Kerogen is generally deposited in anoxic reducing stagnant

conditions, most commonly found in marshes, swamps, meres, salt
marshes, and lagoons, and is particularly characteristic of deltas
(see SEDIMENTARY ENVIRONMENTS | Deltas). In these
environments, vegetation may accumulate as laterally extensive
horizons of peat many metres thick.
 During the subsequent burial, peat undergoes extensive
compaction and diagenesis, changing first into brown
coal (lignite), then bituminous coal, then anthracite, and finally
graphite, as it enters the realm of metamorphism. The variety
of kerogen termed coal is, of course, a very important source
of energy. Less conspicuously, although equally important,
kerogen occurs in varying amounts in mudstones. Originating
as plant and animal detritus, this disseminated kerogen is the
mother of petroleum (Figure 11). When kerogen
constitutes>1.5%, or thereabouts, of a shale, the shale
becomes a potential petroleum source rock, subject to
sufficient thermal maturation. Depending both on its chemistry
and the level of maturation, kerogen generates petroleum
gas and oil
 Catagenesis is the second stage of kerogen degradation with
marked decrease of hydrogen content due to the generation
and release of hydrocarbons with increasing depth (Tissot &
Welte, 1984). In petroleum exploration, catagenesis
corresponds to the zone of oil generation or “oil window”. Also,
catagenesis marks the beginning of cracking, which generates
“wet gas” with increasing proportion of methane.
 Metagenesis is the third and final stage of kerogen alteration
with the slow elimination of the residual kerogen consisting of
two carbons or more out of three atoms (Tissot & Welte,
1984). In terms of petroleum exploration, metagenesis occurs
mainly in the dry gas zone.
 The midstream operations are often taken to include some elements of the
upstream and downstream sectors. For example, the midstream sector may
include natural gas processing plants that purify the raw natural gas as well as removing
and producing elemental sulfur and natural gas liquids (NGL) as finished end-products.
business category involving the processing and transportation sectors of petroleum
industry.[4]
 Examples: transportation pipelines, terminals, gas processing and
treatment, LNG, LPG, and GTL.

Downstream: These processes are the final step in the path that oil and gas take
from being in the ground to being in the hands of consumers. They are preceded by
upstream and midstream works, which cover the extraction and transportation of
crude oil and natural gas to refineries. The first step in downstream works, therefore,
is refining. Crude oil is refined using fractional distillation into a variety of products,
including gasoline, naphtha, kerosene, and diesel oil. Fractional distillation works
because these different products all have different boiling points. The crude oil is
heated in the bottom of the distillation chamber until all the components turn into
gases, which rise up the chamber. As they rise up the chamber, they cool, and
apparatus is placed to capture the different products as they condense from a
vapour into a liquid.  

LAND SURVEY: Two‐dimensional survey (2‐D): Seismic data or a group of seismic

lines acquired individually such that there typically are significant gaps (commonly 1 km or
more) between adjacent lines.

A 2D survey typically contains numerous lines acquired orthogonally to the strike of

geological structures (such as faults and folds) with a minimum of lines acquired parallel to
geological structures to allow line‐to‐line tying of the seismic data and interpretation and
mapping of structures. The seismic data recorded by 2‐D survey is seismic line.

Three‐dimensional survey (3‐D): The acquisition of seismic data as closely spaced receiver
and shot lines such that there typically are no significant gaps in the subsurface coverage. The
seismic data recorded by 3‐D survey is seismic cube.                                               

MARINE SURVEY: 2‐D and 3‐D survey in marine differ from land survey by: ‐The
seismic source is Air gun & not dynamite or Vibroseis ‐The seismic detector is Hydrophone
& not a geophone ‐The sources and detectors are always at depth below the sea level & the
depth of the cable is controlled by Streamer‐Birds ‐The receivers are connected together by
streamer.  

Tail buoy: A floating device used in marine seismic acquisition to identify the end of
streamer. It allows the seismic acquisition crew to monitor location and direction of
streamers. Streamer Bird: A device connected with the streamer to control the depth of
streamer. Types of Seismic arrays (spread):   A‐Split dip Spread: the source in center of
spaced geophone groups

• Split dip Spread: source is inline with geophone groups with no gaps

• Deviated dip Spread: source is deviated by small distance perpendicular to the line • Gapped
dip Spread: geophone groups near the source is turned off B‐End on Spread: the source is at
one end of geophone groups C‐Broad side Spread: source has offset 500‐1000m
perpendicular to seismic line

• T‐Broad side spread: source is opposite the line center

• L‐Broad side spread: source is opposite one end of the line

BODY WAVES: A wave that propagates through a medium rather than along an interface. It is
faster than Surface waves

• P‐wave: An elastic body wave in which particles motions are parallel to the direction the wave
propagates. It`s velocity is faster than S-wave. P-waves incident on an interface at other than normal
incidence can produce reflected and transmitted Swaves, in that case known as converted waves.

