which, in continental
climates, can vary in temperature by over 50 ◦ C between summer and winter, and also a significant
amount between day and night, as shown in previous research by the authors [19].
A cycle designed to operate in such conditions must ensure that liquid working fluid is fed to the
pump at all times, as to allow vapour to be ingested into the pump compromises its efficiency and can
even lead to damage due to cavitation. This requires a high condenser pressure, which means that
when the ambient air is at a lower temperature, the cycle must either reduce the flow rate of coolant,
or operate with significant subcooling at the pump outlet, which increases the heat energy required in
the evaporator without any corresponding increase in expander work, reducing the cycle’s efficiency.
This means that for much of the year, the cycle is operating at off-design conditions.
The authors have recently proposed that these issues can be solved by the concept of a dynamic
ORC, capable of adjusting the composition of the working fluid during operation to match the changing
ambient conditions [20]. When two working fluids are combined, they can generally form what is
known as a zeotropic mixture [21]. This means that, instead of undergoing phase change at a constant
temperature, like pure, single-component fluids, they instead exhibit a temperature change during
phase change, known as “glide”. The lower temperature end of the phase change is known as the
Energies 2017, 10, 440 3 of 21

bubble point, and the higher temperature end is known as the dew point. The bubble and dew points
of a zeotropic mixture lie between the boiling points of its two constituent parts. This means that with
two components having different boiling points, a zeotropic mixture with a specific bubble or dew
point temperature in between these two points can be formed by mixing them together. Given the
right working fluid components, this can ensure that the pump in an Organic Rankine Cycle system is
fed liquid for any ambient temperature between these two points. Several sources have concerned
themselves with the efficiency of cycles using zeotropic mixtures as the working fluids, and found that
they only cause a slight drop in cycle first law efficiency, while resulting in an increase in other metrics,
such as heat source utilisation [22–24].
The proposed dynamic ORC system builds on this concept, by allowing the working fluid’s
composition to be actively tuned during operation of the rig, using R245fa and R134a as the two
components of the working fluid. These fluids are two commonly-selected ones for conventional
Organic Rankine Cycles [25–27], are miscible with each other [28], and the difference between their
boiling points is roughly equal to the annual variation in temperature in a continental climate, making
them the most suitable for an initial analysis of this cycle. However, both of these fluids are HFCs
(Hydrofluorocarbons), and this class of refrigerants has recently been subject to a phase-out decision
over the coming decades due to their high Global Warming Potential. For a dynamic cycle, the key
factor in the choice of fluids is an appropriate difference between their boiling points. Alternatives to
HFCs do exist, and are presented below.
Alkanes are a promising class of working fluid, and in particular pentane and isopentane have
been used in real-world cycles [2]. Alkanes tend to be relatively dry working fluids, meaning that they
are particularly suitable to the presence of a recuperator. They are also flammable, which means that
special care must be taken with their handling, Alkanes are a large class of refrigerants and this means
that working fluid pairs for a great variety of ambient conditions can be selected.
HFOs (Hydrofluoro-olefins) are another fluid group under consideration in literature as a direct
replacement for HFCs. R1233zd-E is the HFO replacement for R245fa [29], and R1234yf and R1234ze
have been considered as replacements for R134a [27,30]. HFOs have very similar properties to HFCs,
often being considered as “drop-in” replacements. R1233zd has been shown to give slightly higher
thermal efficiencies than R245fa under the same operating conditions, whereas R1234yf showed slightly
reduced power output due to lower density at the expander inlet. Overall they are likely to be no
less suited to use in a dynamic ORC than the HFCs considered in this paper, but an investigation of
alternative working fluids is an interesting avenue of further research.
The cycle is initially designed to operate on the hottest day of the year with the working fluid
composed entirely of R245fa, the fluid component with the higher boiling point. As the temperature
drops from summer to autumn, the temperature of the coolant available to the cycle also drops.
This gives excess cooling capacity. The composition of the working fluid is then adjusted by removing
fluid from the receiver and replacing it with pure R134a, shifting the overall composition towards
R134a. This lowers the bubble point of the fluid, and allows better utilisation of the coolant. As the
temperature drops further, the composition is shifted further towards R134a. The fluid mixture
removed from the system is separated by distillation to produce pure R134a and R245fa, which can
then be used in further composition tuning operations. In the spring, when temperatures begin to rise
again, the available coolant is no longer cold enough to ensure the working fluid is liquid at the pump
inlet. Now the composition of the working fluid is shifted back towards R245fa, raising the bubble
point of the fluid and ensuring the liquid condition at the pump inlet.
The previous paper [19] considered a cycle using a turbine as the expander, and assumed that
such a cycle can relatively simply adjust its evaporating pressure in operation by changing the shaft
load on the turbine and increasing the pump power accordingly, with little change in the turbine’s
isentropic efficiency. This allows the pressure ratio of the cycle to be changed in operation, increasing
the evaporator pressure when the working fluid is mostly composed of R134a to minimise excess
superheat. The results of this paper [19] showed a significant increase in the year-round electricity
Energies 2017, 10, 440 4 of 21

generation of a dynamic cycle compared to a conventional one. An economic analysis of the dynamic
cycle was also carried out, using the Chemical Engineering Plant Cost Index (CEPCI). This revealed
that the additional cost of a composition tuning system capable of distilling the system’s entire charge
of working fluid in 12 h was roughly 0.4% of the total cost of the system, and that the greatest increase
in the capital cost of a dynamic system would come from the need to have a supply of extra working
fluid for tuning purposes, which would add a further 6% to the cost of the cycle. The increased cost of
the system was offset by increased electricity generation. For any increase greater than 7% the payback
period of the cycle was shortened and the 20-year return on investment increased.
However, turbines become uneconomical for smaller-scale applications below a few hundred
kilowatts, and are outcompeted by positive displacement expansion devices, such as scroll, screw,
and rotary vane expanders [30]. Quoilin et al. [31] have calculated the minimum economical operating
power for a turbine in an ORC system to be roughly 40 kW for solar thermal applications, rising to
over 100 kW for geothermal. This leaves a large amount of microgeneration applications for which
turbines are unsuited as expanders.
Positive displacement devices generally have an inbuilt volume ratio, which is constrained
by their geometry. The isentropic efficiency of these devices drop off sharply if a pressure ratio
different to that defined by an adiabatic expansion process between these volumes is imposed [32–34].
This pressure ratio is hereafter referred to as the “designed pressure ratio”. The working fluid in the
expander is enclosed in an expansion chamber. In each case, the enclosed volume of working fluid
will reach the discharge stage at a pressure defined primarily by the geometry of the expander. If this
pressure is not equal to the condenser pressure, the fluid will undergo an isochoric pressure drop
(i.e., under-expansion) or increase (i.e., over expansion). In the case of under-expansion, when the
in-built volume ratio of the expander could provide a pressure ratio less than the actual pressure ratio
between the evaporator and condenser, this will result in unused potential of the working fluid. In the
case of over-expansion, when the in-built volume ratio of the expander could provide a pressure ratio
greater than the actual pressure ratio between the evaporator and condenser, work will have to be
expended by the expander to repressurise the fluid to the condenser pressure. Therefore, the previous
approach to the dynamic cycle using a turbine as the expansion device is not applicable to small-scale
ORC systems.
As the considerations for designing ORC systems with positive displacement expanders are
significantly different from those with turbines, this paper expands on the previous work by investigating
whether the dynamic ORC concept can be applied to systems using a positive displacement expander
which is constrained to a specific expansion ratio (ultimately pressure ratio). It analyses the system
under a variety of ambient conditions, heat source temperatures and cycle configurations, both
recuperative and non-recuperative to determine the feasibility of the development of dynamic Organic
Rankine Cycle systems using positive displacement expanders having a fixed expansion ratio. It also
adds an analysis of recuperative cycles applied to this dynamic concept, as well as an analysis of the
specific power of the cycle and how this is affected by the changing working fluid composition in
response to changing ambient temperature.

2. Numerical Modelling
As shown in Figure 1, a dynamic Organic Rankine Cycle consists of the same major components
as a standard Organic Rankine Cycle, namely the evaporator, expander, condenser, recuperator,
and pump. In addition to these, the dynamic cycle has a composition tuning system attached to it.
In order to simplify the analysis in this paper, the composition tuning system was considered to be a
“black box”, capable of separating the working fluid into its two component parts, and reintroducing
measured amounts of these pure components into circulation in the system. It was assumed to have
no significant transient effects on the performance of the system as a whole apart from the change in
working fluid composition. In practice such a system would most likely be a small distillation column,
which is well-established technology. Previous research from the authors showed that the extra power
Energies 2017, 10, 440 5 of 21

required for a distillation system to keep up with changing ambient conditions is negligible compared
to the overall power output of the cycle, as the average parasitic power required for separating and
compressing
Energies 2017, 10,the
440 distillate would be 23 W for a 1 MW system [19]. 5 of 22

Figure
Figure 1.
1. Schematic
Schematic Diagram
Diagram of
of Dynamic
Dynamic Organic
Organic Rankine
Rankine Cycle
Cycle considered in this
considered in this paper.
paper.

