91: Light Sources and Detectors

Miroslaw Jonasz
MJC Optical Technology, Beaconsfield, Quebec, Canada

1.1 Incandescent filament lamps

1 Light Sources 593
2 Light-emitting Diodes (LEDs) 595
Incandescent filament lamps generate electromagnetic radi-
3 Lasers 595 ation by resistively heating a filament, made usually of
4 Detectors 597 tungsten, to about 3000 K. The filament temperature, and,
5 Thermal Detectors 597 thus, the maximum of the spectral output (Table 1) depend
6 Photon Detectors 599 strongly on the operating voltage, typically in a range of few
Related Articles 602 volts to a few hundred volts. Various configurations of the
filament, usually coiled-coil, and the envelope are widely
References 602
available, including designs featuring integrated ellipsoidal
Further Reading 602 dichroic reflectors, transparent in the infrared (IR), that
increase the visible output power.
Spectral output of these lamps (Figure 1) resembles,
1 LIGHT SOURCES but is lower than, thermal (blackbody) radiation spectrum
with about 90% of the spectral output in the infrared.
Light sources may be selected on the basis of several The spectral output of the filament is modified by the
criteria, including: transmission spectrum of the envelope (glass or quartz).
• power Being roughly omnidirectional, extended-area light sources,
• spectral range these lamps make it difficult to collimate or focus
• wavelength tunability light output, for example, launch light into an optical
• duration of emission (continuous, also referred to as fiber.
CW for continuous wave or pulsed) Incandescent tungsten lamps are available as vacuum
• coherence lamps, inert gas filled lamps, and halogen lamps, in the
• focusability. order of the increasing filament temperature. In halogen
Two groups of light source types have evolved commer- lamps, a small quantity of iodine or bromine compounds
cially added to the inert gas fill used maintains the lamp out-
put at close to 100% throughout the lamp life, provided
• low-coherence broad-spectrum sources (incandescent the lamps are operated at their nominal voltage to main-
filament lamps, arc lamps, pulsed arc lamps, infrared tain the envelope temperature required for the halogen
incandescent sources, light-emitting diodes, i.e. LEDs) cycle.
• high-coherence, nearly monochromatic sources (lasers). Owing to a relatively large thermal mass of the fila-
Key parameters of light sources are summarized in ment, incandescent lamps are used generally as continuous,
Table 1. Irradiance spectra of representative light sources steady-output light sources. For high-stability applications,
are shown in Figure 1. stabilized DC power supplies are required.

Handbook of Measuring System Design, edited by Peter H. Sydenham and Richard Thorn.
 2005 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. ISBN: 0-470-02143-8.
594 Measuring System Design

Table 1. Key characteristics of electromagnetic radiation sources (CW = continuous output).

Approximate Approximate maximum Approximate Approximate pulse Light source type
spectral range output wavelength power range length range

150 nm–2.5 µma,b 500 nm 1–300 kW 1 ns–1 ms Gas arc lampc

0.1–10 Jg
150 nm–20 µme Variesh 0.1 mW–10 kW 10 fs–10 ms Laserd
1 pJ–20 Jg
250 nm–2.5 µmb 0.8–1.2 µmf 1–10 kW – Incandescent filament lampc
460–950 nm Varies 0.1–1 mW 1 ns–CW LEDc
1–30 µma Varies 1–100 W – Infrared light sourcesc
0.1–100 µma Varies 0.1–1000 W – Blackbodyc
a
Broad, thermal spectrum.
b
Sharp spectral peaks at wavelengths dependent on the fill gas.
c
Incoherent light source, difficult to focus and collimate.
d
Coherent light source, easy to focus and collimate.
e
Nearly monochromatic output at one or more wavelengths within this range.
f
Depends on the filament temperature and lamp type (halogen, gas filled, or vacuum).
g
Pulsed output.
h
May be wavelength-tunable.