• S‐wave: An elastic body wave in which particles motions are perpendicular to the direction the
wave propagates. S-waves are generated by most land seismic sources, but not by air guns.

SEISMIC DATA PROCESSING

MULTIPLEX & DEMULTIPLEX: Signals from all receivers arrive at the recorder at the same
time. However recorder is only capable of measuring one receiver at the same time, so we use the
Multiplex technique. Multiplexer: rotary switch rotates every few Millie seconds to sample each
trace. Multiplex cycle: one turn of the switch. Sample rate: is time taken to complete one multiplex
cycle (generally 2 or 4 ms). To collect all of these samples back again to its original place, we use
Demultiplex technique.

GAIN RECOVERY: It is a step in seismic processing to compensate for attenuation of the

amplitude of data. As shot fired, Waves spread as a cone in 3 dimensions. This spreading of energy is
called Spherical divergence. This spreading of energy from source point causes the energy to
decrease with increasing depth. High frequencies are more rapidly to absorb than low frequencies
by the rock. So, seismic energy reflect from deep geological event will be received at geophone as
weak signal, & near surface will be received as strong signal. We use the Gain Recovery to enhance
these weak signals True amplitude: means the real amplitude on seismic trace without any gain
applied.

EQUALIZATION SCALING (TRACE SCALING): It is known also as Normalization. It is used

because after all seismic traces is stacked, strong amplitude will carry more weight than weak ones,
So we run this step to scale up weak traces & scale down strong traces (normalize the trace with
itself).

AUTOMATIC GAIN CONTROL & BALANCE: AGC & Balance are used to build up weak
signals (differ from Trace scaling that they are based on smaller time analysis window where Trace
scaling applies gain at large time window). Balance divides trace into several windows which may
overlap & AGC uses a sliding window instead of set of windows

EDITING: Step is used to remove bad traces, noisy channels or open channels.
MUTING: Zero out arrivals that are not primary P-wave reflections.
DECONVOLUTION: A step in seismic signal processing to recover high frequencies, attenuate
multiples, equalize amplitudes, produce a zero-phase wavelet or for other purposes that generally
affect the wave shape. Let’s consider a simple case as shown in figure. In ideal case, Geophone still
stationary until the first reflection arrived, then it makes one movement & return to its stationary
position again so the ideal seismogram reflections shows a series of spikes. In real case, Seismogram
for these layers would be presented by short wavelets. Because spike passes through earth layers
which act as a filter & applies an operator to Spike & transform it into short wavelets, applying this
operator known as Convolution. The process used to return short wavelets to spikes known as
Deconvolution. TYPES OF DECONVOLUTION: 1. DBS & DAS, 2. Spike Deconvolution & Predictive
Deconvolution and 3. Minimum phase & Zero phase

FILTERING: A process or algorithm using a set of limits used to eliminate unwanted portions of
seismic data, commonly on the basis of frequency or amplitude, to enhance the signal-to-noise ratio
of the data or to achieve Deconvolution. The common use of digital filter in data processing is to
filter out unwanted frequencies.

Types of filters:

• Band-Pass filter: This filter doesn’t alter phase, only extract a defined band of frequencies Any high
or low frequencies outside this range will be attenuated. • Low-Cut filter (High pass): In this case, the
analysts only want to eliminate low frequencies Low-cut filter is used to filter out low frequency
Ground Roll.

• High-Cut filter (Low-Pass): In this case, the analysts only want to eliminate high frequencies

• Notch filter: It is used to filter out narrow band of frequencies within frequency range of data The
most common use of this filter is to attenuate noises caused by power lines.

• Variable amplitude spectrum filter: In this case, the analysts don’t want to keep the amplitude of
filter constant This type of filters is used for special processing.

• Phase filter: In some cases, instead of filtering out frequencies, it may be necessary to adjust the
phase of data. Ex: Survey in coastal area, the survey runs in land & marine together. On land, the
field crew will use velocity geophones & in lagoon they will use a Pressure hydrophone. Where
geophones & hydrophones are used together, the traces were recorded by geophones will be out of
phase with those recorded by hydrophones. Its necessary to phase shift the traces of hydrophones
before stacking We apply Phase filter to change the phase of all frequencies without altering
amplitude.

• Shaping filter: It is a filter by which the analysts can alter both the phase & frequency content of
seismic trace.