There was assumed to be no pressure losses as the fluid passed through heat exchangers. This
There was assumed to be no pressure losses as the fluid passed through heat exchangers. This is a
is a common assumption, but does not entirely reflect real world systems accurately. Real-world
common assumption, but does not entirely reflect real world systems accurately. Real-world systems
systems will experience pressure drops, especially in heat exchangers. The primary effect of this is
will experience pressure drops, especially in heat exchangers. The primary effect of this is that the
that the pressure ratio at the expander inlet is reduced compared to the ideal case. A preliminary
pressure ratio at the expander inlet is reduced compared to the ideal case. A preliminary investigation
investigation assuming a 5% pressure drop in each heat exchanger, as was carried out in [34],
assuming a 5% pressure drop in each heat exchanger, as was carried out in [34], indicating that in a
indicating that in a recuperative cycle this would cause an 18% decrease in pressure ratio, and a 14%
recuperative cycle this would cause an 18% decrease in pressure ratio, and a 14% decrease in expander
decrease in expander power, while the evaporator heat load remained relatively constant. For a non-
power, while the evaporator heat load remained relatively constant. For a non-recuperative cycle,
recuperative cycle, the pressure ratio decreased by 14%, causing a 10% drop in expander power.
the pressure ratio decreased by 14%, causing a 10% drop in expander power. These pressure losses
These pressure losses must be carefully considered in the design of real-world systems. However, for
must be carefully considered in the design of real-world systems. However, for comparison of the
comparison of the dynamic and non-dynamic ORCs, the pressure losses will not have a major effect
dynamic and non-dynamic ORCs, the pressure losses will not have a major effect on the differences
on the differences caused by the working fluid composition.
caused by the working fluid composition.
Further assumptions were that there was no heat transfer to and from the system outside of heat
Further assumptions were that there was no heat transfer to and from the system outside of heat
exchangers (i.e., a perfectly insulated system), and no effects due to changes in velocity, elevation, or
exchangers (i.e., a perfectly insulated system), and no effects due to changes in velocity, elevation, or
compressibility. The work required to pump heat transfer fluids through the heat exchangers was
compressibility. The work required to pump heat transfer fluids through the heat exchangers was
neglected in this research. Based on these assumptions, a standard steady-state numerical model was
neglected in this research. Based on these assumptions, a standard steady-state numerical model was
built using MATLAB R2016a (Mathworks, Natick, MA, USA) and REFPROP 9.1 (National Institute
built using MATLAB R2016a (Mathworks, Natick, MA, USA) and REFPROP 9.1 (National Institute of
of Standards and Technology: Gaithersburg, MD, USA) [35]. REFPROP 9.1 was used to provide
Standards and Technology: Gaithersburg, MD, USA) [35]. REFPROP 9.1 was used to provide values
values for the thermophysical properties of the working fluid, and can be called via MATLAB
for the thermophysical properties of the working fluid, and can be called via MATLAB function. Given
function. Given a state defined by two fluid properties, this function can calculate most other
a state defined by two fluid properties, this function can calculate most other important thermal and
important thermal and physical properties of a fluid at this state.
physical properties of a fluid at this state.
Figure 2 shows the numbering convention for the points of the cycle, which are the same as those
Figure 2 shows the numbering convention for the points of the cycle, which are the same as
shown in Figure 1. An external data file containing average monthly ambient temperature data for a
those shown in Figure 1. An external data file containing average monthly ambient temperature data
variety of locations in different climate types was linked to the numerical model. The ambient
for a variety of locations in different climate types was linked to the numerical model. The ambient
temperature data from this data file could be used to determine the temperature of coolant available
temperature data from this data file could be used to determine the temperature of coolant available
to the system over the course of the year, which was stored as an array in MATLAB. Beijing, China
to the system over the course of the year, which was stored as an array in MATLAB. Beijing, China
was chosen to use as a case study as it is an example of a continental climate with a high variation in
was chosen to use as a case study as it is an example of a continental climate with a high variation
temperature between winter and summer. The output power for the case study was selected as 10
in temperature between winter and summer. The output power for the case study was selected as
kW. The pinch point temperature difference in the heat exchangers was taken to be 5 °C which is
10 kW. The pinch point temperature difference in the heat exchangers was taken to be 5 ◦ C which is
consistent with previous research [36,37], and an additional 2 °C of subcooling was added to the cycle
consistent with previous research [36,37], and an additional 2 ◦ C of subcooling was added to the cycle
at State 1 to ensure an adequate Net Positive Suction Head was provided to the pump. This allowed
at State 1 to ensure an adequate Net Positive Suction Head was provided to the pump. This allowed
the condition of the working fluid at State 1 to be characterised using the equations = +5
the condition of the working fluid at State 1 to be characterised using the equations T1 = Tambient + 5
and = at ( = + 2).
and P1 = Psat at ( T = T1 + 2).
Energies 2017, 10, 440 6 of 21
Energies 2017, 10, 440 6 of 22

435
3
415
395

Temperature (K)
375
355
2b 4
335
315 2
295 4b
1
275
1000 1200 1400 1600 1800 2000
Specific Entropy (J/kg.K)

2. T-s diagram
Figure 2.
Figure diagramofofa azeotropic ORC,
zeotropic with
ORC, thethe
with recuperative portion
recuperative of theofcycle
portion marked
the cycle in a thicker
marked in a
green line.
thicker green line.

Knowing
Knowing the the temperature
temperature of of the
the fluid
fluid andand the the required
required saturation
saturation temperature
temperature allows allows the the
condenser pressure to be determined for the hottest day of the year,
condenser pressure to be determined for the hottest day of the year, which is also when the working which is also when the working
fluid
fluid is
is composed
composedentirely
entirely of of the
the working
workingfluid fluid component
component with with the
the higher
higher boiling
boilingpoint,
point,ininthis
thiscase
case
study
studyR245fa.
R245fa.REFPROP
REFPROP9.1 9.1cancanthen
thenbe beused
usedto tocalculate
calculatethe theother
otherfluid
fluid properties,
properties,such suchas as specific
specific
entropy,
entropy, andand specific
specificenthalpy.
enthalpy.For For a given
a given pressure,
pressure, REFPROP
REFPROP can be
can also also be to
used used to calculate
calculate the bubblethe
bubble
and dew and dewofpoints
points a fluidofasaits fluid as its composition
composition changes,aallowing
changes, allowing set of glide a set of glide
curves for thecurves
fluid for the
pairing
fluid
to bepairing
drawn to up.beKnowing
drawn up. theKnowing
requiredthe required pressure
condenser condenser andpressure
the shapeandof thethe
shape
bubbleof the
linebubble
of the
line
glideofcurve,
the glide thecurve,
requiredthe required fluid composition
fluid composition to satisfytothe satisfy
liquidthecondition
liquid condition
at the pumpat the inlet
pumpcan inlet
be
can be calculated
calculated for anyfor any ambient
ambient temperature
temperature provided provided to the numerical
to the numerical model.model.
With
With the condenser
condenserpressurepressureand andfluid
fluid composition
composition determined,
determined, the cycle
the cycle can then
can then be analysed
be analysed using
using theworld
the real real world
climate climate data provided,
data provided, accordingaccording to well-established
to well-established thermodynamic
thermodynamic techniques
techniques [19,38].
[19,38].
The pinch Thepoint
pinchtemperature
point temperature in the evaporator
in the evaporator is taken is to be 5to◦ C
taken beas5 before,
°C as before,
and a and 5 ◦ C of
a further
further 5
°C of superheat is added at the expander inlet to ensure a pure vapour
superheat is added at the expander inlet to ensure a pure vapour with no droplets is fed into the with no droplets is fed into
the expander,
expander, allowing
allowing the evaporator
the evaporator pressurepressure to be calculated
to be calculated using the
using the equations = Theat source −=5
T3 equations
and Pevap − = 5Psat
andat ( T = = T3 − 5 at (
). = − 5).
This
Thislastlastwas
wasused
usedtotocalculate
calculate thetheevaporator
evaporator pressure
pressure ononthethe
hottest dayday
hottest of the year,year,
of the and and
as the as
cycle in this
the cycle in case studystudy
this case uses uses
a positive displacement
a positive displacement expander, this evaporator
expander, this evaporatorpressure was held
pressure was
year-round.
held year-round. The isentropic
The isentropic efficiency of the
efficiency of pump
the pump andand thetheexpander
expander werewere setsettoto90%
90%and and70%,
70%,
respectively.
respectively. As Asthe
thepressure
pressure ratio
ratio of theof cycle
the cycle
was held wasconstant
held constant
over theoveryear,the year, the efficiencies
the isentropic isentropic
efficiencies
of the pump ofand
the expander
pump andwere expander were also
also assumed toassumed to remain constant.
remain constant.
For
Forthethepurposes
purposesof ofanalysis,
analysis,the thepumping
pumpingand andexpansion
expansionprocesses
processeswerewereinitially
initiallyassumed
assumed to tobebe
isentropic,
isentropic, allowing hh2,isentropic
2,isentropic and
andh4,isentropic
h4,isentropicto be determined
to be determined using
using REFPROP.
REFPROP.These Thesevalues
valuescan canthen
then
be used to
be used tofind
findthethe actual
actual valuesvalues
using using an isentropic
an isentropic efficiency
efficiency less than less thanaccording
100%, 100%, according
the equations:the
equations:

h2,isentropic − h1
ηpump = (ℎ , −ℎ ) (1)
= ( h2 − h1 ) (1)
(ℎ − ℎ )
(ℎ
( h3 −
− ℎh4)
ηexpander =
(2)(2)
(ℎ 3 − ℎ 4,isentropic
h − h , )
The isentropic
The isentropicefficiencies
efficienciesof of
the the
pump and expander
pump were taken
and expander weretotaken
be 90%toandbe 70%,
90%respectively.
and 70%,
This is consistent with previous published literature. For this research, it was assumed
respectively. This is consistent with previous published literature. For this research, it was assumed that the
expansion
that device used
the expansion was
device designed
used with a volume
was designed with a ratio
volumethatratio
would cause
that to operate
would cause toatoperate
this efficiency
at this
at the imposed pressure ratio, i.e., a different expander would be required for a
efficiency at the imposed pressure ratio, i.e., a different expander would be required for a cyclecycle operating at a
different pressure ratio. The ratio of specific heats of the working fluids varies by less than
operating at a different pressure ratio. The ratio of specific heats of the working fluids varies by less 1% as the
fluid1%
than composition is composition
as the fluid shifted from R245fa to R134a,
is shifted so it was
from R245fa assumed
to R134a, that
so it there
was wouldthat
assumed be no significant
there would
Energies 2017, 10, 440 7 of 21

over- or under-expansion losses introduced due to changing fluid composition at a constant pressure
and volume ratio.
Knowing the evaporator and condenser pressures, and the enthalpies at states 2 and 4,
the temperatures and entropies at these states can now also be obtained using REFPROP.
The effect of a recuperator could also be investigated. The MATLAB program initially took the
case of zero heat transfer from the hot to the cold side, giving a pinch point temperature difference of
T4 -T1 . The program then gradually increased the amount of heat transferred while monitoring the
temperature difference at 100 different points inside the heat exchanger, taking the minimum value as
the new pinch point. When this pinch point reached 5 ◦ C, the corresponding value of heat transfer
could then be designated as Qrecuperator .
Once this has been done, all six points of the cycle have been characterized: pump outlet,
recuperator outlet cold, evaporator outlet, expander outlet, recuperator outlet hot and condenser outlet.
Equations (3)–(6) can then be used to calculate the efficiency of the cycle:

Wpump = h2 − h1 (3)

Wexpander = h3 − h4 (4)

Qevaporator = h3 − h2b (5)

Wexpander − Wpump
ηcycle = (6)
Qevaporator
This allows the efficiency of the cycle to be calculated for any value of ambient temperature.
Using real-world climate data as the values for ambient temperature allows, the performance of a
dynamic ORC under various climate conditions to be analysed. The program analysed several key
metrics. The first was the efficiency of the conventional ORC, η con , which was the efficiency of the cycle
η cycle on the hottest day of the year, when the working fluid had to be composed of 100% R245fa to
ensure the liquid condition at the pump inlet. This is also the year-round efficiency of a cycle utilizing
a fixed working fluid composition. The second was the efficiency of the dynamic ORC, η dyn , for a
given ambient temperature at a particular point in the year. Both of these were calculated according to
Equation (6).
The third metric was the average annual efficiency of the dynamic ORC over the course of the
year [19], η dyn. . This is defined as:
∑1N ηdyn.
η dyn. = (7)
N
where N is the number of operational days in the year [19].
The fourth was the annual improvement in energy provision ψ. This was given by the equation
previously developed by the authors in [19]:

η dyn. − ηcon
ψ= × 100% (8)
ηcon

The pinch point in the heat exchangers could be analysed using an energy balance method. Using
the assumption that the heat exchangers were perfectly thermally insulated from the environment,
and that the temperature difference at the expander inlet was 10 ◦ C, a T-Q diagram could be set up.
As for the recuperator, the program took 100 points in the heat exchanger and calculated the
temperature difference between the hot and cold streams. The temperature of the thermal fluid
(assumed to be pressurised water in this case study) after transferring a certain amount of energy to
the working fluid could be calculated from the equation:
.
Q0 = mwater c p ∆T (9)
Energies 2017, 10, 440 8 of 21

0
where mwater . is the mass flow rate of the hot water and cp its specific heat capacity. The higher the
flow rate, the smaller the temperature change of the water as it exchanges energy with the working
fluid. The mass flow rate of water is therefore increased from zero until the pinch point reaches the
required 5 ◦ C in both the evaporator and condenser. Once the flow rate is known, the final and average
temperatures can be calculated using the lever rule, assuming that the specific heat capacity of the
thermal fluid remains constant, giving a straight line on the pinch point diagram.
Knowing the mass flow rate of the hot water, the specific power output of the cycle can be
calculated. The specific power is defined here as the power output from the expander per unit of mass
flow of hot fluid in the evaporator, or mathematically as:

10, 000
W 0 specific = (10)
m0 water

where W’ is the specific power. This allowed a further performance metric to be defined, similar to the
increase in annual energy generation ψ. This was the increase in average annual specific power, given
the symbol φ and defined as:
W 0 specific,dyn − W 0 specific,con
φ= (11)
W 0 specific,con

where W 0 specific,dyn . is the specific work of the dynamic cycle and where W 0 specific,con . is the specific
work of the conventional, non-dynamic cycle The exergy at a given state can be determined using
the equation:
X = h − h0 − T0 (s − s0 ) (12)

As the values for specific enthalpy h and specific entropies are known for all states in the system,
as is the temperature of the reference state T0 , the exergy at any point in the system can be calculated.
This can be used to calculate the exergy destruction rate in each component:
. . . .
Id = ∑ Ein − ∑ Eout − W (13)

For the pump, the exergy destruction rate can be given by:
. . . .
I pump = ( E2 − E1 ) + (W pump ) (14)

For the recuperator by:

. . . . .
I regen = ( E2b − E2 ) − ( E4 − E4b ) (15)

For the evaporator by:

. . . . .
I evap = ( Ehw,in − Ehw,out ) − ( E3 − E2 ) (16)

For the expander by:

. . . .
I expander = ( E3 − E4 ) − (W expander ) (17)

For the condenser by:

. . . . .
I cond = ( E4 − E1 ) − ( Ecw,in − Ecw,out ) (18)

The Overall Exergy Efficiency of the cycle is given by:

.
I evaporator
ηexergy = . (19)
W expander

A qualitative analysis of the effect of working fluid composition on the heat transfer process was
also carried out. The Nusselt number is the ratio of total to conductive heat transfer in a fluid, and is
Energies 2017, 10, 440 9 of 21

generally calculated for each case using empirical correlations to experimental data. Alimoradi and
Veysi [38] give a rough correlation for the Nusselt number in a shell-and tube heat exchanger of:

Nu = CRe0.7 Pr0.315 (20)

where Re is the Reynolds Number and Pr is the Prandtl Number of the fluid:

ρuD
Re = (21)
µ

Energies 2017, 10, 440

µc p 9 of 22
Pr = (22)
k
where ρ is fluid density, u is fluid velocity, D is the = characteristic length, µ is the kinematic(22) viscosity,
cp is the specific heat capacity, and k is the thermal conductivity. D was set to 1 cm and u to 1.5 m/s,
where is fluid density, u is fluid velocity, D is the characteristic length, μ is the kinematic viscosity,
and all of the other information for the calculation could be obtained from REFPROP.
cp is the specific heat capacity, and k is the thermal conductivity. D was set to 1 cm and u to 1.5 m/s,
The cycle was analysed for several heat source temperatures, for recuperative and non-recuperative
and all of the other information for the calculation could be obtained from REFPROP.
cases, andThe forcycle
five ambient climate
was analysed for conditions.
several heat For eachtemperatures,
source case, the dynamic cycle wasand
for recuperative compared
non- to
the conventional, non-dynamic
recuperative cases, and for fivecycle,
ambientas climate
well asconditions.
comparingForthe effect
each case,oftheusing a recuperative
dynamic cycle was or
non-recuperative dynamic cycle.
compared to the conventional, non-dynamic cycle, as well as comparing the effect of using a
recuperative or non-recuperative dynamic cycle.
3. Results
3. Results
The MATLAB routine based on the equations given in the previous section was used to analyse a
case studyTheforMATLAB
the dynamicroutine based Rankine
Organic on the equations given in3 the
Cycle. Figure previous
shows sectionvariation
the annual was used into temperature,
analyse
a case study for the dynamic Organic Rankine Cycle. Figure 3 shows the
and the change in working fluid composition needed to ensure the liquid condition at the pump annual variation in inlet
temperature, and the change in working fluid composition needed to ensure the liquid condition at
for various climate conditions. It can be seen that in the colder winter months, a greater proportion of
the pump inlet for various climate conditions. It can be seen that in the colder winter months, a greater
R134a in the working fluid can be tolerated due to the lower ambient temperature. During the warmer
proportion of R134a in the working fluid can be tolerated due to the lower ambient temperature.
summer months, more R245fa must be present to ensure the bubble point of the fluid is high enough
During the warmer summer months, more R245fa must be present to ensure the bubble point of the
to ensure this
fluid is condition.
high enough to ensure this condition.
The The
conditions
conditionsforfor
Beijing
Beijingwere
weretaken
taken as
as a case study
a case studyforformore
more in-depth
in-depth analysis,
analysis, as it as
hasitthe
has the
greatest variation
greatest between
variation between summer
summerand andwinter
winter temperatures among
temperatures among thethe locations
locations considered.
considered. It wasIt was
also used
also used in the
in the authors’
authors’ previousstudy
previous study[19],
[19], which
which enables
enablescomparison.
comparison.

