Introduction, Importance and working principle of Electric

vehicles.

Introduction to Electric Vehicles (EV’s)

Automobiles constitute an integral part of our everyday life, yet the exhaust emissions of
conventional internal combustion (IC) engine vehicles are to blame for the major source of
urban pollution that causes the greenhouse effect leading to global warming. Environmental as
well as economical issues provide a compelling impetus to develop clean, efficient and
sustainable vehicles for urban transportation. The dependence on oil as the sole source of
energy for passenger vehicles has economical and political implications, and the crisis will
inevitably become acute as the oil reserve of the world diminishes. The number of automobiles
on our planet doubled to about a billion or so in the last 10 years. The increasing number of
automobiles being introduced on the road every year is only adding to the pollution problem.
Electric vehicles (EV) enabled by high-efficiency electric motors and controllers and powered
by alternative energy sources provide the means for a clean, efficient, and environmentally
friendly urban transportation system. Electric vehicles have no emission, having the potential
to curb the pollution problem in an efficient way. Consequently, EVs are the only zero emission
vehicles possible.

History of EV’s

The first demonstration of electric vehicles were made in the 1830s, and commercial
electric vehicles were available by the end of the 19th century. The electric vehicle has now
entered its third century as a commercially available product and as such it has been very
successful. The first electric vehicles of the 1830s used non-rechargeable batteries. Half a
century was to elapse before batteries had developed sufficiently to be used in commercial
electric vehicles. By the end of the 19th century, with mass production of rechargeable
batteries, electric vehicles became fairly viable. An electric New York taxi from about 1901 is
shown below in Figure 1.
 Figure1. New York Taxi Cab in about 1901, a battery electric vehicle

At the start of the 20th century electric vehicles must have looked a strong contender for future
road transport. The electric vehicle was relatively reliable and started instantly, whereas
internal combustion engine vehicles were at times unreliable, smelly and needed to be manually
cranked to start. By the 1920s several hundred thousand electric vehicles had been produced
for use as cars, vans, taxis, delivery vehicles and buses. However, despite the use of the early
electric vehicles, once cheap oil was widely available and the self-starter for the internal
combustion engine (invented in 1911) had arrived, the IC engine proved a more attractive
option for powering vehicles. The reasons for the greater success of IC engine vehicles are
easily understood when one compares the specific energy of petroleum fuel to that of batteries.
Another major problem was with batteries, the time it took to recharge them was very
impractical.

Concerns about climate change, urban air pollution and dependence on unstable and expensive
supplies of foreign oil have lead policy makers and researchers to investigate alternatives to
conventional petroleum-fuelled internal combustion engine vehicles (ICEVs) in transportation.
Because vehicles that get some or all of their power from an electric drivetrain can have low
or even zero emissions of greenhouse gases (GHGs) and urban air and can consume little or no
petroleum. There is considerable interest in developing and evaluating advanced EVs,
including Battery electric vehicles (BEVs), Plug-in hybrid electric vehicles (PHEVs), and
Fuel-cell electric vehicles (FCEVs).

Moreover, the manufacturing cost is not the only relevant cost metric, vehicles that have higher
initial costs might have lower operating and maintenance costs and as a result might have lower
total costs over their lifetime.

The initial cost of an advanced EV typically is estimated by starting with the cost of a
comparable gasoline ICEV and then subtracting the costs of components not used in the EV
(e.g., an exhaust and emission control system) and adding the cost of extra or modified
components in the EV. The extra or modified components in the EV can include a traction
battery, an electric motor, a motor controller, a fuel cell, a hydrogen storage system, and a
modified engine and transmission.

Operating and maintenance costs include energy, insurance, maintenance, repair, registration,
tires, oil, safety- and emission-inspection fees, parking, and tolls. Because all of these costs
except parking and tolls are related to vehicle cost, total vehicle weight, or vehicle power train
characteristics, and EVs have a different cost, weight, and power train than do ICEVs, all types
of EVs can have different operating and maintenance costs than do ICEVs. However, the
production and use of motor vehicles also generates other impacts, such as those related to air
pollution, that are not borne entirely by consumers in their market transactions related to
vehicle ownership and use.

