A’ level Physics practical guide by Bongomin Denis 2017

1.0 EXPLANATORY NOTE

The key to success in a physics practical examination and perhaps all physical science is
good planning and precision. It’s therefore advisable for students to use part of the time
allocated for the experiment to plan for their practical answers. Physic practical
examinations normally take 3 hours and 15 minutes. The actual working time for the two
questions is three hours. During the first 15 minutes, students are expected to do the
following:

o Read through all the questions and carefully choose the right questions to
attempt but question one is compulsory.
o Relate the quantities to be measured with the apparatus provided. One should
ensure that all the required apparatus are provided.
o Read through all the procedures carefully and identify the quantities to be
tabulated.
o Plan and draw the table of results.
o Study the setup of the apparatus as shown in the diagram and plan to arrange
them.
o Plan how to present the practical data i.e. note the instructions that require them
to record, measure, determine, find or calculate.

Note: For a good practical answer the following are important:

 There must be a clear record of experimental results

 Units must be recorded accurately where necessary and written once, repeat of
units is not accepted.
 Good hand writing. Symbols used in the experiment must be defined and well
written.
 The sources of errors and precautions taken in the experiment should be clearly
stated at the end of the experiment.
2.0 RECORDING READINGS IN AN EXPERIMENT

In physics practical there are two types of reading i.e. Singular and Repeated reading.

2.1 Singular readings.

These are readings taken on invariable quantities like diameter of a wire , width of glass
block/ruler, thickness of glass block/ruler etc such readings are taken once as per
instructions and must therefore not appear in the table of results. They should be taken at
least three times and the average calculated.

2.2 Repeated readings

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 A’ level Physics practical guide by Bongomin Denis 2017
Repeated readings are noted twice in the instructions. They are readings taken on variable
quantities like length of wire, angle of incident, current etc. Such readings must be recorded
in the table of results.

3.0 MEASURING AND RECORDING VALUES USING INSTRUMENTS.

When carrying out physics practical a student must know the instruments to use and how
to record the observations made. The table below shows some of the common instruments
used in physics practical, their purpose, units and degree of accuracy.

Instrument Quantity measured Unit (Symbol) Accuracy

Meter rule Length ( l ) ,l ≥10 cm Centimeters(cm) 1 decimal places

Except for light

Vernier caliper Length ( l ) , Centimeters(cm) 2 decimal places

1 cm≤ l<10 cm

Micrometer screw Length ( l ) ,l ≤1 cm Millimeters (mm) 2 decimal places

gauge

Voltmeter Voltage Volts(V ) 2 decimal places

Ammeter Current ampere ( A) 2 decimal places

Stop Clock Time(t ¿ Second (S) 0 dpl :t ≥ 2 s

1 dpl : t <2 s
Last digit is zero or 5

Stop Watch Time (t) Second (S) 2 dpl

Thermometer Temperature 0
C 0 dpl

Measuring cylinder Volume Milliliters (mls) 0 dpl

Rheostat Resistance ( R) Ohms (Ω) 0 dpl

Weighing balance Mass Grams (g) 1 dpl

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4.0 UNITS AND SYMBOLS.

 When recording values in the table, the units used must be those specified in the
instructions.
 For non variable quantities we use the unit of the instrument e.g. if you are required
to measure the diameter, d, of a wire using a micrometer screw gauge, then d should
be recorded in the millimeters unless if asked to record in meters.
 No abbreviation of the unit is accepted. Units must be stated either in full or using
their right symbols. E. g. 20seconds can be recorded as 20s NOT 20sec.
 If a unit is written after a person, it is abbreviated with a capital letter,. E. g. Newton
(N), Joule (J), Ampere (A), Kelvin (K), Volts (V) etc.
 If a unit is written in full by a name small letters are used. E. g. joules, amperes,
newtons, volts, etc except Celsius.
 If a unit is not named after a person, use a small letter. E. g. kg, s, m, cm, etc.
 If a quantity is written in the table, the unit must be written once at the top of the
column after a forward bracket ( ). E. g. mass, m in kilograms is written as m (kg).
 Logarithms, sine and cosines of angles do not have units.

Below are some of the quantities with their SI units.