320 1.4

310 Ambient Temperature R134a Proportion 1.2

Ambient Temperature (K)

1
R134a Proportion

300
0.8
290
0.6
280
0.4
270 0.2

260 0
Jan-13 Feb-13 Apr-13 May-13 Jul-13 Sep-13 Oct-13
Month

Figure 3. Annual temperature variation and associated changes in working fluid composition for Beijing.
Figure 3. Annual temperature variation and associated changes in working fluid composition for
Beijing.
Figure 4 shows the variation in the efficiency of the cycle depending on the ambient temperature.
The heat Figure
source4temperature
shows the variation in the
is set as ◦ C. The of
100efficiency the cycle
winter depending is
temperature oncold
the ambient
enoughtemperature.
for the working
The heat source temperature is set as 100 °C. The winter temperature is cold enough
fluid to be liquid at the pump inlet, even when it is 100% R134a. As the ambient temperature for the working
increases,
fluid to be liquid at the pump inlet, even when it is 100% R134a. As the ambient temperature
the efficiency remains constant, until the point at which the ambient temperature becomes too high for
increases, the efficiency remains constant, until the point at which the ambient temperature becomes
too high for a 100% R134a working fluid to be a liquid at the pump inlet. At this point, R245fa must
be introduced. The cycle efficiency then drops off with increasing ambient temperature. The
recuperative cycle in a relatively linear fashion, whereas the basic cycle shows a concave shape.
Energies 2017, 10, 440 10 of 21

a 100% R134a working fluid to be a liquid at the pump inlet. At this point, R245fa must be introduced.
The cycle efficiency then drops off with increasing ambient temperature. The recuperative cycle in a
Energies
relatively
Energies 2017,
10,10,
linear
2017, 440
fashion,
440 whereas the basic cycle shows a concave shape. 10 10 of 22
of 22

20%
20%

19%
19% Recuperative
Recuperative Cycle
Cycle
Basic Cycle
Basic Cycle
18%
18%
Cycle Efficiency
Cycle Efficiency

17%
17%

16%
16%

15%
15%

14%
14%

13%
13%
253253 263263 273273 283283 293293 303303
Ambient
Ambient Temperature
Temperature (K)(K)

Figure 4. Variation in Cycle Efficiency with ambient temperature for a heat source temperature of
◦Figure
100Figure 4. 4.
C under
Variation
Variation in Cycle
in ambient
Beijing’s Cycle Efficiency
Efficiency with
with
conditions.
ambient
ambient temperature
temperature forfor a heat
a heat source
source temperature
temperature of of
100100
°C°C under
under Beijing’s
Beijing’s ambient
ambient conditions.
conditions.

FigureFigure
Figure 5 shows
5 5shows
shows the
the
the variation
variation
variation of of
thethe
of theenthalpy
enthalpy
enthalpy change
change in in
change thetheinexpander, evaporator,
the expander,
expander, condenser
evaporator,
evaporator, condenser and
condenser
and
recuperator
andrecuperator
recuperator as
as the the ambient
asambient
the ambient temperature
temperature changes.
temperature It can
changes.
changes. It be
can be seen seen
It thatthat
canthe the amount
be amount
seen that of energy
the amount
of energy transferred
of energy
transferred
in in
thethe
transferred evaporator and
in the evaporator
evaporator and condenser
condenser increases
and increases
condenser relatively
increases
relatively linearly forfor
relatively
linearly the evaporator
thelinearly as as
for the
evaporator the ambientas the
evaporator
the ambient
temperature
temperature decreases,
decreases, and
and in in a slightly
a and
slightly convex shapeforfor the condenser. This can explain the shape
ambient temperature decreases, in aconvex shape
slightly convex the
shapecondenser.
for the This can explain
condenser. Thisthecanshape
explain the
of the response curve for the non-recuperative cycle seen
of the response curve for the non-recuperative cycle seen in Figure 4. in Figure 4.
shape of the response curve for the non-recuperative cycle seen in Figure 4.

350350

300300
Enthalpy Change (kJ/kg)
Enthalpy Change (kJ/kg)

250250
Expander
Expander
200200 Evaporator
Evaporator
Condenser
150150 Condenser
Regenerator
Regenerator
100100

50 50

0 0
250250 260260 270270 280280 290290 300300 310310
Ambient
Ambient Temperature
Temperature (K)(K)

Figure 5. Comparison
Figure of enthalpy change in each
each major
majorcycle
cyclecomponent
component with varying ambient
Figure 5. 5. Comparison
Comparison of of enthalpy
enthalpy change
change in in
each◦ major cycle component with
with varying
varying ambient
ambient
temperature for a heat source temperature of 100 C in Beijing’s ambient conditions.
temperature for a heat source temperature of 100 °C in Beijing’s ambient conditions.
temperature for a heat source temperature of 100 °C in Beijing’s ambient conditions.

The The
The response
response
response curve
curve
curve in in
in Figure
Figure
Figure 5has
55hashas a steeper
steeper
a asteeper slope
slope
slopeforforthethe
for evaporator
evaporator
the evaporator thanthan forfor
than thethe expander
expander
for the expander
towards
towards the
the right
right hand
hand side
side of of
thethe graph,
graph, i.e.,
i.e., forfor operation
operation under
under higher
higher temperature
temperature ambient
ambient
towards the right hand side of the graph, i.e., for operation under higher temperature ambient
conditions.
conditions. ThisThis means
means that
that thethe evaporator
evaporator enthalpy
enthalpy change
change is is
moremore sensitive
sensitive to to changing
changing ambient
ambient
conditions. This means that the evaporator enthalpy change is more sensitive to changing ambient
temperature
temperature in in this
this region.
region. AsAs thethe temperature
temperature drops,
drops, thethe evaporator
evaporator enthalpy
enthalpy change
change will
will therefore
therefore
temperature
increase in this
more region.
quickly Asthe
than theexpander
temperature
enthalpy drops, the This
change. evaporator
means enthalpy
that change willcycle
therefore
increase more quickly than the expander enthalpy change. This means that thethe efficiency
efficiency of of
thethe
cycle
increase more
is relatively quickly than
insensitive the expander enthalpy change. This means that the efficiency of the cycle
is relatively insensitive to to changing
changing ambient
ambient temperature
temperature in in
thethe higher
higher ambient
ambient temperature
temperature regions.
regions.
is relatively
AnyAny insensitive
increase
increase in in
expander to
expander changing
enthalpy
enthalpy ambient
change
change temperature
is cancelled
is cancelled outout in
byby the higher
a corresponding
a corresponding ambient temperature
increase
increase in in evaporator
evaporator regions.
Any increase
enthalpy
enthalpy in
change.expander
change. AtAtlower enthalpy
lower change
temperatures,
temperatures, isexample
forfor cancelled
example out
from
from 270by
270KaKtocorresponding
to
280280
K,K,thethe increase
curve
curve in in in5evaporator
Figure
Figure 5 for
for
Energies 2017, 10, 440 11 of 21