The production and use of motor vehicles and motor-vehicle infrastructure generates a wide
range of externalities: air pollution, climate change, the macroeconomic impacts of dependence
on unstable and expensive foreign oil, water pollution, noise, death and injury and destruction
from crashes, delay from congestion, habitat destruction, and more.

Among the advanced EV types, BEVs have the longest history. In fact, BEVs dates back to the
late 1800s. However, a modern series of vehicles were introduced by various automakers in
the 1980s and 1990s. Along with the introduction of vehicles such as the General Motors EV-
1, the Toyota RAV4-EV and the Ford Ranger EV, a series of battery EV cost studies were
conducted to examine the commercial prospects of these vehicles. These include several case
studies conducted. The introduction of BEVs in the 1990s was occurring as the California Air
Resources Board (CARB) was looking to battery technology with “zero-emission” vehicles
(ZEVs). The term ZEV was used to describe vehicles that produced no tailpipe emissions of
regulated pollutants, ignoring pollution from the power plants used to recharge EVs.
An important point with regard to the analysis of the potential manufacturing, retail, and
lifetime costs of BEVs is that the critical issue of battery cost and performance has evolved
greatly over the past 15 years and will continue to evolve for the foreseeable future.

In the early 1990s, the dominant battery technology was lead-acid, with investigations into
other chemistries such as Sodium–sulfur and Zinc–bromine. By the mid1990s the Nickel-metal
hydride (NiMH) battery chemistry emerged as a more attractive option for many EV
applications owing to better energy density than lead-acid and with good power characteristics.
At this point, lithium-ion (Li-ion) was only an emerging technology, with highly uncertain cost
and performance characteristics and concerns about safety from battery flammability. Moving
forward to 2010, NiMH is still the main battery technology used in hybrid vehicles, but the
next generation of PHEVs and BEVs is demanding the use of Li-ion technologies because of
their superior performance and energy storage characteristics.

What is clearer now than in the late 1990s with regard to Li-ion is that the technology can offer
excellent performance but at what appears to be a relatively high cost. How far and how
quickly Li-ion battery prices can fall in higher volume production, while still assuring good
battery durability, remains a critical question. Thus, early studies of BEVs based on Li-ion
batteries appear to be somewhat optimistic regarding those battery costs, based on what is now
known, although we note that the “learned out” high-volume production cost of key Li-ion
technologies is still unknown. Perhaps what was most unappreciated several years ago is that
it is not only the costs of the Li-ion battery modules that are of issue, but also the costs of the
rest of the battery management system (BMS), which is necessarily more intricate than for
NiMH owing to the specific characteristics of Li-ion batteries that require special care (e.g.,
owing to their thermal characteristics and needs for voltage monitoring of groups of cells to
ensure good performance).
EV’s, HEV’s, PHEV’s: What’s the difference?

There are several types of electric vehicles out on the market, and understanding their differences
is important, especially if you are considering purchasing one. There are three main types, and they
are:

EV – Electric Vehicle, also known as a Battery Electric Vehicle (BEV)

HEV – Hybrid Electric Vehicle

PHEV – Plug-in Hybrid Electric Vehicle

Below we will go into more detail explaining the above and their differences, as well as their
maintenance needs.

EV – Electric Vehicle

An Electric Vehicle (EV) is a fully electric vehicle that has rechargeable batteries. These batteries
are recharged from the grid and are the only source of power for the vehicle, as they do not have a
tank for gasoline. When referring to these vehicles, they are also called a BEV.

HEV – Hybrid Electric Vehicle

Hybrid Electric Vehicles are both electric and gas-powered. The energy that powers their batteries
is gained through regenerative braking or while driving using the combustion engine. In a standard
gas-powered car, the energy from the braking is lost in the form of heat. This happens by way of
the rotors and brake pads. The grid cannot charge these types of electric vehicles.