• Inverse filter: It is any type of filters which reverse the effects of filter has already been applied to
data

STATIC CORRECTION: It is often called statics, a bulk shift of a seismic trace in time during
seismic processing. A common static correction is the weathering correction, which compensates for
a layer of low seismic velocity material near the surface of the Earth. Other corrections compensate
for differences in topography and differences in the elevations of sources and receivers.

VELOCITY ANALYSIS: The determination of seismic velocity is the key to seismic method. The
process of calculating seismic velocity is to do better process seismic data. Successful stacking, time
migration and depth migration all require proper velocity inputs Velocity estimation is needed also
to convert time section into depth section.

MIGRATION: A step in seismic processing in which reflections in seismic data are moved to their
correct locations in the x-y-time space of seismic data, including two-way travel time and position
relative to shot points. Migration improves seismic interpretation and mapping because the
locations of geological structures, especially faults, are more accurate in migrated seismic data. It
attends to deal with diffractions & dipping interfaces.

POST STACK PROCESSING: Sometimes, we have a seismic section & already had been
processed in past but we need to enhance & filtering this data again. Usually, this data came in
seismic section papers (not in tapes), So at first we scan this data & convert it to SEG-Y format by
Victorization process. Sometimes also, we digitize the shot point maps & put X-Y directions in the
SEG-Y trace header.

Solution gas drive

In a solution (or dissolved) gas drive reservoir, the oil-bearing rock is completely surrounded by
impermeable barriers. As the reservoir pressure drops during production, expansion of the oil and its
dissolved gas provides most of the reservoir's drive energy (Figure 3). Additional energy is obtained from
the expansion of the rock and its associated water.

Depending on its discovery pressure, a solution gas drive reservoir can be initially
either undersaturated or saturated.[2] In an undersaturated reservoir, the reservoir pressure is greater than
the bubblepoint of the oil. No free gas exists in the reservoir while the pressure remains above the
bubblepoint. The reservoir drive energy is provided only by the limited expansion of the oil, rock, and water.
In a saturated reservoir, the reservoir pressure is at the bubblepoint. As soon as oil is produced, the
pressure drops and bubbles of solution gas form in the reservoir. This solution gas liberation causes the oil
to shrink, but the oil shrinkage is more than offset by solution gas expansion, the primary source of
reservoir drive energy below the bubblepoint.

Production trend
Figure 3 Solution gas drive reservoir.

Solution gas drive reservoirs show characteristic changes in reservoir pressure, producing gas-oil ratio, and
oil and water production rates during the life of the reservoir. If the reservoir is initially undersaturated, the
reservoir pressure falls quickly during oil production because of the small compressibilities of oil, water, and
rock. Pressure drops of several hundred pounds per square inch can easily occur over a matter of months.
Because the only gas produced is that which evolves from the produced oil in the wellbore, the gas-oil ratio
(GOR) remains constant until the reservoir reaches the bubblepoint.

Once reservoir pressure reaches the bubblepoint pressure or if the reservoir was initially saturated, the
reservoir pressure declines less quickly due to the large compressibility of the gas bubbles forming in the
reservoir. The producing GOR rises quickly as the bubbles link up and begin to flow and can increase to as
much as ten times the initial GOR. If reservoir pressure continues to fall, the producing GOR will eventually
drop as the gas expands less and less as it flows up the wellbore.

Oil production rates fall quickly once the producing GOR begins to rise. Wells must be placed on artificial
lift early in their life. Initially, little or no water is produced. As reservoir pressure drops, a small amount of
water may be produced as the interstitial water saturation expands and exceeds the critical value required
for flow.
Recovery
Oil recovery from solution gas drive reservoirs is usually low, ranging from 5 to 30% of the original oil in
place (OOIP) (see Table 1). Typically, less than 5% of the OOIP is recovered above the bubblepoint. In
general, the better solution gas drive recoveries are obtained in reservoirs with relatively low oil viscosities
and fairly homogeneous rock properties. Recovery can sometimes be improved with completion strategies
that conserve reservoir energy by minimizing the producing GOR.

Gas cap drive

In a gas cap drive reservoir, the primary source of reservoir energy is an initial gas cap, which expands as
the reservoir pressure drops (Figure 4). Additional energy is provided by the expansion of solution gas
released from the oil. Less significant drive contributions are provided by the expansion of the rock and its
associated water.

Figure 4 Gas cap drive reservoir.