Energies 2017, 10, 440 11 of 22

enthalpy change. At lower temperatures, for example from 270 K to 280 K, the curve in Figure 5 for
thethe expander
expander is is steeper
steeper thanthe
than thecurve
curveforforthe
theevaporator.
evaporator.This Thismeans
means thatthat the
the efficiency of the
the cycle
cycle is
is more sensitive to changing ambient temperature in this region, resulting
more sensitive to changing ambient temperature in this region, resulting in a steeper slope for this in a steeper slope for this
part
of part of the response
the response curve in curve in Figure
Figure 4. 4.
For For
thethe recuperativecycle,
recuperative cycle,thetheresponse
response curve
curve forfor efficiency
efficiencyininFigure
Figure4 4does
doesnot show
not show thethe
same
same
convex shape. This can also be explained using the data presented in Figure
convex shape. This can also be explained using the data presented in Figure 5. The curve in Figure 5. The curve in Figure 5 5
for the recuperator has a convex shape, with a steep section at high ambient
for the recuperator has a convex shape, with a steep section at high ambient temperatures, a peak temperatures, a peak at
at about
about 275275 K,K, then
then aa decrease
decreasetotoaasteady
steadyvaluevaluebelow
belowaboutabout265265K.K.TheTheenergy
energy recovered
recovered in in
thethe
recuperator is subtracted directly from the energy required in the evaporator, thereby increasing
recuperator is subtracted directly from the energy required in the evaporator, thereby increasing
efficiency. The convex shape of the recuperator curve in Figure 5 works to cancel out the factors
efficiency. The convex shape of the recuperator curve in Figure 5 works to cancel out the factors
causing the concave shape of the efficiency curve for the non-recuperative cycle, as seen in Figure 4.
causing the concave shape of the efficiency curve for the non-recuperative cycle, as seen in Figure 4.
This results in the relatively straight line seen for the efficiency plot for the recuperative cycle seen in
This results in the relatively straight line seen for the efficiency plot for the recuperative cycle seen in
Figure 4. This can be explained by a combination of the temperature glide caused by a zeotropic fluid,
Figure 4. This
and the can be
principle ofexplained
operation by a combination
of the recuperator.of the temperature glide caused by a zeotropic fluid,
and theFigure
principle of operation this
6 demonstrates of the
byrecuperator.
comparing T-s diagrams for the cycle operating under high
temperature and low temperature comparing
Figure 6 demonstrates this by T-s diagrams
ambient conditions. for the
The thick cycle
green operating
section of theunder high
T-s plot
temperature
represents and low transferred
the heat temperatureinambient conditions.
the recuperator. The
It can bethick
seen green
that insection of the T-s plot ambient
the low-temperature represents
theconditions
heat transferred in thehand
in the right recuperator. It can
plot, there be seen that
is significant in the low-temperature
superheat at the expanderambient conditions
outlet. This means in
thethat
right hand plot, there is significant superheat at the expander outlet. This
the working fluid exiting the expander is significantly warmer than the working fluid exiting means that the working
the
fluid exiting
pump, theaexpander
giving is significantly
greater driving temperature warmer than the
differential working
for the fluid exiting
recuperator theThis
to exploit. pump, tendsgiving
to
increasedriving
a greater the amount of heat transferred
temperature differentialin the
forrecuperator
the recuperatorunderto low temperature
exploit. conditions,
This tends as seenthe
to increase
in Figure
amount 5. transferred in the recuperator under low temperature conditions, as seen in Figure 5.
of heat

Figure
Figure 6. Comparison
6. Comparison of dynamic
of dynamic Organic
Organic RankineRankine
CyclesCycles operating
operating under
under high high temperature
temperature (290 K, left)
(290 K, left) and low temperature (265 K, right) ambient
and low temperature (265 K, right) ambient conditions. conditions.

Also to be noted is the fact that the left hand figure, representing higher temperature ambient
Also to be noted is the fact that the left hand figure, representing higher temperature ambient
conditions, also happens to be the T-s diagram for a zeotropic fluid, and therefore exhibits a
conditions,
temperature alsoglide
happens
duringto be the T-s
phase diagram
change. Thisfor
cana zeotropic
be seen tofluid,
causeand thereforeinexhibits
an increase a temperature
the temperature of
glide
the during
expander phase change.
outlet relativeThis can
to the be seen
pump to cause
outlet due toan increase
this in thewill
glide, which temperature
also tend to ofincrease
the expander
the
outlet relative
amount to the
of heat pump outlet
transferred due
in the to this glide,
recuperator. which
This couldwill also tend
explain to increase
the slight drop inthethe
amount
amountof of
heat
transferred in the recuperator.
heat transferred This could
in the recuperator explain
at higher the slight
proportions drop in
of R134a in the
the amount
working of heatbecause
fluid, transferred
as
in the
the recuperator
working fluid at higher proportions
once again approachesof R134a in the
a pure working
fluid fluid, because
composition, the glideas the workingand
decreases, fluid
once again approaches
counteracts the increase a pure fluid
in heat composition,
energy transferredtheinglide decreases,due
the recuperator andto counteracts the increase
increasing superheat to in
heat energy
some degree.transferred in theofrecuperator
The response the dynamicdue to increasing
cycle with changing superheat
ambienttotemperature
some degree. The response
clearly shows
of that the cyclecycle
the dynamic has improved
with changingperformance
ambientover a conventional
temperature clearlyOrganic
shows that Rankine Cycle
the cycle haswhen the
improved
temperatureover
performance is lower.
a conventional Organic Rankine Cycle when the temperature is lower.
It can
It can bebe seenfrom
seen fromFigure
Figure77that
thatthe
thedynamic
dynamic cycle
cycle performs
performsbetter
betterthan
thanthetheconventional
conventional cycle
cycle
forfor
bothboth
thethe recuperative
recuperative andand non-recuperative
non-recuperative cases,
cases, withwith the greatest
the greatest improvement
improvement occurring
occurring during
theduring
colderthewintercolder winterasmonths,
months, predicted as by
predicted by thecurves
the response response curves
shown shown4.inAs
in Figure Figure 4. As the
the conventional
Energies 2017,10,
Energies2017, 10,440
440 12
12of
of21
22

conventional ORC efficiency is based on the highest annual temperature, the lowest point of the
ORC efficiency is based on the highest annual temperature, the lowest point of the monthly average
monthly average for the dynamic cycle is still higher than this, as even during the hottest months, the
for the dynamic cycle is still higher than this, as even during the hottest months, the temperature is
temperature is generally lower than the maximum most of the time. The non-recuperative cycle
generally lower than the maximum most of the time. The non-recuperative cycle increases in efficiency
increases in efficiency extremely slowly in response to decreasing temperature at the higher end of
extremely slowly in response to decreasing temperature at the higher end of the temperature range,
the temperature range, so the non-recuperative dynamic cycle only begins to significantly outperform
so the non-recuperative dynamic cycle only begins to significantly outperform the conventional cycle
the conventional cycle at the beginning and end of the year when the temperature is a great deal
at the beginning and end of the year when the temperature is a great deal colder than the maximum.
colder than the maximum. The efficiency of the recuperative dynamic cycle increases far more
The efficiency of the recuperative dynamic cycle increases far more sharply with increasing temperature,
sharply with increasing temperature, and so the improvement can be seen even during the summer
and so the improvement can be seen even during the summer months, when the temperature is still
months, when the temperature is still close to the maximum used in the design of the conventional cycle.
close to the maximum used in the design of the conventional cycle.

14%
Dynamic RegenerativeCycle

Dynamic Non-Regenerative Cycle

Conventional Regenerative Cycle

12% Conventional Non-Regenerative Cycle

Efficiency

10%

8%
Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec

Month
◦ C under Beijing’s
Figure7.7.Annual
Figure Annualvariation
variationin
incycle
cycleefficiency
efficiencyfor
foraaheat
heatsource
sourcetemperature
temperatureofof100
100 °C under Beijing’s
ambient conditions. Graph shows monthly averages.
ambient conditions. Graph shows monthly averages.

Thevalue
The valueof ofψψchanges
changesdepending
dependingon onthe
theannual
annualvariation
variation in in temperature,
temperature, as as shown
shown in in Figure
Figure 8. 8.
TheMATLAB
The MATLABroutine routinewaswasrun runusing
usingclimate
climatedatadatafrom
fromseveral
severallocations
locationsworldwide,
worldwide,for forheat
heatsource
source
temperatures of
temperatures 100 ◦°C
of 100 and 150
C and 150 ◦°C.
C. A A steady
steady increase
increase in in ψψ can
can bebe seen
seen asas the
the amplitude
amplitude of of the
the
temperature variations
temperature variations increases. This Thisisistotobebeexpected,
expected, asasthethe
greater thethe
greater temperature
temperature variation,
variation,the
greater
the thethe
greater difference
difference between
between thethehothotand
andcold
coldreservoirs,
reservoirs,and and therefore
therefore the greater the the Carnot
Carnot
efficiency. The
efficiency. The plot
plot deviates
deviates slightly
slightly from
from thethe linear
linear increase
increase in in Carnot
Carnot efficiency,
efficiency, however,
however,due dueto to
severalfactors,
several factors,most
mostnotably
notablythe thecomposition
compositionofof thethe working
working fluid.
fluid. When
When thethe temperature
temperature variation
variation is
is small,
small, onlyonly a small
a small amount
amount ofof R134a
R134a is is neededtotokeep
needed keepup upwith
withthe thechanging
changingheatheatsinksink temperature.
temperature.
Whenthe
When thetemperature
temperaturevariation
variationisismuchmuchlarger,
larger,the
theworking
workingfluidfluidcan canbebe100%
100%R134a,
R134a,and andstill
stillhave
have
excesscooling
excess coolingcapacity
capacityititisisnot
notutilising.
utilising.Some
Somesmall
smalldeviations
deviationsfrom fromthethetheoretical
theoreticalsmooth
smoothincrease
increase
canbe
can beseen.
seen.ForForexample,
example,Phoenix
Phoenix has has aa higher
higher average
average temperature
temperature than than any
any ofof the
the other
other locations,
locations,
andtherefore
and thereforeaareduced
reducedconventional
conventionalcycle cycleefficiency.
efficiency.This Thismeans
meansthat thatthe
thedynamic
dynamiccycle cycleisisslightly
slightly
more effective here than the idealised case
more effective here than the idealised case would predict. would predict.
Thetrend
The trendforforthe
thenon-recuperative
non-recuperative cycles
cycles is aofslightly
is of a slightly different
different shape,
shape, risingrising
slowly slowly at then
at first, first,
then increasing
increasing in This
in slope. slope. This is because,
is because, as shownasinshownFigure in Figure
4, the 4, the of
efficiency efficiency of non-recuperative
non-recuperative cycles only
cycles only
increase very increase
slowlyverywhen slowly when the
the ambient ambient temperature
temperature decreases from decreases from the
the annual annual maximum.
maximum. At lower
At lower
annual annual temperature
temperature variations,variations,
the heat sink the temperature
heat sink temperature
never becomes nevercold
becomes
enough cold
to enough
cause the to
cause the non-recuperative
non-recuperative cycle to entercyclethetoregion
enter the region
of its response of itscurve
responsewhere curve where
a sharp a sharp
increase inincrease
efficiency in
efficiency
can be seen.can be seen.
 Energies 2017, 10, 440 13 of 21
Energies 2017, 10, 440 13 of 22