PHEV – Plug-in Hybrid Electric Vehicle

PHEVs have both an engine and an electric motor. Like a regular hybrid, PHEVs can recharge their
batteries through regenerative braking or with the engine. The primary difference between an HEV
and a PHEV is the addition of a charging port into the PHEV. In this way, a PHEV can operate
more like a EV, driving off the battery and recharging off the grid, only using the combustion
engine when the battery is depleted. PHEV batteries are typically higher capacity than HEV
batteries.
Another difference is the distance they can travel before their gas engines turn on. A PHEV will
run anywhere from 10 to 40 miles, whereas an HEV will only run less than 2 to 3 miles.

All of the above vehicles will require maintenance for their batteries, also called energy storage
systems. To learn more, continue reading below.

Energy Storage System Types

Batteries are essential to EVs, HEVs, and PHEVs. There are lithium-ion, nickel-metal hydride, and
lead-acid energy storage systems. In addition to the above, there are also ultracapacitors that are
used to provide additional power during acceleration.

Maintenance and Recycling Batteries

To maintain these vehicles, it is important to have them regularly checked per the car manufacturer.
So the question most commonly asked is, do EVs require extra vehicle maintenance? The answer
to that question is no.

Maintenance

Powertrain

Most EV, HEV, and PHEV vehicle manufacturers offer long warranties on powertrains, which
speaks to their lasting reliability. The powertrain is simple and requires little maintenance
(replacing fluid) when compared to gas-powered vehicles.

Brakes: With the regenerative braking system, brake wear is lower for those that rely on friction
braking. However, components of friction braking such as rotors, pads, and brake fluid will still
need to be replaced at some point.

Cooling: The energy storage systems on these vehicles use a coolant or refrigerant to keep key
parts (charger, inverter, and battery pack) cool. Therefore, maintenance for cooling systems may
require infrequent coolant flushes to help the vehicle’s efficiency.

Batteries: As for the maintenance of EV batteries, it is more about prolonging their life. Over time
the packs will degrade, and the ability to hold a charge will decrease gradually. To prolong the life
of these batteries, you can do the following:
 • In storage and in use, minimize high and low temperatures
• Minimize the urge to want to stay at a 100% state of charge/Don’t stay at 0% for very
long either
• Although convenient, avoid fast charging
• Avoid storage in high moisture areas
• Avoid damage to mechanical components
• Ultimately, be sure to follow the manufacturer’s calibration instructions/This will often
require you to complete an initial full discharge

EV vs. HEV and PHEV Maintenance

When comparing all three electric vehicle types, we can see that the HEV and the PHEV will
require more maintenance because it has a conventional combustion engine and an electric
drivetrain. However, overall, the maintenance is significantly less when put up against an internal
combustion engine.

Recycling

As with all batteries, they do have a life cycle and will need to be recycled. The recycling process
for EV batteries typically involves recovering the individual parts and materials of the battery so
as not to release hazardous toxins into the environment.

Since the EV market is fairly new, most EVs have yet to reach that point. Therefore, recycling these
batteries is still undergoing research; while some manufacturers are reusing the batteries in their
plants, others are opening recycling facilities
Battery Electric Vehicles (BEV’s)

BEVs are the simplest type of EV from a conceptual perspective, using electrical power from
a single source—the electrochemical battery—to power one or more electric motors. Typically,
a single electric motor is connected to the front axle through a simple one- or two-speed
gearbox, but there are several other possible variations in the driveline architectures. One
significant variation is to use a series of four “hub motors” attached to each wheel rather than
a single drive motor. Of course, the battery itself is composed of many cells that are composed
into modules, which in turn are grouped into packs. This can be done various ways using series
and parallel connections between groups of cells and/or modules. BEV electric motors typically
operate at a few hundred volts, meaning that a minimum of about 100 cells is required (e.g.,
100 Li-ion batteries with cell voltage of 3.6 V could produce 360 V if arranged in series).
However some vehicles have many more but smaller cells, up to tens of thousands, configured
in complex arrays with parallel and series connections. Also, in addition to the basic battery
pack, a “balance of plant” of thermal management and voltage-monitoring systems is required
to prevent overcharging and to detect earlier-than-expected cell degradation or failure.