1000 1.2 Arc lamps

Irradiance at 0.5 m, mW m−2 nm−1

100
10
1 discharge (as an arc) through ionized gas.
0.1
0.01
0.001
0.0001
100 1000
Wavelength, nm
Deuterium
TH
N laser (337 nm)
CO2 laser (10200 nm)
Xe arc (peaks in IR)
SiC
He-Ne laser (633 nm)
Figure 1. Spectra of representative light sources. Thermal
(broadband) light sources spectra are based on the data
from a catalog of Oriel Instruments (now Spectra Physics,
www.spectra-physics.com): 150-W Xe arc lamp, 200-W Hg arc
lamp, 30-W deuterium lamp, 100-W tungsten halogen (TH) lamp
(dashed line above about 5000 nm represents the output of the
lamp envelope), and 50-W silicon carbide envelope-less infrared
element. Wavelength ranges of the lamps’ spectra are limited
by the envelopes – in the case of a quartz envelope to a range
of about 200 to between 2500 and 3500 nm. Spectral lines of
few major fixed-wavelength laser types are indicated symbolically
with short dashed vertical lines. The vertical range of these lines
does not represent the magnitudes of the irradiances that are
many orders or magnitude higher than the maximum of the graph
scale. For example, a typical 1-mW HeNe laser (λ = 633 nm,
λ = 0.0002 nm, beam diameter 1 mm2 ) produces irradiance on
the order of 5 × 109 mW m−2 nm−1 .
1.2.1 CW arc lamps
In arc lamps, optical radiation is generated by an electric
The spectral output of an arc lamp (Figure 1) consists
of a broad, blackbody-type output and sharp peaks at
wavelengths that depend on the gas fill. Gases used in these
lamps are typically deuterium, mercury vapor (Hg), xenon
(Xe), and a Hg–Xe mixture. The deuterium lamp outputs a
smooth spectrum usable from about 160 (envelope limited)
to about 400 nm with spectral peaks in an essentially
10 000 100 000
unusable, owing to low spectral power density, visible
spectral range. The Hg and Xe lamps (envelope-limited
Hg arc (peaks in UV and VIS)
TH envelope useful range of 250 to 2500 nm) have major peaks at 365.0,
Ar-Kr laser (488-647 nm) 404.6, 434.8, and 546.1 nm (Hg) and between 750 and
1550 nm diode laser
1000 nm (Xe). Owing to a high gas pressure in these lamps
(of the order of 10 to 100 atm at the operating temperature),
the spectral peaks are significantly collision broadened (on
the order of several nanometers).
The generally small arc (on the order of 0.1 to 1 mm)
allows relatively efficient collimation or focusing of the
lamp radiation. Compact Xe arc lamps containing an inte-
grated sealed-in paraboloidal reflector that produces a ‘col-
limated’ beam with a moderate divergence are commer-
cially available (CeraLux, Luxtel, www.luxtel.net). The
arc position in an arc lamp varies in time (arc wander) and
may cause variations in the output power, especially when
this output is collimated or focused.
1.2.2 Xe flash (pulsed) lamps
These arc lamps range from small flashlamps for instru-
ments, to large flashlamps such as those used as pump

sources in lasers. The flash (of the order of microseconds
long) is produced by discharging a capacitor. Flash repeti-
tion rates are on the order of 100 pulses/s.
1.3 Infrared incandescent sources
The radiating elements of these sources are made of high-
temperature-resistant materials such as silicon carbide (Glo-
bar), and a sintered mixture of oxides of zirconium, yttrium,
thorium, or erbium (Nernst glower). These elements, with
sizes on the order of several millimeters, are heated resis-
tively to a temperature on the order of 1000 to 2000 K. The
radiating elements are operated in the air with no envelope,
limiting the spectral ranges of these sources (Table 1).
Incandescent IR sources have spectral outputs (Figure 1)
similar to that of the blackbody, but their wavelength-
dependent emissivity is less than unity, typically on the
order of 0.9. Blackbody sources operable at temperatures
ranging from 400 to 3000 K are brighter (emissivity >0.99),
but an order of magnitude more expensive alternatives to
these IR emitters.
2 LIGHT-EMITTING DIODES (LEDs)
The light-emitting diodes are relatively narrowband
(20–50 nm), low-voltage (2 V), and low-power sources
(Table 1) available in a wide spectral range spanning the
visible and near IR. White-light LEDs that use a phosphor
to convert the base emission wavelength range into a broad
range perceived as white light are also available. LEDs
convert electric current (∼20 mA) to light by recombining
charge carriers in semiconductors. The semiconductors used
include SiC, GaN, ZnSe, GaInN (blue), GaP (green), GaP:N
(yellow), and AlInGaP, GaAsP (red).
LEDs are available in a wide range of packages, ranging
from plastic encapsulation to TO-type metal transistor
cans with flat or lensed windows. The emitting area is
on the order of a fraction of 1 mm in size. Plastic and
glass lensed packages provide rough collimation of the
output, but a better result in collimating or focusing a
LED output can frequently be obtained with flat-window
packages that generally provide a nearly Lambertian spatial
radiation pattern.
3 LASERS
The laser (for example, Hecht, 1992) consists of an
optical resonator cavity, created by two opposing, high-
reflectance mirror surfaces (generally slightly concave), and
gain medium inside that cavity. The cavity supports a set
of optical radiation modes (resonances) each embodying
Light Sources and Detectors 595
a discrete wavelength and irradiance pattern in a plane
perpendicular to the optical axis of the cavity. The gain
medium is selected so that its absorption band overlaps with
the wavelength of at least one of the cavity modes and that
the radiative energy transition is the most probable transi-
tion corresponding to that absorption band. In lasers that
employ gain media with wide spectra, prisms or gratings
are used to select a subrange of the gain medium spectrum.
By ‘pumping’ the gain medium with an electric dis-
charge, current, or light, one excites electrons of that
medium to an energy state. Electrons falling (initially spon-
taneously) from that state to a lower one emit light of
various radiation modes. Competition, via stimulated emis-
sion, of modes supported by the cavity for energy supplied
to the gain medium quickly leaves a few dominant modes
inside the cavity. The simplest and commonly provided
mode, TEM00 , has an axially symmetric Gaussian irradi-
ance profile that is frequently associated with the laser beam
in general. The process of generation of light by a laser is
more akin to that used in an electronic frequency generator
than to optical noise generation characteristic of a thermal
light source.
The cavity is deliberately made slightly leaky (<1% loss)
in order to let laser radiation out. In pulsed lasers that use
Q-switching technique for generation of high-power mod-
erately short pulses (on the order of nanoseconds long),
the cavity quality (Q-factor) is spoiled for a sufficient time
to build a significant population of electrons in an excited
state and then it is temporarily restored to generate a short
pulse of radiation. Trains of much shorter pulses (several
femtoseconds) can be obtained by mode locking, that is,
introducing a fixed phase relationship between the cavity
modes. The pulse train is a result of interference between
the locked modes.
The cooperation of the resonant cavity properties, gain
medium absorption profile, and the stimulated emission
gives the laser beam its directionality, high monochromatic-
ity, and coherence. Stabilized frequency lasers have line
widths <1 × 10−11 nm (3 MHz), and coherence lengths on
the order of 1 km. Key characteristics of representative laser
types are summarized in Table 2. Wavelengths of major
laser types are shown in Figure 1.
3.1 Gas lasers
These lasers span a wide wavelength range from UV
(excimer, for example, XeF, XeCl; nitrogen), through vis-
ible (argon, argon/krypton, copper vapor, helium–neon,
helium–cadmium) to far IR (CO2 ). The gain medium is
gas excited by an electric discharge. The gas lasers provide
good-quality low-divergence beams with the diameters on
the order of 1 mm.
 596