Energies 2017, 10, 18%

440 13 of 22
150°C, regenerator
16% 150°C, no regenerator
18% 100°C, regenerator
150°C, regenerator
14% 16% 100°C, nono
150°C, regenerator
regenerator
100°C, regenerator
12% 14% 100°C, no regenerator
10% 12%
ψ

8% 10%
ψ

6% 8%
6%
4%
4%
2%
2%
0%
0%
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35
Annual Temperature Variation (°C)
Annual Temperature Variation (°C)
Figure 8. Variation in ψ for five case studies for annual temperature variation. From left to right,
Figure 8. Variation
Figure
Mumbai, in
8. Variation
Ushuaia, ψinfor five
ψ for
Glasgow, case
five studies
case
Phoenix, studiesfor
Beijing. for annual temperaturevariation.
annual temperature variation. From
From left left to right,
to right,
Mumbai, Ushuaia,
Mumbai, Glasgow,
Ushuaia, Phoenix,
Glasgow, Beijing.
Phoenix, Beijing.

TheThevariation
variation
in ψ ψ
with changing heat sourcetemperature
temperature was also investigated, and the results
The variation in ψinwith with changing
changing heatsource
heat sourcetemperature was
wasalso
alsoinvestigated,
investigated,andand
the results
the results
for the the
casecase
study of of
Beijing’s climate conditions plotted in Figure 9. It can be seen thatboth
for the
both the
for theforcase study study Beijing’s
of Beijing’s climate
climate conditionsplotted
conditions plotted in
in Figure
Figure9.9.ItItcan
canbebe
seen
seenthatthat
for for both the
recuperative
recuperative andandnon-recuperative
non-recuperative dynamic
dynamic cycles,
cycles, thethe improvement
improvement in in annual
annual energyenergy provision
provision ψ ψ
recuperative and non-recuperative dynamic cycles, ◦ C,the improvement in annual energy provision ψ
increases gradually until a temperature of 150 whereat it peaks, and then
increases gradually until a temperature of 150 °C, whereat it peaks, and then begins to drop away. begins to drop away.
increases gradually until a temperature of 150 °C, whereat it peaks, and then begins to drop away.
ThisThis
is iniscontrast
in contrast to results
to the the results previously
previously obtained
obtained by the
by the authors
authors for for a similar
a similar dynamic
dynamic ORCORC concept
This is in contrast to the results previously obtained by the authors for a similar dynamic ORC
usingconcept
a turbineusingas athe
turbine as the[19],
expander expander
in which[19],the
in value
whichofthe value of ψdecreased
ψ smoothly smoothly decreased with heat
with increasing
concept using aheat
increasing turbine
source astemperature
the expanderas the[19], in which
resulting the Carnot
increased value of ψ smoothly decreased with
source temperature as the resulting increased Carnot efficiency of efficiency of the conventional
the conventional cycle made the
increasing heat source temperature as the resulting increased
cycle made the gains caused by the dynamic cycle proportionally smaller. Carnot efficiency of the conventional
gains caused by the dynamic cycle proportionally smaller.
cycle made the gains caused by the dynamic cycle proportionally smaller.
14%
14%
12%

12%
10%

10% 8%
ψ

8% 6% Regenerative Cycle Non-Regenerative Cycle

ψ

6% 4% Regenerative Cycle Non-Regenerative Cycle

2%
4%
0%
2% 75 95 115 135 155 175 195

0% Heat Source Temperature (°C)

75 95 115 135 155 175 195
Figure 9. Variation
Figure ininψψwith
9. Variation withchanging heatsource
changing heat sourcetemperature
temperature under
under Beijing’s
Beijing’s ambient
ambient conditions.
conditions.
Heat Source Temperature (°C)
It isItsignificant
is significant that
that thethe peakininthe
peak theplot
plotof
of Figure
Figure 99 occurs
occursatatroughly
roughlythe
thecritical point
critical of R245fa,
point of R245fa, at
at a
Figure temperature
9. Variationof
◦ 154
in ψ °C.
with As stated
changing in the
heat previous
source section,
temperature the MATLAB
under routine
Beijing’s
a temperature of 154 C. As stated in the previous section, the MATLAB routine ensured that ensured
ambient that the
conditions.
the cycle
cycle was subcritical, by selecting the evaporator pressure either to produce zero superheat at the
was subcritical, by selecting the evaporator pressure either to produce zero superheat at the expander
Itexpander
inlet when
inlet when
is significant
the working
the peak
that the working
fluid was
fluidplot
in 100%
the wasof100%
Figure
R245fa,
R245fa, or to at
or to9 5occurs
5 K below the
K belowroughly thecritical
the critical
temperature
critical point of
temperature
of
of R245fa,
the fluid,
the fluid, whichever was the lower.
at a temperature of 154 °C. As stated in the previous section, the MATLAB routine ensured that the
whichever was the lower.
cycle was subcritical,
Figure 10 showsbythe selecting theinevaporator
variation pressure
the evaporator andeither to produce
condenser zero as
pressures superheat
the heatatsource
the
expander inletiswhen
temperature theInworking
varied. fluid
the lower wasincreasing
range, 100% R245fa, or to
the heat 5 K below
source the critical
temperature allowstemperature of
the evaporator
the fluid, whichever was the lower.
 Energies 2017, 10, 440 14 of 22
Energies 2017, 10, 440 14 of 21

Figure 10 shows the variation in the evaporator and condenser pressures as the heat source
temperature is varied. In the lower range, increasing the heat source temperature allows the
pressure to be increased, increasing the efficiency of the cycle. This trend continues until the critical
evaporator pressure to be increased, increasing the efficiency of the cycle. This trend continues until
point of R245fa is reached, at which point the pressure ratio cannot be increased any further without
the critical point of R245fa is reached, at which point the pressure ratio cannot be increased any
the cycle becoming
further supercritical.
without the After
cycle becoming this point, After
supercritical. the cycle then shows
this point, the
the cycle same
then trend
shows the as thetrend
same previous
cycle as
considered
the previous cycle considered by the authors, with the increase in annual energy provisiongains
by the authors, with the increase in annual energy provision dropping off as the
caused by the off
dropping dynamic cyclecaused
as the gains becomeby less proportionally
the dynamic significant.
cycle become less proportionally significant.

35
Condenser Pressure Evaporator Pressure
30

25
Pressure (bar)

20

15

10

0
75 95 115 135 155 175 195
Heat Source Temperature (°C)

FigureFigure 10. Variation

10. Variation in Evaporator
in Evaporator andand Condenserpressure
Condenser pressurewith
withchanging
changing heat
heat source
sourcetemperature
temperature for
for Beijing’s ambient conditions.
Beijing’s ambient conditions.

The previous analysis has been a first-law treatment of the dynamic ORC. However, First Law
The previous
Efficiency is onlyanalysis has by
one metric been a first-law
which treatment
a cycle can of the
be analysed. Fordynamic
waste heatORC. However,
sources, First Law
for example,
Efficiency is only
the specific one is
power metric bymetric
a better whichbyawhich
cycle to
can be analysed.
judge the cycle. For waste heat sources, for example,
the specificFigure
power 11 is
shows the metric
a better variation
byinwhich
the specific
to judgepower of the cycle as the ambient temperature
the cycle.
changes. Two things are immediately apparent from
Figure 11 shows the variation in the specific power of the the graph. Firstly,
cyclethe
asspecific power increases
the ambient temperature
with decreasing ambient temperature. Secondly, the curves for
changes. Two things are immediately apparent from the graph. Firstly, the specific powerthe recuperative and increases
non-
recuperative cycles are identical.
with decreasing ambient temperature. Secondly, the curves for the recuperative and non-recuperative
The
Energies
first point can be explained by examining the pinch point diagrams for the evaporator15ofofthe
2017, 10, 440 22
cycles are identical.
ORC. Figure 12 shows the evaporator pinch point diagrams for a high ambient temperature case, i.e.,
with the fluid composed of mostly R245fa, and a low ambient temperature case, i.e., with the fluid
90
composed mostly of R134a. The lower boiling point of the R134a has resulted in a far greater degree
80 expander inlet, allowing a much steeper line for the evaporator. The steeper line
of superheat at the
means a lower necessary
70 mass flow rate of thermal fluid. The ORC has its output fixed at 10 kW, so
Specific Power (W.s/kg)

the reduced mass flow rate observed in Figure 12 means that the specific power increases for the
60
lower heat sink temperatures represented by the leftmost pinch point diagram.
50
40
30
20
10
0
250 260 270 280 290 300 310 320
Ambient Temperature (K)