The battery pack is typically the largest and most expensive component of the BEV, often by
several-fold for longer-range vehicles. Especially since it is the sole power source, BEV
applications require combined performance from the battery in producing both power (for
acceleration) and energy (for sustained driving range). In practice, this means that battery
engineers must strive to provide the best combination possible for the vehicle application they
are targeting, within the limits of the battery chemistry they are using. Finally, it is worth noting
that one concept for BEVs is to have the battery pack itself be readily removable and
“swappable.” This allows for extended driving range through the use of battery swap stations
and an arrangement for consumers to lease rather than own their batteries. Systems have been
demonstrated that can accomplish the battery swap very rapidly, in around 1 min for the battery
pack swap itself and a few minutes for the complete operation. While somewhat complex to
administer, this type of service could help to reduce the key issue of limited range coupled with
long recharge time for BEVs.
BEV drivetrain costs

The costs of manufacturing BEVs versus conventional vehicles can be estimated through a
series of “parts replacement” exercises, where the components not needed in the BEV are
“stripped out” and the replacement components needed for the EV are added in. Alternately,
one may consider the concept of a much lighter weight design, to reduce the costs of the EV
drivetrain components. Clearly, this basic vehicle design choice has major implications for
BEV driveline costs, as smaller and cheaper drivetrain components can be traded off with the
costs of producing lighter (but typically more expensive) vehicle chassis based on high-strength
steel, aluminium, and/or carbon fibre composite materials.

Electric motors and motor controllers for BEVs

The electric motor and motor controller propulsion systems comprise the other key set of
components for BEVs, along with the battery power system. The motor controller in particular
has evolved in recent years with the use of insulated gate bipolar transistors (IGBTs) as high-
power switching devices in place of the previously used MOSFETs (metal–oxide–
semiconductor field-effect transistors). Along with better integration of other components and
reduced parts counts, motor controllers have improved in performance and decreased in cost
and complexity over the past few decades. Meanwhile, electric motors have also improved in
terms of their torque and power density and energy efficiency characteristics.

Accessory systems for BEVs

BEVs require battery chargers that can be included onboard the vehicle or even integrated into
the motor controller unit. There are conductive, inductive charging systems (Plug design by
Yazaki Group). This standard allows up to what has come to be defined as “Level 2” charging
at power levels of up to 16.8 kW (120–240 V AC power at up to 70 A). Along with these
charging standards, an active area of research and industry interest is the interface between the
charging system, and when and how it is operated and the local utility grid.
Nonenergy operating and maintenance cost

In addition to costs of electric fuel, discussed below, BEVs typically offer the advantage of
lower maintenance costs compared with conventional vehicles. There are many fewer moving
parts in BEVs, the electric motors are essentially maintenance free and there is no need for
periodic oil changes. There are needs for periodic battery pack inspections, but overall
maintenance costs for BEVs are expected to be relatively low. For example, we have previously
estimated that the annual maintenance costs for BEVs could be about 28% lower than for
conventional gasoline vehicles on an annualized basis.

Energy use of BEVs

The energy use of BEVs is relatively straightforward to estimate, particularly in the absence of
auxiliary fuel-fired heaters that have been proposed for colder climates as alternatives to
electric heaters. Since the amount of waste heat produced from the resistance of the BEV
battery system and electric motor controller is much lower than from conventional vehicles,
auxiliary cabin heating can be an issue.
Energy use of BEVs is typically expressed in watt-hours per mile or kilometer (Wh/mile or
Wh/km), and can be defined and measured at the battery pack terminals or the “wall plug.”
This value typically ranges from about 200 Wh/mile (124 Wh/km) for small EVs to up to 400
Wh/mile (249 Wh/km) for larger vehicles. This could be the result of improved motors and
motor controllers, improved batteries with lower internal resistance characteristics, better
integration of components, and lower auxiliary system losses. In an overall sense, however,
vehicle size and weight and level of performance are the key determinants of overall energy
use, as is the case for conventional vehicles.