4.1 PHYSICAL QUANTIIES

Quantity Unit Symbol

Mass Kilogram Kg

Length Meter M

Time Second S

Temperature Kelvin K

Electric current Amperes A

Amount of substance Mole Mol

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4. 2 Derive Quantities

Quantity Unit Symbol

Area Square meter M2
Volume Cubic meter M3
Force Newton N
Energy/Work Joule J
Electric resistance Ohms 𝛺
Electromotive force Volts V
(e.m.f.)
Density Kilogram per cubic Kgm-3
meter
Velocity Meter per second Ms-1
Acceleration Meter per square second Ms-2
Power Watts W
Pressure Newton per square Nm-2(Pa)
meter (Pascal)
Momentum Kilogram meter per Kgms-1
second

4.3smaller and bigger units

Below are some of the smaller and bigger units measured in physics

Multiple Prefix Symbol Example

103 Kilo K 4 Km=4 ×10 3 m

106 Mega M 30 Mbytes=30× 10 bytes

6

9
109 Giga G 15 Gbyte=15× 10 bytes

10-2 Centi C 3 cm=3 ×10 m

−2

10-3 Milli M 3 mm=3× 10−3 m

10-6 Micro 𝝁 −6
2 μF =2× 10 F
−9
10-9 Nano N 16 nm=16 ×10 m

10-12 Pico P 6 pC=6 ×10

−12
C

5. 0 DEECIMAL PLACE AND SIGNIFICANT FIGURES

5. 1 Decimal places
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If two or more variables are added or subtracted to get a derive quantity, the derived
quantity must bear the decimal place of the quantity with the least of them (decimal
places) e. g

4.721+1. 18=5. 90

(3 dl)(2 dpl)(2 dpl)

1.973−1.52=0.45

(3 dpl)(2 dpl)(2 d pl)

5.2 Significant figures

Significant figures are used when dividing or multiplying quantities to get derived quantity.
The derived quantity must bear the significant figures of the quantity with the least of them
e. g

NB: The maximum number of significant figure must not exceed four.

5.3 How to determine the number of decimal places for calculated values in the table of
results

Values that are to be entered in the table of results must be those that can be plotted.

The number of decimal places must therefore be determined first before tabulating the
values.

Note: A value can be plotted accurately only when it is written to a maximum of 3

significant figures.

It’s therefore advisable to record all the calculated values to a maximum of 3 significant
figures.

The simplest way of determining the number of decimal places for calculated values in the
column. This is done by writing the biggest value in the column to 3 significant figures and
then writing the rest of the values in that column to the same number of decimal places as
in the biggest value.

NB: For uniformity, all values in a particular column in the table must be written to the
same number of decimal places irrespective of the number of significant figures.

Example

Consider the table below

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l(m) t(s) T(s) l3(m3) T2(s)
0.90 17.75 0.888 0.729
0.80 15.25 0.763 0.512
0.70 12.94 0.597 0.343
0.60 10.62 0.531 0.216
0.50 8.40 0.420 0.125
0.40 6.50 0.325 0.064
For measurable values I. e. values of t, the numbers of decimal places are determined by
looking at the accuracy of the instrument used. In the above table the values

Since values in the columns for T, T 2, l3 are to be calculated and recorded, the number of
decimal places for these values should first be determined before recording them.

17.75
The column for T, the biggest value= =0.8875
20

Since the biggest value in the column for T when written to 3sf has 3 decimal places, then
all values in this column should be recorded to 3decimal places as shown in the table

In the column for T, the biggest value = (0.90)3=0.729

=0.729 when written to 3sf

This therefore means all the values in the column for l3 must be written to 3decimal place.

Alternative method

The number of decimal places can also be determined by calculation.

If a graph of T2 against l3 is required, T2is to be plotted on the vertical axis which has 120
small squares and l3 is to be plotted on the horizontal which has 100 small squares. The
number of decimal places for the values in the column for T, T 2, and l3 are determined as
follows

(i) Divide the biggest value in the column by the number of small squares on the
axis and note the position of the first non-zero digit.
(ii) The position of the first non-zero digit gives the number of decimal places to
which the values in the particular column are to be recorded.

E.g. if the non-zero digit is in the 3rd position for the value obtained in (i) above, then we
record values in the column to 3decimal places.

Example

Consider the table on page 14.

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Values in the column for T

Since T2 is to be plotted in the vertical, we shall use 120 small squares when calculating the
number of decimal places for the values of T and T2.

Let T1 be the biggest in the column.