Figure 11. Variation in specific power for recuperative and non-recuperative dynamic cycles over the
Figure 11. Variation in specific power for recuperative and non-recuperative dynamic cycles over the
course of the year for Beijing’s ambient conditions, and a heat source temperature of 100 ◦ C. The specific
course of the year for Beijing’s ambient conditions, and a heat source temperature of 100 °C. The
power of thepower
specific cycleofdoes not vary
the cycle does depending on whether
not vary depending a recuperator
on whether is present,
a recuperator so these
is present, two
so these curves
two
are identical.
curves are identical.
 50

Specific Power
40
30

Energies 2017, 10, 440 20 15 of 21

10
The first point0can be explained by examining the pinch point diagrams for the evaporator of the
ORC. Figure 12 shows 250the evaporator
260 270 point
pinch 280
diagrams 290for a high
300ambient310temperature
320 case, i.e.,
with the fluid composed of mostly R245fa,Ambient Temperature
and a low (K)
ambient temperature case, i.e., with the fluid
composed mostly of R134a. The lower boiling point of the R134a has resulted in a far greater degree
of superheat
Figure 11.atVariation
the expander inlet,
in specific allowing
power a much steeper
for recuperative line for the evaporator.
and non-recuperative The over
dynamic cycles steeper
the line
means a lower
course necessary
of the year formass flowambient
Beijing’s rate of thermal fluid.
conditions, andThe ORC
a heat has its
source output fixed
temperature at 10°C.
of 100 kW, so the
The
reduced mass flow rate observed in Figure 12 means that the specific power increases for
specific power of the cycle does not vary depending on whether a recuperator is present, so these two the lower
heat sink temperatures
curves are identical. represented by the leftmost pinch point diagram.

Figure 12.
Figure 12. Evaporator
Evaporator Pinch
Pinch Point
Point Diagrams
Diagrams for
for aa heat
heat source
source temperature
temperature of
of 100
100 ◦°C and heat
C and heat sink
sink
temperatures of −11 °C
◦ (left) and 25 °C
◦ (right).
temperatures of −11 C (left) and 25 C (right).

The second point, the fact that the recuperative and non-recuperative curves are identical, can
The second point, the fact that the recuperative and non-recuperative curves are identical, can
be explained by the fact that the pinch point in both cases is at the bubble point of the working fluid,
be explained by the fact that the pinch point in both cases is at the bubble point of the working fluid,
and that the recuperator does not cause a phase change in the evaporator. Even though the energy
and that the recuperator does not cause a phase change in the evaporator. Even though the energy
transferred in the evaporator will be less in the recuperative case, meaning the first law efficiency
transferred in the evaporator will be less in the recuperative case, meaning the first law efficiency
increases, this does not necessarily translate into an increase in specific power, as the expander work
increases, this does not necessarily translate into an increase in specific power, as the expander work is
is still held constant, and the thermal fluid line must still satisfy the pinch point condition. This means
still held constant, and the thermal fluid line must still satisfy the pinch point condition. This means
that unless the pinch point position changes, there can be no change in the flow rate on the hot side
that unless the pinch point position changes, there can be no change in the flow rate on the hot
of the evaporator, and the specific power will not change. In no cases analysed was there a phase
side of the evaporator, and the specific power will not change. In no cases analysed was there a
change in the recuperator, meaning that there was no difference between the recuperative and non-
phase change in the recuperator, meaning that there was no difference between the recuperative and
recuperative plots.
non-recuperative plots.
Figure 13 shows the variation in the increase in annual heat source utilization φ as the heat
source temperature changes. It can be seen that the value initially drops off slowly as the heat source
temperature is increased, due primarily to the increase in the minimum value of the specific power.
As the heat source temperature approaches the critical temperature, the value of φ drops off more
sharply. Figure 14 shows how the specific power of the non-dynamic cycle varies with heat source
temperature for Beijing’s ambient conditions. It can be seen that the specific power of the non-dynamic
cycle begins to increase at amount this point as well, due to the fact that after the critical temperature
of R245fa at 154 ◦ C there will be a superheat at the expander inlet for the non-dynamic cycle, allowing
an increased slope on the T-Q diagram for the thermal fluid and reducing its required flow rate.
 temperature for Beijing’s ambient conditions. It can be seen that the specific power of the non-
temperature
dynamic cycle forbegins
Beijing’s ambientatconditions.
to increase amount this It point
can beasseen
well,that
duethe specific
to the power
fact that afterofthe
thecritical
non-
dynamic
temperaturecycleofbegins
R245fatoatincrease at amount
154 °C there will bethis point as well,
a superheat at thedue to the inlet
expander fact that after
for the the critical
non-dynamic
temperature
cycle, allowing of R245fa at 154 slope
an increased °C there willT-Q
on the be adiagram
superheat
for at
thethe expander
thermal fluidinlet
andfor the non-dynamic
reducing its required
cycle, allowing an increased slope on the T-Q diagram for the thermal fluid and reducing its required
flow rate.
Energies 2017, 10, 440 16 of 21
flow rate.
300%
300%
250%
250%
200%
200%
150%
Ф Ф

150%
100%
100%
50%
50%
0%
0% 75 95 115 135 155 175 195
75 95 115 Source135
Heat 155 (°C )
Temperature 175 195
Heat Source Temperature (°C )
Figure13.
Figure 13. Variation
Variationin
inφϕwith
withvarying
varyingheat
heatsource
sourcetemperature
temperaturefor
forBeijing’s
Beijing’sambient
ambientconditions.
conditions.
Figure 13. Variation in ϕ with varying heat source temperature for Beijing’s ambient conditions.
80
80
70
Regenerative Cycle
(W/kg)

70
60 Regenerative Cycle
(W/kg)

60
50
Power

50
40
Power

40
30
Specific

30
Specific

20
20
10
100
0 75 95 115 135 155 175 195
75 95 115 135 155 175 195
Heat Source Temperature (°C)
Heat Source Temperature (°C)
Figure 14. Variation in the Specific Power of the Non-Dynamic Cycle with varying heat source
temperature with Beijing’s ambient conditions.
Figure 14. Variation in the Specific Power of the Non-Dynamic Cycle with varying heat source
Figure 14. Variation in the Specificconditions.
Power of the Non-Dynamic Cycle with varying heat source
Atemperature
brief caveatwith
withBeijing’s
regardambient
to the analysis of specific power: Optimising the specific power output
temperature with Beijing’s ambient conditions.
is a complex task. Reducing the evaporator pressure will increase expander inlet superheat, and tend
A brief caveat with regard to the analysis of specific power: Optimising the specific power
to increase specific power, while reducing first law efficiency of the cycle. Reduced first law efficiency
outputbrief
A caveat with
is a complex task.regard
Reducingto the
the analysis of specific
evaporator pressurepower: Optimising
will increase the inlet
expander specific power
superheat,
tends to increase the installed cost per kW of the cycle. The optimum point will depend on the exact
output
and tend is atocomplex
increasetask. Reducing
specific power,the evaporator
while reducingpressure will increase
first law efficiency expander
of the inlet superheat,
cycle. Reduced first law
application of the cycle and the details of the heat source. Such a specific analysis is outside the scope of
and tend totends
efficiency increase specific the
to increase power, whilecost
installed reducing
per kWfirst lawcycle.
of the efficiency of the cycle.
The optimum Reduced
point first law
will depend on
the general treatment applied in this paper, but the analysis presented serves to show the general trend.
efficiency tends to increase the installed cost per kW of the cycle. The optimum point will depend on
Figure 15 shows the variation in superheat over the course of the year. Figures 16 and 17 show
the exergy destruction in each component over the course of the year. Although some irreversibility
occurred in the pump, resulting in exergy destruction, its effect was negligible in comparison to other
components, and therefore has been left out of the following plots in the interest of clarity. It can
be seen that with a recuperator present, the evaporator is by far the greatest contributor to exergy
destruction. This exergy destruction is greatest during the winter months. This seems primarily to
be caused by the greater degree of superheat introduced at the expander inlet by the shifting of the
working fluid composition to one rich in R134a, which reduces its dew point.
 The exergy efficiency of the cycle over the course of the year was also analysed. Figure 18 shows
this variation for a heat source temperature of 75 °C. It can be seen that the exergy efficiency is higher
year-round for the recuperative cycle, and that the recuperative and basic cycles diverge in the winter
months as the recuperator takes up the excess heat at the expander inlet. All cycles show high second
law efficiency in the summer months, which drops off slightly as the ambient temperature drops, the
Energies 2017, 10, 440 17 of 21
fluid composition changes, and the temperature mismatch in the evaporator increases.

60

Superheat at Expander Inlet (K)

50

40

30

20

10

0
Jan-13 Jan-13 Mar-13 Apr-13 May-13 May-13 Jun-13 Jul-13 Aug-13 Sep-13 Oct-13 Nov-13
Month

Figure 15. Superheat at expander inlet over the course of the year for a heat source temperature of
75 ◦ CFigure
under
Energies 2017,
15. Superheat at expander inlet over the course of the year for a heat source temperature of
Beijing’s ambient conditions.
Energies 2017,10,
10,440
440 1818ofof2222
75 °C under Beijing’s ambient conditions.