Production trends
Gas cap expansion causes reservoir pressure to fall more slowly in a gas cap drive reservoir than in one
producing in a solution gas drive. The rate of pressure decline is closely tied to the relative size of the gas
cap, with larger gas caps resulting in a more gradual pressure decline as oil is produced.
Early in the life of a gas cap drive reservoir, the GOR rises slowly because the higher reservoir pressure
keeps more gas in solution in the oil. Later, the GOR increases dramatically as the expanding gas cap
reaches the highest wells on structure. The GOR continues to climb as the gas-oil contact moves farther
down structure and gas cap gas production increases. Oil production rates fall less quickly than in a
solution gas drive reservoir due to the slower decline in reservoir pressure. Artificial lift may not be required
as early in the field's life since wells tend to have longer flowing lives. As in a solution gas drive, little or no
water is produced.

Recovery
Oil recovery from gas cap drive reservoirs typically ranges from 20 to 40% of the original oil in place. The
actual recovery obtained depends on the size of the initial gas cap, the structural geometry of the reservoir,
and the way the field is managed.

Gas cap drive recovery increases with the size of the initial gas cap if gas cap gas production can be
minimized. This is done most easily in steeply dipping reservoirs or those with thick oil columns which allow
the wells to be perforated as far as possible below the gas-oil contact. Recovery can also be improved by
shutting-in wells when they begin to produce large amounts of gas cap gas. In addition, the produced gas
may be returned to the gas cap using gas injection wells located high on structure.

Water drive

In a water drive reservoir, the oil zone is in communication with an aquifer that provides the bulk of the
reservoir's drive energy. As oil is produced, the water in the aquifer expands and moves into the reservoir,
displacing oil. Depending on the aquifer's strength, additional energy may be provided by solution gas
expansion. Much less significant contributions are provided by the expansion of the reservoir rock and its
associated water.

The geometry of the aquifer determines whether it is a bottom water or an edge water drive (Figure 5). In a
bottom water drive, the aquifer is present below the entire reservoir and water influx moves vertically
upward into the oil zone. In an edge water drive, the aquifer is located on the flanks of the reservoir and the
water moves upward along the reservoir dip.

Figure 5 Edge water versus bottom water drive reservoirs.

Production trends
In a water drive, the reservoir pressure response to production depends on the size and permeability of the
aquifer and the rate at which the reservoir is produced[3]. If the reservoir is produced at a low rate, the
aquifer is able to replace the fluid volumes produced and reservoir pressure remains fairly constant. At high
production rates, the aquifer is unable to keep up with withdrawals and reservoir pressure drops. If the rate
is then reduced to a low level, reservoir pressure will rise. The magnitude of “high” and “low” production
rates for a particular water drive reservoir are determined by the size and permeability of its associated
aquifer.

In a strong water drive reservoir, the producing GOR remains fairly constant, reflecting the stable reservoir
pressure. However, if the aquifer is unable to maintain reservoir pressure, the producing GOR will rise
accordingly.

Oil rates remain high under strong water drive until water breaks through in the producing wells. Water
production usually occurs early in the field life of down structure wells, and the water-oil ratio
(WOR) continues to increase with time as the oil-water contact moves upward. Gas lift may be required for
high water cut wells to continue to flow.

Recovery
Oil recovery from water drive reservoirs typically ranges from 35 to 75% of the original oil in place. The
actual recovery obtained depends on the strength of the aquifer, the sweep efficiency of the encroaching
water, and the way the field is managed.

Water drive recovery increases with the strength of the aquifer if water production can be minimized. As
with gas cap drive reservoirs, this is done most easily in reservoir geometries that allow wells to be
perforated a considerable distance from the fluid contact.

Water drive recovery also depends on the aquifer's sweep efficiency. Sweep efficiency is a measure of how
effectively the encroaching water displaces oil. Higher sweep efficiencies and oil recoveries occur when
the viscosity of the oil is low compared to that of the water and oil flows more easily than the encroaching
water. Water drive reservoirs with high viscosity crudes have lower sweep efficiencies and oil recoveries
because the water tends to move ahead of or “finger” through the oil, leaving behind unswept oil.

Water drive recovery can be improved by balancing production rates across the field so that the oil-water
contact moves up as uniformly as possible. Since water drive is usually more efficient than solution gas
drive, in some cases it is possible to increase recovery by producing the reservoir at a rate low enough that
the aquifer is able to maintain a high reservoir pressure.

Combination drive
Figure 6 Combination drive reservoir.

Most oil reservoirs produce under the influence of two or more reservoir drive mechanisms, referred to
collectively as a combination drive. A common example is an oil reservoir with an initial gas cap and an
active water drive (Figure 6).