17.75
T1¿ =0.8875
20

T 1 0.8875
= =0.00739583
120 120

Position of first non-zero digit is 3rd

Hence all the values in the column for T must be recorded to 3decimal places.

Values in the column for l3

Let l13 be the biggest value in the column for l3.

3
l 1 =(0.09)3=0.729
3
l1 0.729
=
100 100

¿ 0.00729

Position of the first non-zero digits is 3rd

Hence we record all the values in the column for l3 to 3decimal places.

Exercise:

Determine the number of decimal places for values for T2 using both methods.

Note:

(i) The second method works well only for values between 0 and 10 inclusive. Large
values i. e. values greater that 100 should just be recorded to 3sf otherwise they
will not be potable.

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Example

Consider the table below;

l/cm L2/cm2(wrongly L2/cm2(correctly

recorded) recorded)
60.1 3112.01 3110
51.3 2631.69 2630
40.6 1648.36 1650
30.0 900.00 900
20.6 424.36 424
10.4 108.16 108
In the table above, the values of l are wrongly recorded in the second column. The values
2

of l2ars supposed to be recorded once to 3sf as in the second column.

(ii) Calculations for determining the number of decimal places to which calculated in
the table are to be recorded should be done as side work and not in the answer
booklet, because no marks are awarded for the working.
(iii) Values calculated for sine, cosine and tangent of angles should all be recorded to
3decimal places.
6.0 PRESENTATION OF PRACTICAL DATA.

When presenting practical data, the following should be considered.

(i) Aim or Title of the experiment.

(ii) Recording the singular readings
(iii) Table of results
(iv) Graph work
(v) Calculation
(vi) Precautions taken

6.1 Aim or Title of the experiment.

The title of the experiment should be written down clearly. This is normally indicated at
the beginning of every practical question.

6.2 Recording Singular readings

If the value of a non variable quantity is required, measure the quantity at least three times
and then take the average but the degree of accuracy of the instrument should be
maintained.

E.g. if the diameter, d of the wire is required, record as follows.

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d/mm

d1 d2 d3 average

Note; Singular readings should first be recorded using the unit of the instrument and then
converted to SI units if necessary.

6.3 Table of results.

When planning the table of results the following are important;

 The table of results must include only variable observations.

 The table must be continues i.e. should not be split into two or more parts.
 Should be self explanatory. All symbols used in the table of results should be well
defined.
 The table of results must be a column table. Each column should be correctly
labeled with units.
 The first column is for the given variables followed by measured variable and
lastly derived quantities.
 All the columns in the table must appear side in a single block.
 The table should be closed on all sides with individual columns demarcated
using bold vertical lines.

NB: The table of results must have only variable quantities. Non-variable quantities
(singular readings) should be recorded outside the table as stated in 7.2.

In case a derived quantity is obtained from other quantities, all these quantities must be
included in the table of results.

E.g. if T 2 l is required in the table of results, then l ,T and T 2 must also be included. Also if
sin θ is required in the table, sinθ should also be included i.e. the table of results must be
2

detailed.

6.4 Graph work.

Title:

 The graph must have a title.

 The title should be properly written e.g. a graph of T2 against X2. Avoid using VS
 Units must not be included in the title.

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The axes:

 The axes must be drawn perpendicularly to each other.

 Each axis must be clearly labeled with its units as required in the question.

Note:

The graph may not necessarily start from the origin (0, 0)

When drawing the axes, select a suitable position on the graph paper and draw the axes so
as to cover all the values (Positive and negative if any) in your table. This is illustrated
below.

4
2
0
-2
-4
-6

0 2 4 6 8 10 12

The starting points on both axes must be clearly indicated for proper interpretation of the
scale.

NB: The above is an illustration for a graph where no intercept is required.

Intercept

If the intercept on the vertical axis (y-axis) is required, the starting point on the vertical
axis can be anywhere but the horizontal axis (x-axis) must start from zero.

If the intercept on the horizontal axis (x-axis) is required, the values on the vertical axis (y-
axis) must start from zero.

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N.B: If only the slope is required and no intercept, it’s not very important to start from the
origin (0,0), especially where it’s found inconvenient to do so.

Scale

The scale chosen must be;

(i) Suitable i.e. cover at least 50% of the graph paper on both axes.
(ii) Convenient i.e. should be easy to use without any auxiliary calculations

The scale used should be easy to interpret and follow to avoid disagreement between your
plots and that of examiner.