100000
100000
(J/kg)
Destruction(J/kg)
ExergyDestruction

10000
10000
SpecificExergy

1000
1000
Specific

Evaporator
Evaporator Expander
Expander
Condenser
Condenser Regenerator
Regenerator
100
100
Dec-12
Dec-12 Jan-13
Jan-13 Mar-13
Mar-13 May-13
May-13 Jun-13
Jun-13 Aug-13
Aug-13 Oct-13
Oct-13 Nov-13
Nov-13 Jan-14
Jan-14
Month
Month

FigureFigure
Figure 16.
16.Variation
16. Variation
Variationininexergy
in exergy destruction
destruction
exergy ininin
destruction each
each cycle
cycle
each component
componentover
cyclecomponent overthe
over course
the
the ofofthe
course
course of year
thethe for
forafor
year
year a a
heat
heatsource
heat source source temperature
temperature
temperature of 75ofof◦75
75°C
C °Cwith
withwithaarecuperator.
recuperator.
a recuperator.

40000
40000
(J/kg)
Destruction(J/kg)

35000
35000

30000
30000
ExergyDestruction

25000
25000
Evaporator
Evaporator
20000
20000
Expander
SpecificExergy

Expander
15000
15000
Condenser
Condenser
10000
Specific

10000

5000
5000

00
Dec-12
Dec-12 Jan-13
Jan-13 Mar-13
Mar-13 May-13
May-13 Jun-13
Jun-13 Aug-13
Aug-13 Oct-13
Oct-13 Nov-13
Nov-13 Jan-14
Jan-14
Month
Month

17. Variation
FigureFigure in exergy destruction in each cycle componentover
over the course of the yearafor a
Figure17.
17.Variation
Variationininexergy
exergydestruction
destructioninineach
eachcycle
cyclecomponent
component overthe
thecourse
courseofofthe
theyear
yearfor
for a
heat source temperature of 75 ◦ C without a arecuperator.
heat
heatsource
source temperature
temperature ofof75
75°C
°Cwithout
without arecuperator.
recuperator.
Energies 2017, 10, 440 18 of 21

The recuperator shows the lowest exergy destruction rate, indicating the highest recuperator
efficiency, during the winter months, as was noted in the previous section. Figure 17 shows the similar
results for the case of a non-recuperative cycle. The specific exergy destruction in the evaporator is
higher in this case, reaching 37 kJ/kg, as opposed to 33 kJ/kg in the recuperative cycle. The exergy
destruction in the condenser is also noticeably higher, reaching almost 14 kJ/kg during the winter
months, which are when the recuperator is at its most effective.
The exergy efficiency of the cycle over the course of the year was also analysed. Figure 18 shows
this variation for a heat source temperature of 75 ◦ C. It can be seen that the exergy efficiency is higher
year-round for the recuperative cycle, and that the recuperative and basic cycles diverge in the winter
months as the recuperator takes up the excess heat at the expander inlet. All cycles show high second
law efficiency in the summer months, which drops off slightly as the ambient temperature drops,
Energies
the fluid 2017, 10, 440 changes, and the temperature mismatch in the evaporator increases.19 of 22
composition
Energies 2017, 10, 440 19 of 22

55%
55%

50%
50%
Efficiency
ExergyEfficiency

45%
45%

40%
Exergy

40%
Regenerative Cycle
Regenerative Cycle
35%
35% Basic Cycle
Basic Cycle
Conventional ORC
30% Conventional ORC
30%
Dec-12 Jan-13 Mar-13 May-13 Jun-13 Aug-13 Oct-13 Nov-13 Jan-14
12月-12 1月-13 3月-13 5月-13 6月-13 8月-13 10月-13 11月-13 1月-14
Month
Month
Figure Variation
18. 18.
Figure VariationininExergy Efficiencyover
Exergy Efficiency over
the the
yearyear
for a for
heatasource
heat temperature
source temperature of 75 ◦ C
of 75 °C under
Figure
under 18. Variation
Beijing’s ambient in Exergy Efficiency
conditions overRecuperative,
the year for a heat source temperature and
of 75 Conventional
°C under
Beijing’s ambient conditions for for
thetheRecuperative, Non-Recuperative,
Non-Recuperative, and Conventional
Beijing’s ambient conditions for the Recuperative, Non-Recuperative, and Conventional
(Non-Dynamic)
(Non-Dynamic)cycles.
cycles.
(Non-Dynamic) cycles.

An analysis of how the heat transfer coefficients in the heat exchangers varied depending on
An analysis
An analysisof how thethe
of how heat
heattransfer
transfercoefficients inthe
coefficients in theheat
heatexchangers
exchangers varied
varied depending
depending on on
working fluid composition was also carried out. Figure 19 shows how the Nusselt numbers for liquid
working
working fluidfluid composition
composition waswas alsocarried
also carriedout.
out. Figure
Figure 19
19shows
showshowhowthethe
Nusselt numbers
Nusselt for liquid
numbers for liquid
and vapour varied depending on the working fluid composition.
and vapour
and vapour varied
varied depending
depending ononthe
theworking
working fluid
fluid composition.
composition.
300
300
Liquid Nusselt Number Vapour Nusselt Number
Liquid Nusselt Number Vapour Nusselt Number
250
250
Number

200
NusseltNumber

200
150
150
Nusselt

100
100
50
50
0
0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
Mass Proportion of R134a in working fluid
Mass Proportion of R134a in working fluid

Figure 19. Variation

Figure in Nusselt
19. Variation Number
in Nusselt Numberin
inthe
the evaporator fora aheat
evaporator for heat source
source temperature
temperature 100 ◦ C.
of °C.
of 100
Figure 19. Variation in Nusselt Number in the evaporator for a heat source temperature of 100 °C.

It can be seen in Figure 19 that the Nusselt number is around 270 for the pure R245fa, drops to
It can be seen in Figure 19 that the Nusselt number is around 270 for the pure R245fa, drops to
110 for the vapour Nusselt number and 165 for the liquid Nusselt number. Even for a situation with
110 for the vapour Nusselt number and 165 for the liquid Nusselt number. Even for a situation with
minimal superheating of the working fluid, this implies that an oversized heat exchanger will be
minimal superheating of the working fluid, this implies that an oversized heat exchanger will be
needed for the dynamic cycle compared to a non-dynamic cycle using R245fa as the working fluid.
needed for the dynamic cycle compared to a non-dynamic cycle using R245fa as the working fluid.
This will add to the capital cost of the dynamic cycle compared to a non-dynamic equivalent.
This will add to the capital cost of the dynamic cycle compared to a non-dynamic equivalent.
4. Conclusions
Energies 2017, 10, 440 19 of 21

It can be seen in Figure 19 that the Nusselt number is around 270 for the pure R245fa, drops
to 110 for the vapour Nusselt number and 165 for the liquid Nusselt number. Even for a situation
with minimal superheating of the working fluid, this implies that an oversized heat exchanger will be
needed for the dynamic cycle compared to a non-dynamic cycle using R245fa as the working fluid.
This will add to the capital cost of the dynamic cycle compared to a non-dynamic equivalent.

4. Conclusions
This paper investigates if the recently developed dynamic ORC cycle can be applied to small-scale
systems based on positive-displacement expanders with fixed expansion ratios. The results show
that the dynamic ORC is capable of increasing the system’s annual average efficiency for a given
heat source. However, such an improvement is much less than that of the large scale system using
turbine expanders with variable expansion ratios. Furthermore, such benefit strongly depends on heat
recovery via the recuperator. The higher the heat recuperation, the higher the efficiency improvement.
This is because an expander with a fixed expansion ratio approximately has a constant pressure ratio
between its inlet and outlet. The increase of pressure ratio between the evaporator and condenser by
tuning the condensing temperature to match colder ambient condition in winter cannot be utilized by
such expanders. However, with the recuperator in place, the higher discharging temperature of the
expander could increase the heat recovery and consequently reduce the heat input at the evaporator,
ultimately increasing the thermal efficiency.
The dynamic cycle also showed an improvement in specific power, implying better heat source
utilization. This was caused by increasing expander inlet superheat as the working fluid composition
changed, allowing for the same amount of electricity to be generated from a smaller flow rate of
thermal fluid.
An exergy analysis has also been conducted, and it was found that the exergy destruction in the
cycle was dominated by the evaporator. The exergy efficiency was improved by the dynamic cycle,
particularly in the winter months, as the recuperator and increased superheat caused by the change in
working fluid composition made better use of the increased available driving temperature differential,
compared to the conventional, non-dynamic cycle.

Acknowledgments: This research is funded by Royal Society (RG130051) and EPSRC (EP/N005228/1 and
EP/N020472/1) in the United Kingdom, and a joint Programme “Royal Society–National Natural Science
Foundation of China (Ref: IE150866)”.
Author Contributions: Zhibin Yu developed the initial concept. Peter Collings and Zhibin Yu performed the
literature review and collaborated on the introduction. Peter Collings produced the mathematical model and
MATLAB program. Peter Collings and Zhibin Yu analysed the results and interpreted the data. Peter Collings
and Zhibin Yu wrote the paper.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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