Cost of electric fuel

Electricity for BEVs is generally less costly than other fuels including gasoline. Many utilities
now offer special “time of use” (TOU) rates for EV owners that can be used in conjunction
with separate utility meters to charge for the electricity used for EV charging. Since BEVs can
typically be recharged at night when power is typically cheaper, they benefit from these TOU
rates.
Battery electric vehicles
The concept of the battery electric vehicle is essentially simple and is shown in Figure 2 and
1.2.

Figure 2. Top-level perspective of an EV system

The vehicle consists of an electric battery for energy storage, an electric motor, potentiometer
and a controller. The battery is normally recharged from mains electricity via a plug and a
battery charging unit that can either be carried onboard or fitted at the charging point. The
controller will normally control the power supplied to the motor, and hence the vehicle speed,
in forward and reverse. This is normally known as a 2 quadrant controller, forward and
backward. It is usually desirable to use regenerative braking both to recoup energy and as a
convenient form of frictionless braking. When in addition the controller allows regenerative
braking in forward and reverse directions it is known as a 4 quadrant controller. There is a
range of electric vehicles of this type currently available on the market. At the simplest there
are small electric bicycles and tricycles and small commuter vehicles. There is a range of full
sized electric vehicles, which include electric cars, delivery trucks and buses.

Description of parts and their functions

Potentiometer. This is connected to the accelerator pedal. The potentiometer, also called the
variable resistor, provides the signal that tells the controller how much power is to be delivered.

Batteries. The batteries provide power for the controller. Three types of batteries: lead acid,
lithium ion, and nickel-metal hydride batteries. Batteries range in voltage (power).

DC Controller (Inverter). The controller takes power from the batteries and delivers it to the
motor. The controller can deliver zero power (when the car is stopped), full power (when the
driver floors the accelerator pedal), or any power level in between. If the battery pack contains
twelve 12-volt batteries, wired in series to create 144 volts, the controller takes in 144 volts
direct current, and delivers it to the motor in a controlled way. The controller reads the setting
of the accelerator pedal from the two potentiometers and regulates the power accordingly. If
the accelerator pedal is 25 percent of the way down, the controller pulses the power so it is on
25 percent of the time and off 75 percent of the time. If the signals of both potentiometers are
not equal, the controller will not operate.

Motor. The motor receives power from the controller and turns a transmission. The
transmission then turns the wheels, causing the vehicle to run.

Working of EV
When the driver steps on the pedal the potentiometer activates and provides the signal
that tells the controller how much power it is supposed to deliver. There are two potentiometers
for safety. The controller reads the setting of the accelerator pedal from the potentiometers,
regulates the power accordingly, takes the power from the batteries and delivers it to the motor.
The motor receives the power (voltage) from the controller and uses this power to rotate the
transmission. The transmission then turns the wheels and causes the car to move forward or
backward. If the driver floors the accelerator pedal, the controller delivers the full battery
voltage to the motor. If the driver takes his/her foot off the accelerator, the controller delivers
zero volts to the motor. For any setting in between, the controller chops the battery voltage,
thousands of times per second to create an average voltage somewhere between 0 and full
battery pack voltage.