Each scale should be chosen such that it accommodates all values in table to be plotted.

How to obtain a convenient scale.

(i) Obtain the range on both the vertical and horizontal axes.
(ii) Divide the vertical range by 120 squares and the horizontal range by 100
squares.
(iii) The figure value obtained in (ii) above is what one small square represents on
the vertical and horizontal axes respectively.

For convenient we use scales involving digits 1,2,5 and 10, then fractions of their multiple
or their powers i.e. 0.1,0.2,0.5,1.0, or 0.5, 1, 2.5, 5, or 0.01, 0.02, 0.05, 0.1 or 10, 20, 50, 100,
etc. If the figure value obtained in (iii) falls exactly on the value like above use it as it is.

(iv) Round up the value obtained in (ii) to the nearest upper value from the set of
digits (iii) to obtain a convenient scale. E.g. If the figure value in (ii) is 0.046 then
round it up to 0.05. This value is what we then take to represent 1 small square
on particular units.
(v) Multiply the figure value obtained in (iv) above by five squares to obtain what
1cm represent or by 10 squares to obtain what 2cm represent.

If the scale used leaves out some values then use a greater from the set of digits or
fractions in (iii) above E.g. if 0.01 fails try 0.02, if 0.02 fails try 0.05 etc.

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Example

ϕ (0) β(0) sinϕ sin β

10 8 0.174 0.139

20 15 0.342 0.259

30 22 0.500 0.375

40 28 0.643 0.469

50 34 0.766 0.559

60 39 0.866 0.629

If a graph of sinϕagainst sinβ is required then sinϕis to be plotted on the vertical axis and
sinβ on the horizontal axis. The scale is obtained as follows.

Vertical scale ( sinϕ−axis¿

The vertical axis has 120 small squares.

Range¿ 0.866−0.174

= 0.692

Dividing the range by 120 squares gives 0.00576667 but we round it up to the next figure
value which is 0.01 .

Thus one small square represents 0.01 units.

Imply 1 cm ( 5 small square )=0.01× 5=0.05 units

and 2 cm (10 small squares)=0.01 x 10

=0.1 units on the vertical axis.

Horizontal scale ( sinβ−axis¿ ;

The horizontal axis has 100small squares

Range=0.629-0.139

=0.490

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Dividing the range by 100squares gives 0.049 but we round it up to next figure which is
0.05

Thus 1 small square represents 0.05 units

Implying 1cm (5small squares) =0.05x5

=0.25

And 2cm (10 small squares) =0.05x10

=0.5 units on the horizontal axis.

Plotting
Plot the experimental points on the graph using a hard sharp pencil marking them with a
cross (x) or a dot encircled (o) from others.

Note

 The intersection of the cross in the correct point plotted and the circling enable the
visibility of your plotted points.
 If the points are marked with a dot and a circle, the circle must be of half small
square radius.

The diagram below shows how this should be done for points lying at different positions on
the graph paper.

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 If the point is in the middle of the square (A), the enclosing circle should not go
beyond the boundaries of the square.
 If the point is at the intersection of lines (B), then the circle must cut the midpoints
of the perpendiculars from it.
 If the point is on the horizontal (C), the enclosing circle must be between the
boundaries of the vertical lines before and after the point and should not touch the
upper and lower lines.
 If a point is on the vertical (D), the enclosing circle must be between the boundaries
of the upper and the lower lines and should not touch the lines before and after the
point.

The line of best fit.

The best straight line in most elementary work is drawn according to one judgment.

For straight line graphs, the line of best fit to the data is that line which passes through
most of the plotted points leaving almost an equal number of points on other side if there is
any scatter. The best straight line can also be drawn to average plotted points as illustrated
below.

If the graph is a curve, the best curve must be smooth and needs not pass through all the
plotted points.

Avoid sharp points or waves on curves.

Slope

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When obtaining the slope (gradient), use as much of the graph paper as possible.

Use a large right angled triangle covering all the plotted points. This is illustrated in the
sketch below.

A graph with a positive slope.