Table 2. Basic data on major laser types listed according to the increasing first wavelength of the spectral range. CW denotes continuous output. This table is mainly
based on the Laser FocusWorld 2003 Buyer’s Guide. Additional data obtained from specifications of selected manufacturers have been also used. Users of this table should
exercise caution when applying the data given.
Wavelengths (nm)m Laser type Power (W) or pulse Pulse repetition Pulse width (s) Beam Beam
energy (J) rate (1 s−1 )l sizea divergence
(mm) (mrad)
Measuring System Design

154–532f , (1064), 2950 Nd:YAGc (pulsed) 0.001–180 J 1–50 × 103 20 × 10−12 –10 × 10−3 1–14 0.5–130
157, 193, 248, 308, 351 Excimerb (pulsed) 0.001–0.2 W 20–2 × 103 0.01–30 × 10−9 2.5 × 22 0.3–4
190–18000h,k Tunable solid state (pulsed) 0.1 × 10−9 –100 J 0–90 × 106 17 × 10−15 –100 × 10−9 3–10g 0.5–1.5g
197–4500h Tunable dye (pulsed)g 30 × 10−6 –0.2 J 1–10 × 103 5 × 10−12 –20 × 10−9 1–3 × 6 5
202–1090i (514) Argonb (CW) 2 × 10−3 –25 W – – 0.6–3.5 0.05–3
266–532f (1064), 1320 Nd:YAGc (CW) 0.01–5.4 × 103 W – – 0.7–6 1–200
(337) Nitrogenb,g (pulsed) 0.1 × 10−3 –0.5 × 10−3 J 1–100 ∼1 × 10−9 1×2 2×3
375–760h Alexandritec,g (CW) 0.01–0.15 W – – 1 0.1
375–2900h (500–1550)h Semiconductor diode (CW) 0.1 × 10−3 –4 × 103 e W – – – 1–17 ×
1–17j,d ,
87 × 870d
380–1935h (600–1550)h Semiconductor diode (pulsed) 5 × 10−12 –102 e J 100–100 × 106 15 × 10−12 –0.8 × 10−3 – 0.3j , 87 × 785d
543, (632.8), 1152, 3392 HeNeb 0.1 × 10−3 –35 × 10−3 W – – 0.5–2.7 0.7–4.5
690–2000h Ti: sapphirec,g (CW) 0.05–3.5 W – – 0.6 1.7
694 Rubyc,g (pulsed) 0.08–20 J 0.005–0.1 20 × 10−9 –2.5 × 10−3 7–25 0.2–1
3000–25 000 Lead salt diodeg (CW) 0.1 × 10−3 W – – – 870
5200–6500h COb,g (CW) 10–1 × 103 W – – 5–16 4
9000–11 400 (10 600) COb2 (CW) 0.04–12 × 103 W – – 0.5–22 0.5–9
9000–11 400 (10 600) COb2 (pulsed) 0.5–60 J 0–130 × 103 0.3 to over 10−3 1.8–30 × 30 1–10
a
If one value is given, it is the TEM00 (Gaussian) beam diameter.
b
Gas laser.
c
Solid-state laser.
d
In two perpendicular dimensions.
e
The upper end of the range refers to the output of laser stacks.
f
Through harmonic frequency conversion.
g
Few data.
h
Continuously tunable, may be tunable in a subrange of the stated range.
i
Line selection.
j
Diode lasers equipped with collimating optics.
k
Line widths from several GHz down to 1 kHz.
l
A repetition rate of 0 denotes a single-shot mode.
m
Dominant wavelengths in parentheses.