Advantages
• Better for the environment
• Electricity is less expensive than gas
• Less maintenance at a lower cost
• Electric cars tend to be quiet

Disadvantages
• Some EVs Have Short Ranges for Driving
• Charging Can Take a Lot of Time
• The Initial Investment is More
• Charging Stations Aren’t Available Everywhere
• Lower Amount of Choices

Advantage and disadvantage of EV –

https://freedomgeneral.com/blog/10-advantages-and-disadvantages-of-electric-cars/
Importance of EV –
https://get-green-now.com/why-are-electric-cars-important/
 PHEV’s
In this vehicle, fuel tank and battery pack both can be recharged by external sources and
are entirely different from hybrid vehicles that do not utilize any electric energy from the external
sources or grid. When the battery pack is fully charged by external source, PHEV operates as EV
with extended AER (30–60 km) and then switches to Hybrid mode when battery reaches its
predefined State of Charge (SOC) or vehicle demands extra power for acceleration. Moreover, not
only PHEV has the capability to charge the battery pack from the grid, but also it will be able to
supply the power to the grid, and hence, the vehicle-to-grid (V2G) concept is evolved. The
emerging technology of V2G must be bidirectional in nature so that grid can transfer power to the
vehicle in charging mode, and vehicle delivers power to the grid in discharging mode at peak hours.
All vehicles with V2G capability must meet the IEEE Standard 1547 for connecting to the utility.

Plug-in hybrid electric vehicles (PHEVs) are gaining attention due to their ability to
reduce gasoline/diesel consumption by using electricity from the grid as an alternative
energy source. A PHEV differs from a pure electric vehicle (EV) because it uses
other energy sources besides electricity, and the battery usually has a lower capacity.
A PHEV differs from a conventional hybrid electric vehicle (HEV) due to its higher
battery capacity, the existence of an appropriate electrical outlet (“plug”) to recharge
the battery from the electric grid, and the different battery state of charge (SOC)
management strategy. Most HEVs use the battery pack in a charge-sustaining (CS)
mode (maintaining their SOC nearly constant through discharging and charging
from the vehicle engine and the regenerative braking system), while PHEVs can
operate in either charge-depleting (CD, similar to EV vehicles) or CS mode. In CD
mode, the battery is discharged until a minimum SOC is reached (30–45% depending
on battery and powertrain configuration); afterward, CS mode is set up, just as for
conventional hybrids sustaining strategy. The distance travelled before the designed
minimum SOC is reached can be a measure of the all-electric range (AER), despite
the internal combustion engine (ICE) being used occasionally to help the propulsion.
However some authors define it as the distance covered until the ICE is turned on
for the first time or as the distance that displaces petroleum consumption on the
standard test cycle. AER is also highly dependent on the driving cycle. For example,
the California Air Resources Board uses the designation of PHEV20 meaning 20
miles of AER in the urban dynamometer driving schedule (UDDS) driving cycle.

Hence Plug-in hybrid electric vehicles have great potential to reduce fuel consumption
and palliate harmful emissions, for better population health and climate change.
These powertrains are essential to meet current emissions legislation, contribute to
more environmentally friendly mobility and improve air quality in big cities.
Electric vehicles trend
Plug-in hybrid electric vehicles (PHEVs), battery electric vehicles (BEVs), and HEVs
[1,2] are investigated as principal kinds of EVs. Fig. 16.1 illustrates the structure of
the EVs. HEVs: the HEVs take advantage of both electricity and petrol vehicles. In the
HEVs, the vehicle's braking system and power flow management system of
the state of charge (SOC) of the battery act as an alternative to recharge the
battery. This procedure supports to slow the vehicle and uses some sector of
the energy usually converted to heat by the brakes [4].
▪ PHEVs: In this type of the EVs, the battery system is charged by both the
external electrical charging outlet and regenerative braking (plugging in). The
main space is occupied with the petrol engine, which extends the range of the
car. Moreover, the battery system allows to travel further on electricity than
conventional vehicles [5].
▪ BEVs: The BEVs are based on pure electricity, which means they do not have a
petroleum motor and are just controlled by electric power [6].

PHEVs are technically viable to sell electric energy back to the grid. Such V2G
functionality often acts as an ancillary service (e.g., spinning reserve and regulation

reserve) to stabilize the grid.