Y(m) Graph of Y against t

t (m)
If the triangle is not drawn, the points considered for taking the slope should be indicated
on the graph as illustrated in the sketch below.
Graph of y against t

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From the figure above;

¿ y −y
Slope=change ∈ y ¿ A ¿ B A ¿ B ¿= 2 1
Change∈t ¿ t 2−t 1

A graph with a negative slope

A graph of y against t

From the figure above;

¿ y 2− y 1
Slope=Change∈ y ¿ A ¿ B A ¿ B ¿=
Changge∈t ¿ t 2−t 1

When calculating the slope, the working should be clearly shown.

The slope must be correctly calculated to three significant figures and must have correct
units attached. The unit of the slope must be derived from the units of the axes of the graph.

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Example.

Consider the sketch graph below.

Graph of Y against X
)

Slopeof the line AB=Change∈ y ¿ A ¿ B ¿ A¿B¿

Change∈ x ¿

( 5−25 ) m
¿
(18.5−1.2) m

−20
¿
17.3

∴ Slope=−1.17 (3 sf )

The above slope has no units because the units of the axes cancel.

Slope of a curve.

If the graph drawn is a smooth curve, then the slope is obtained at a point on the curve.

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To find the slope at a point on the curve, a straight line, which is a tangent to the curve at
that point where the slope is to be calculated must be drawn first.

The slope of the tangent drawn gives the slope of the curve at that point. This is illustrated
in the diagram below.

(i) A curve with a positive gradient (ii) A curve with a negative gradient

A graph of y against x
A graph of y against x

Tangent

Curve Curve

P
P

Tangent

Slope of each curve at a point P is given by the slope of the tangent at P.

i .e . Slope=Change∈ y ¿ A ¿ B ¿ A¿B¿
Change∈ x ¿

y 2− y 1
¿
x 2−x 1

Conclusions

 Calculations should be done clearly on the answer sheet provided and not on the
graph paper
 All substitutions must be done with S.I units except for light.
 After calculating, write the final answer to three significant figures and finally show
the relevant comments.

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Precautions.

Whatever is done to have a successful experiment must be recorded.

Record all Precautions you have taken at the end of the report and state why such
precautions were necessary.

7.0 ERRORS

There are three main types of errors incurred during an experimental investigation.

7.1 Instrumental errors.

These are errors inherent in the apparatus itself and in the instruments used for measuring
a physical quantity. It should be realized that in a teaching laboratory, no apparatus can
give a high degree of accuracy. The result of any measurement should be considered with
the accuracy of the instrument in mind. However, measuring instruments used must be
reliable enough.

Note:

Instrumental errors cannot be eliminated by repeated measurements using the same

apparatus.

Generally, measuring instruments are accurate to about the smallest division.

When using a Vernier caliper, the reading error is 0.1mm or 0.01cm, whereas when using a
micrometer screw gauge, the reading error is 0.01mm.

A meter rule has a reading error of 1mm or 0.1cm.

7.2. Setting or adjustment errors.

These are personal errors that arise from a faulty alignment of the apparatus or wrong
adjustment of apparatus.

Setting errors are perhaps the most common in a teaching laboratory and may give us to
unnecessarily large errors in the final results. This calls for care and precaution in setting
up the apparatus for a given experiment.

Before arranging the apparatus students are advised to ask for any missing apparatus
required for the apparatus to avoid making a wrong alignment of the apparatus.

7.3. Random errors

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These arise due to numerous fluctuating disturbances and uncertainties during an
experimental investigation.

Sources of random errors

a) Observational errors, which may arise due to parallax and scale interpolation
estimates.
b) Pressure variation, where pressure is supposed to be constant.
c) Temperature fluctuations, where temperature is supposed to be constant.
d) Voltage or current fluctuations, where voltage or current is supposed to be constant.

8.0. LINEAR MEASUREMENTS.

Linear measurements in a teaching laboratory are carried out using three basic
instruments i.e. micrometer screw gauge, Vernier caliper and a meter rule.

As seen in section 3.0, the use of these instruments depends on the linear size of the
spacemen.

8.1 Micrometer screw gauge.

The micrometer screw gauge is used for measuring smaller lengths of at most 1cm or
0.01mm such as diameter of a wire.

It has two scales i.e. the main scale and the circular Vernier scale.

The main scale is graduated in millimeters whereas the Vernier scale has either 50 or 100
divisions.

The micrometer screw gauge reads to an accuracy of 2 decimal places (0.01mm).