3.2 Semiconductor (diode) lasers
These lasers (for example, Camparo, 1985) are similar
to LEDs in that they use a recombination of charges in
semiconductors to generate emission of light. Owing to a
very small emitting area of unequal sizes (on the order
of 10 µm) in two perpendicular directions, these lasers
typically emit a divergent astigmatic light beam and require
complicated optical systems to either collimate or focus it.
In fiber-optics applications, the small emitting area can be
simply butt-coupled to a fiber.
Semiconductor diode lasers are also available in verti-
cal emitting cavity (VCSEL) configuration that emit low-
divergence, circular beams. Although these lasers are more
difficult structures to grow on a semiconductor wafer,
they do not need to be cleaved to produce the resonant
cavity and, thus, can be fabricated solely by using stan-
dard semiconductor processing techniques (for example,
Lang, 2002).
3.3 Dye lasers
Dye lasers use as their gain media various dyes (including
coumarin, fluorescein, and rhodamine) covering a wave-
length range from about 190 to 4500 nm. These lasers are
pumped with either flashlamps or other lasers, for example,
nitrogen lasers. The wide absorption bands of the dyes,
as compared, for example, to narrow absorption spectra of
gases, support the generation of very short light pulses (sev-
eral femtoseconds long).
3.4 Solid-state lasers
3.4.1 Fixed-wavelength lasers
Solid-state lasers (SSLs) utilize a solid gain medium, per-
mitting high-quality beams, and various pumping mech-
anisms. The first solid-state laser used the ruby crystal
as the gain medium and a flashlamp as the pump. SSLs
are also pumped by other lasers and by semiconductor
diode lasers (diode-pumped solid-state lasers – DPSSL).
In addition to ruby, the gain media include neodymium-
doped (Nd:YAG, Nd:YLF, Nd:YVO4 ) and holmium-doped
(Ho:YAG, Ho:YLF) crystals and glasses, alexandrite and
titanium-doped sapphire (Ti:sapphire). As in dye lasers, the
wide absorption bands of the solid gain media support the
generation of extremely short light pulses.
These lasers emit in the red and near IR range. Radiation
in the near-UV and blue/green region of the visible spec-
trum can be generated by the harmonic up-conversion (for
example, 532 nm in an ND:YAG laser).
Light Sources and Detectors 597
3.4.2 Tunable lasers
Tunable solid-state lasers, available mainly as pulsed lasers,
operate by using principles similar to those employed in
dye lasers except that the gain medium is solid state. In
particular, a tunable titanium-doped-sapphire (Ti:sapphire –
the broadest range of any tunable laser: 660–1180 nm) laser
has become a widely used replacement for tunable dye
lasers. However, the Ti:sapphire laser has the noise lower
by a factor of 10 as compared to the dye laser and also has
a much narrower line width (down to 1 kHz). As with other
SSLs, up-conversion is used to provide tunable light in the
UV and visible range.
4 DETECTORS
Developments in electro-optical detector technology (for
example, Donati, 2000) combined with advantages of direct
electronic signal processing have long displaced the human
eye and photographic film as detectors of light in all but
marginal applications. Two basic groups of electro-optical
detectors are discussed here: thermal and photon detectors.
An electro-optical detector of light is selected on the basis
of one or more of the characteristics listed in Table 3. Some
detector types may have additional selection criteria, for
example, after-pulsing for photomultipliers.
The sensitivity is frequently the dominant selection crite-
rion. Hence, the ranges of light power that can be measured
with the various detector types are listed in Table 4 and
shown in Figure 2 for major detector types.
5 THERMAL DETECTORS
In a thermal detector, the active element is heated via
absorption of light. This heating induces electrically sensed
changes in that element’s properties. Thermal detectors
have a flat spectral response in a broad spectral range, deter-
mined by the absorption spectrum of the sensing element
material or its absorptive coating that converts the energy
of the incident radiation to heat. The detector spectral range
is limited/modified by the detector window/filter. A weak
thermal link to a heat sink allows the detector to correctly
respond to the incident radiation power. Thermal detectors
are generally less expensive than photon detectors, and do
not require cooling when operated in the infrared. However,
thermal detectors are typically slower and have a lower
sensitivity than photon detectors.
The basic types of thermal detectors are:
• thermocouples
• thermopiles
598 Measuring System Design

Table 3. Key characteristics of radiation detectors.

Name and typical symbol Typical units Definition
Responsivity, R A/W, V/W, V/Ja Ratio of the detector output to the incident light power dose
Quantum efficiency, QE b Nondimensional Number of electrons generated by the detector in response to an
input of one photon of radiation
Dark current, ID , or dark voltage, VD A, V The baseline output of the detector in the absence of incident light
Response time, tR s Time interval required for a detector to generate an output
commensurate with the input light power (dose) when that detector
is illuminated by a step increase in the light power (rise time) or
when the illumination ceases abruptly (fall time)
Linearity range W A range of the input light power within which the detector output is
√ linearly proportional to the input power
Noise equivalent power, NEP W, W/ Hz Light power that generates a detector output equal to the RMS
detector noisec
a
For detectors sensitive to the radiation dose.
b
Applicable to photon detectors only.
c
With the detector noise being a function of the measurement (electrical) frequency bandwidth, NEP is usually given at a frequency of 1 kHz and for a
1-Hz bandwidth. An amplifier, if needed, may significantly increase the NEP of a complete detection system.

Table 4. The first order of magnitude incident radiation power ranges that can be measured by the various detector types. The minimum
power is the detector noise equivalent power at the wavelength of the maximum responsivity. PMT = photomultiplier, APD = avalanche
(semiconductor) photodiode.
Approximate power rangeh , W Detector type Approximate spectral rangeb

Minimum Maximum
10−19 a 10−12 PMT: photon countinge 100–900 nm
10−19 a 10−12 APD: photon countinge 200–2500 nm
10−15 10−9 c PMT: analog detectione 100–900 nm
10−13 10−6 APD: analog detectione 200–2200 nm
10−12 10−1 Semiconductor photodiodee 0.1 nm–5 µm
10−12 1 Semiconductor photoconductore 400 nm–150 µm
10−9 10−3 Thermopilesf 200 nm–200 µm
10−9 10−3 Pyroelectricf 200 nm–1 mm
10−8 d 1 Bolometerf 0.1 nmg –5 mm
a
This power corresponds to ∼1 photon/s in the visible and near infrared.
b
Various detectors of the stated type (except thermal detectors) may have their maximum sensitivity located at different wavelengths in this range and
be sensitive each in a subrange of this range.
c
A much higher maximum power (about 7 mW) was measured with short (∼1 µs) light pulses (Lasher and Redhead, 1963) at the cost of high mortality
of the PMTs.
d
down to 10−17 in the far infrared at a temperature close to 0 K.
e
Photon detector.
f
Thermal detector.
g
Can be used as a photon counter/spectrometer for X rays.
h
The dynamic range of a detector may be smaller than the min–max range.

• pyroelectric detectors by a junction of dissimilar metals, usually bismuth and

• bolometers.
Golay cells (pneumatic detectors) were the mainstay
thermal detectors in the past but have been all but displaced
by other thermal detector types.
5.1 Thermocouples and thermopiles
Thermocouples and thermopiles (a series of thermocouples)
utilize the temperature dependence of voltage generated
antimony. The thermocouple consists of two such junc-
tions connected in series in reverse in order to cancel
the effect of the ambient temperature – see Article 196,
Thermocouple Temperature Sensors, Volume 3. One of
these junctions is coated with a thin light-absorbing layer.
The other is shielded from the incident light, that is,
remains at the ambient temperature. The voltage generated
by a thermocouple is low (in the mV range); therefore,
several thermocouples are typically connected in series
(thermopiles).