Before using a micrometer screw gauge its scale must be studied to determine the zero
error. The Zero error must be subtracted from the subsequent measurement.

How to use a micrometer screw gauge.

 Close the jaws of the micrometer screw gauge and note the reading on the Vernier
scale to obtain zero error.

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 Open the jaws of the micrometer screw gauge to accommodate the object.
 Using the ratchet, rotate the thimble so that the object is held between the jaws ( at
the first click).
 Read the micrometer screw gauge.

Required value= mean value ± reading error.

This is illustrated using the examples below;

(a) Examples involving a micrometer screw gauge whose circular Vernier scale has 50
divisions.

Question.

Determine the micrometer reading in the following diagrams.

Note:

 Each division on the upper side of the main scale of this type of micrometer screw
gauge represents 1.00mm.
 Each division of the lower side of the main scale represents 0.5mm
1
 Each division on the circular Vernier scale represents mm or 0.01mm. To obtain
100
the value on the circular Vernier scale, read the division that coincide with the main
scale line.

Solution.

(i) Reading on the micrometer screw gauge=reading on the main scale + Vernier
scale

12
¿ 10.50+
100
¿ 10.50+0.12
¿ 10.62 mm
(ii) Reading on the micrometer screw gauge¿ 15.00+0.37
¿ 15.37 mm

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(b) Examples involving micrometer screw gauge whose circular Vernier scales have 100
divisions.

Question

Determine the reading of the micrometer screw gauge in the following diagrams.

Note : With this type of micrometer screw gauge, each division on the main scale
1
represents 1.00mm and each division on the circular Vernier scale represents mm or
100
0.01 mm .

Solution

Micrometer reading¿reading on main scale + reading on circular Vernier scale.

87
(i) Micrometer reading¿ 10.00+
100
=10.00+0.87
=10.87 mm
(ii) Micrometer reading ¿ 14.00+0.57
=14.57 mm
(iii) Micrometer reading ¿ 15.00+0.22
=15.22 mm

NB: In the above examples, the micrometer screw gauge been considered to have no zero
error.

8.2 The Vernier caliper

The Vernier caliper is used for measuring length between 1cm and 10cm

It also has two scales i.e. the main scale and the Vernier scale.

 The main scale is graduated in centimeters whereas the Vernier scale is constructed
by dividing 0.9cm (9mm) into 10 equal divisions i.e. each division on the Vernier
scale is equal to 0.01 cm or 0.1mm.
 The Vernier caliper reads to an accuracy of 2 decimal places (0.01cm) and has a
reading error of ±0.01cm.

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How to use a Vernier caliper.

 Close the jaws of the Vernier caliper and check if the zeros of the main scale and
Vernier scale coincided.
 If the zeros of the main scale and Vernier scale do not coincide, then read off the
zero error. The zero error should be subtracted from all the subsequent in which the
Vernier caliper is used.
 Open the jaws of the instrument, place the object between them and close the jaws
so that they press tightly against the object. Lock with the locking screw.
 Record the reading on the main scale before the zero mark on the Vernier scale.
 By looking at the Vernier scale, identify the Vernier division which is in line with the
main scale division. Record the value in centimeters and add it to the reading on the
main scale to obtain the required value.

This is illustrated with the diagram below.

1
Note: Each division on the Vernier scale is equal to cm or 0.01 cm i.e. 1 Vernier
100
division ¿ 0.01 cm

From the diagram above, the reading on the main scale is 3.7cm.

The division on the Vernier scale which is in line with the main scale division is the 7 th .
This is equal to 0.07 cm .

The reading on the Vernier caliper is therefore 3.77 cm and we record it as 3.77± 0.01 cm,
where ± 0.01 cm is the reading error.

8.3 The meter rule.

The meter rule is used to measure lengths greater than 10cm, except for light.

It is graduated in centimeters and has 1000 divisions. Each division is equal to 0.1cm.

The meter rule measures to an accuracy of 1 decimal place (0.1cm) and has a reading
error of 0.1cm.

Note:

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(i) If you are required to measure the length ,l , and record it in meters, then l must
be recorded to three decimal places.

E.g. If l/cm=27.5

then l/m=0.275

 For light experiments, lengths should be measured using a meter rule and must
be recorded in centimeters to 1 decimal places and in meters to 3 decimal places.

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A’ level Physics practical guide by Bongomin Denis 2017

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