1.E− 08
1.E− 09
1.E−10
NEP, W Hz1/2
1.E−11
1.E−12
1.E−13
1.E−14
1.E−15
1.E−16
100 1000 10 000 100 000
Wavelength, nm
Cs-1 PMT (120 nm) GaAs(Cs) PMT (720 nm)
Si PD G = 1e8 (960 nm) Si CCD at 273 K (710 nm)
PbS PC at 77 K (2400 nm) PbSe PC at 77 K (4020 nm)
InSb PD at 77 K (4700 nm) HgCdTe PC at 77 K
(17000 nm)
Si APD G = 100 (840 nm)
Ge PD at 298K (1500 nm)
In GaAs PD at 298 (2200 nm)
Figure 2. Sample spectra of the noise equivalent power (NEP)
for major types of photon detectors (the wavelength of the min-
imum NEP is given in parentheses in the curve label). They
indicate approximately the minimum power that can be mea-
sured by a given detector type at a signal-to-noise ratio of
1. The NEP of a specific detector of that type may vary,
depending on the detector area and temperature. Abbreviations:
APD = avalanche photodiode, LAAPD = large-area avalanche
photodiode, G = gain, PC = photoconductor, PD = photodiode,
PMT = photomultiplier. PC and PD detectors require external sig-
nal amplifiers that typically significantly increase the total NEP
of the detection system. Long-term signal integration (on the
order of seconds) may reduce the total NEP in such a case.
The field of view of the far IR detectors is limited to 60◦ .
The NEP is generally specified at a modulation frequency of
the optical input of about 1 kHz, with a bandwidth of 1 Hz.
However, an external amplifier with a high gain required for
the PDs may significantly limit the maximum modulation fre-
quency. Detector areas are on the order of 0.01 cm2 , except
those of the PMTs (∼0.5 cm2 ) and the LAAPD (∼0.1 cm2 ). Pyro-
electric, thermopile, and bolometer detectors (not included) have
a flat spectral response with NEP ∼10−9 to 10−11 (at several
Hz) typically from UV to far IR. This spectral range is lim-
ited/modified by the window/filter transmission range. The graph
is based on the data of the following manufacturers: Si PD and
the PMTs – Hamamatsu (1994), www.hamamatsu.com, Si APD –
Perkin Elmer, www.perkinelmer.com, Si LAAPD – Advanced
Photonics, www.advancedphotonix.com, PbS and PbSe PC – New
England Photoconductor, www.nepcorp.com, Ge, InGaAs, InSb
PDs, and HgCdTe PC – Judson Technologies, www.judtech.com.
5.2 Pyroelectric detectors
Pyroelectric detectors use materials, typically lithium tan-
talate, that maintain electrical polarization even when no
voltage is applied to the detector. When an active element
of a pyroelectric detector is heated via absorption of light, it
Light Sources and Detectors 599
expands. This changes the polarization of this element and
causes current to flow in a circuit connected to it. Pyro-
electric detectors thus respond to changes in the incident
light power, that is, to chopped or otherwise modulated
radiation power.
5.3 Bolometers
Bolometers utilize changes in the conductivity of a resistor
to sense its temperature that is affected by absorption
of radiation. Room-temperature bolometer arrays allow
inexpensive imaging of IR radiation, as compared to other
IR imaging arrays.
When operated at room temperature, these devices are
relatively poor detectors. Chopping, or modulating the inci-
dent radiation power, can be used to reduce the effect
of slow-changing ambient temperature. Room-temperature
bolometer detectors may also utilize two identical bolome-
ters (one exposed to the incident radiation, the other
shielded from it) in two arms of an electrical bridge. This
arrangement cancels the effect of the ambient temperature
on the detector output. However, the full potential of these
devices is realized by operating them at temperatures close
to absolute zero, which reduces their inherent thermal noise.
Cryogenically cooled bolometers operating in the far IR are
by several orders of magnitude more sensitive than other
detectors of electromagnetic radiation in that spectral range.
6 PHOTON DETECTORS
Photon detectors convert the energy of incident light
photons to electricity directly. These detectors work in
relatively narrow spectral ranges, with a distinct long-
wavelength cutoff, but can be extremely sensitive, up to
the detection of single photons. Biological detectors of light
are nearly as sensitive. The human eye can detect a burst
of several photons and the rat eye can reliably detect single
photons (Hagins, Penn and Yoshikami, 1970).
6.1 Photoemissive detectors
Photomultipliers (PMTs; BI, 1980; Hamamatsu, 1994) are
by far the most commonly used detectors in this class,
followed by image intensifiers.
6.1.1 Photomultipliers
A classical photomultiplier is a vacuum tube with a photo-
sensitive cathode (Table 5) and on the order of 10 dynodes
600 Measuring System Design
Table 5. Basic characteristics of typical photocathodes.
Photocathode Photosensitive Spectral range
type material (nm)
S-1 Ag–O–Cs 400–1100
S-4 Cs–Sb 160–550
S-11 Cs–Sb 290–600
S-20 Na–K–Cs–Sb 160–720
– GaAs (Cs) 160–850
that collect and multiply the photocurrent generated at the
cathode. A high voltage of the order of 1000 V is dis-
tributed between the electrodes of a PMT by a voltage
divider network. A photon striking the photocathode ejects
an electron with the quantum efficiency (QE) of less than
one-fourth. That electron is accelerated by the potential dif-
ferences between the cathode and the following electrode
and – upon impacting that electrode – ejects several next-
generation electrons. This electron-multiplication process
continues for each following dynode until the anode, where
electrons are collected, and results in a total electron gain on
the order of 106 to 108 . A high gain and a low dark current
on the order of 1 photoelectron/s (and less when cooled)
enable the detection of single photons of the incident light.
Classical PMTs are available generally in two forms:
• side-on (with a reflective photocathode)
• end-on (with a semitransparent photocathode).
The side-on form is typically a faster detector (rise time
on the order of a fraction of 1 ns), due to a more com-
pact electron multiplier design. Supercompact multianode
PMTs that enable a low-resolution imaging of the incident
irradiance distribution (∼10 × 10 ‘pixels’) are also avail-
able. The sensitivity spectra of PMTs span the near-UV to
near-IR wavelength range (Figure 2).
A radical variance of the vacuum-tube design is a
multichannel-plate PMT (MCP PMT), where the multiplier
section is a glass plate, about 0.5-mm thick, with closely
packed narrow (on the order of 10 µm) cylindrical chan-
nels, each acting as a set of dynodes. The MCP offers the
most compact PMT design allowing rise times on the order
of 100 ps.
6.1.2 Image intensifiers
Image intensifiers (IMIs) use various forms of imaging elec-
tron multipliers, typically the MCP, to map the distribution
of photoelectrons exiting the photocathode to that at the
anode (for example, Johnson and Owen, 1993). The anode
is a phosphor screen (metallized to conduct electric current)
that emits visible light when impacted by electrons with
energy sufficient to penetrate the screen metallization. With
Wavelength of Responsivity Maximum
maximum (mA/W) quantum
responsivity (nm) efficiency
350–800 3.5 0.012
300 50 0.21
450 55 0.15
400 50 0.15
400 37 0.22
the MCP multiplier, the imaging of the input electron irra-
diance distribution is ensured by restricting each electron
cascade to its own microchannel and by placing the photo-
cathode, MPC, and the anode-phosphor screen close to each
other (<1 mm). This creates compact devices with imaging
resolutions of the order of 50 line pairs per mm. Photon
gains up to the order of 109 are possible with devices that
employ stacks of two or three MCPs.
The IMI is by itself an optical-to-optical converter and
requires an array detector such as a CCD (discussed
in Section 6.2) to convert an optical image to electron-
ically processable image. Phosphor-less versions of an
image-intensified CCD are also available. In these imaging
detectors, the phosphor screen is replaced with a CCD
embedded inside the vacuum tube.
6.2 Solid-state detectors
The sensitivity spectra of solid-state detectors span a wide
wavelength range from the soft X rays to far IR. Spectra of
major types of solid-state detectors are shown in Figure 2.
6.2.1 Photovoltaic detectors and detector arrays
In a photovoltaic semiconductor detector, the semiconduc-
tor junction separates charge carriers generated by absorp-
tion of photons of the incident light and produces current
in an electric circuit connected to the detector. Photovoltaic
detectors can be used in the low-speed short-circuit photo-
voltaic mode (no dark current and the related noise) and
in the high-speed photoconductive mode with moderate
bias current and resulting higher noise. A wide variety
of semiconductor photovoltaic detectors are available com-
mercially, including position-sensitive detectors and imag-
ing (array) detectors. These detectors are typically made
of Si, GaAs, Ge, InGaAs, InAs, and InSb semiconductors
that absorb light in subranges of a wide range between X
rays and far IR (Table 6). Detectors specialized for either
low-noise, low-speed operation or high-speed operation
(>100 GHz) are available. Semiconductor detectors have
QE on the order of unity, much higher than that of PMTs,

Table 6. Basic characteristics of typical photovoltaic semiconductor detectors at room temperature, unless indicated otherwise.
Photosensitive Spectral range Wavelength(s) of
material (µm)
responsivity (µm)
Si 0.2–1.2
GaAs 0.3–0.75
Ge 0.8–1.8
InGaAs 0.7–1.7
0.7–2.6
InAs 1–3.1
InSb 1–5.5
a
At 253 K.
b
At 77 K (liquid nitrogen).
that is relatively insensitive to temperature changes, except
near the long-wavelength cutoff (Figure 2).
Photovoltaic detectors are available both as:
• unity gain devices (photodiodes, photodiode arrays,
CCDs, CMOS arrays)
• detectors with internal amplification: avalanche photo-
diodes (APDs) and APD arrays.
In the latter detectors, the cascade multiplication of
photoelectrons is induced by applying a high voltage on
the order of several hundred to several thousand volts. In
the lower part of the high-voltage range, the number of
electrons produced is proportional to the applied voltage,
as it is in the PMT. In the high part of the voltage range,
the cascade multiplication becomes free running. This latter
mode of operation (Geiger mode), is used for single-photon
counting. In that mode, the electron cascade is quenched to
enable photon counting at a rate on the order of up to 106
photons/s (active quenching) limited by dead time and APD
heating (for example, Dravins, Faria and Nilsson, 2000).
Semiconductor array detectors are the mainstream of
imaging detectors. Arrays with pixel sizes on the order of
10 × 10 µm are available in the photodiode array, CCD,
and CMOS formats. The photodiode arrays have individu-
ally addressable elements and offer high quantum efficiency
but suffer from a substantial read-out noise (for exam-
ple, Johnson, Edwards and Mendenhall, 1994). CCD arrays
have a much lower readout noise but also a lower quan-
tum efficiency. In a CCD array, the photogenerated charges,
instead of being in real time removed from the sensitive vol-
ume as it is done in the photodiode, are stored in a potential
well until they are transported out with an extremely high
efficiency, along a column or row of pixels that perform
the role of an analog shift register.
Charge integration and transfer are achieved at the rate
of an external clock signal by varying potentials of an array
of electrodes and semiconductor gates located at the CCD
chip surface. It is these surface structures that reduce the
Light Sources and Detectors 601
Maximum Maximum
maximum responsivity, quantum
A/W efficiency
0.8–0.95 0.7 0.9
0.6–0.72 0.4 0.7
1.55 0.9 0.7
1.6 1 0.8
2.3a 1.1 0.6
3b 2 0.8
5.2b 2 0.5
quantum efficiency of the CCD array as compared to that
of the photodiodes.
Back-illuminated operation of the CCDs compensates
somewhat for this reduction. CCDs tend to suffer from
‘blooming’ caused by spilling charge from an overfilled
pixel to the surrounding pixels (Janesick et al., 1987).
Recently, electron-multiplying CCDs (EMCCDs) have
been commercialized (e2v technologies, www.e2v.com).
These CCDs utilize, in the readout section, an electron-
multiplication technique implemented in the APDs. This
allows high gain (single-photon counting) with the low-
noise characteristic of the CCDs.
The CMOS imaging arrays utilize silicon as photosensi-
tive material and have a similar spectral response to that
of silicon CCDs. However, the CMOS arrays use a differ-
ent approach to sensing the incident light power and also
different manufacturing techniques. In a pixel of a CMOS
array, a photodiode typically discharges a storage capaci-
tor, thus preventing blooming. The capacitor charge can be
directly read out via an integrated amplifier.
This allows addressing selected sections of the array and
enables a high-speed readout. The CMOS arrays employ
technology used for microprocessors. This permits inte-
gration of preprocessing electronics, such as an analog-to-
digital converter, on the array chip. However, additional
semiconductor/metal structures implementing these func-
tions take up a significant portion of the area available
for light collection. Complexity of these structures also
increases the manufacturing defect rate. Such disadvan-
tages have generally limited applications of CMOS arrays
to low-cost and low-quality consumer applications (Tay-
lor, 1998).
6.2.2 Photoconductive devices
Photogeneration of charges in semiconductors significantly
affects its conductivity. This is utilized in junctionless
semiconductor detectors, photoconductors, for the detection
of electromagnetic radiation. Typical semiconductors used
602 Measuring System Design

Table 7. Basic characteristics of typical photoconductive semi- Camparo, D.C. (1985) The Diode Laser in Atomic Physics.
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RELATED ARTICLES Instruments, 34, 115–116.
OSA. (1993) The Handbook of Optics, McGraw-Hill, New York.
Article 89, Optical Materials, Volume 2; Article 90,
Taylor, S.A. (1998) CCD and CMOS Imaging Array Technologies:
Optical Elements, Volume 2; Article 92, Optical Mea- Technology Review , Technical Report EPC-1998-106, Xerox
suring Instruments, Volume 2; Article 93, Testing Opti- Corporation, Cambridge, UK, (p. 15).
cal and Other Radiation Systems, Volume 2.

FURTHER READING
REFERENCES
Johnson, C.B. and Owen, L.D. (1993) Image Intensified Elec-
BI. (1980) Photomultiplier Handbook, Burle Industries, Inc, tronic Imaging, in The Handbook of Optics, McGraw-Hill, New
Lancaster. York, (pp. 21.1–21.32).

This article is based in part on a chapter by J. Prasad and G. Mitra originally published in Handbook of Measurement Science Vol 2,
P.H. Sydenham, Wiley, 1983.