Production trends
The production trends of a combination drive reservoir reflect the characteristics of the dominant drive
mechanism. A reservoir with a small initial gas cap and a weak water drive will behave in a way similar to a
solution gas drive reservoir, with rapidly decreasing reservoir pressure and rising GORs. Likewise, a
reservoir with a large gas cap and a strong water drive may show very little decline in reservoir pressure
while exhibiting steadily increasing GORs and WORs. Evaluation of these production trends is the primary
method a reservoir engineer has for determining the drive mechanisms active in a reservoir.

Recovery
The ultimate recovery obtained from a combination drive reservoir is a function of the drive mechanisms
active in the reservoir. The recovery may be high or low depending on whether displacement or depletion
drive mechanisms dominate. Water drive and gas cap expansion are both displacement type drive
mechanisms and have relatively high recoveries. Solution gas drive is a depletion type drive and is
relatively inefficient.

Recovery from a combination drive reservoir can often be improved by minimizing the effect of depletion
drive mechanisms by substituting or augmenting more efficient ones through production rate management
or fluid injection. To do this, the drive mechanisms active in a reservoir must be identified early in its life.

Gravity drainage

Figure 7 Fluid segregation by gravity damage.

Gravity drainage, or gravity segregation, is the tendency of oil, gas, and water to segregate in a reservoir
during production due to their differing densities (Figure 7). As a secondary drive mechanism, gravity
drainage occurs only in combination with one or more of the primary oil reservoir drive mechanisms.

Conditions conducive to gravity drainage include thick reservoirs with high vertical permeabilities or thin
reservoirs with steep dips. In a solution gas drive reservoir perforated down dip, gravity drainage can cause
released solution gas to migrate upward and oil to flow downward, conserving reservoir energy and
increasing recovery to near that of a water drive.

The rate of oil gravity drainage in the reservoir is usually low compared to field production rates. Over time,
however, gravity drainage can be extremely efficient and recoveries higher than any of the primary drive
mechanism possible.

Seismic interpretation is quite straightforward but not as easy or as simple as it looks. It is

actually an art in many cases. And, as long as you exert effort on it you will continue to gain
more experience and be more effective. Try to see as much data as possible to let your eyes
get used to it. I will try to tell you some basic steps but you should attend some course or read
a book.
1.
 We start by reading about the geological background of the area.
2.

Scan the available seismic volume(s) in time or depth domain, scanning all the
directions: Inline, Xline, Time Slice, arbitrary lines. Arbitrary lines perpendicular to
the major structures are very important.
a.

Make sure you look at all the existing discoveries and fields, if any, to get a feel for
what actually makes a trap in the area. You are most likely to find new reserves in
similar style traps, especially at first.
b.

Talk to as many experienced interpreters in the area as possible and ask them to show
you typical traps and prospects. Also ask them about their process flow and why they
do the steps in the manner they prefer.
c.

Assess the availability of nonseismic sensor data such as air photo analyses, gravity
and magnetic surveys, and even interpretations based on older data.
3.

Run some basic volume attributes like coherency to check the major structure
orientation, spectral decomposition (SD) over the target zone, running geoanomaly,
which may give direct indications of hydrocarbon presence.
4.

Start the interpretation with a well-known marker, which is usually sea bottom,
carbonate layers, or salt sheet layers.
5.

Start to fully understand the structure framework of the area along with the petroleum
system. Then start interpretation of the prospect targets.
6.

Finally run some other basic horizon attributes along the horizons like root mean
square (RMS) amplitude and dip-azimuth.
7.

Sometimes we do another interpretation run after running those attributes.

8.

It is very important to check test lines while interpreting to avoid having mis-ties.

Challenges are mainly with the processing. It is very difficult to obtain a consistent and
robust shear volume from the multicomponent acquisition. A number of companies are
acquiring 3C or 4C now as a standard, but only processing the compressional component. So
just because it was acquired multicomponent does not necessarily mean you will have a shear
wave volume. Most of the inversion techniques that attempt to utilize the shear wave, do not
use actual shear wave from seismic, but modeled shear from logs. Even so, they can produce
good results. How much better if we actually get the shear from the seismic, who knows? If
you have the shear data, calibration can be tricky. Murray Roth’s company, Transform,
recently acquired by Drilling Information, has a number of good interpretation tools for P–S
interpretation workflows.
In general, the steps to do 3D seismic multi-component interpretation is outline below:
1.

Load and calibrate (time tie the events/horizons between the P and S volumes). Tying
synthetics and ray trace models from the wells will assist greatly. Inversion and
velocity modeling are useful. This is mostly a stretch and squeeze process. The next
step is a real problem if the volumes are not aligned in time or depth in this fashion.
2.

Divide volumes (i.e., create a Poisson’s ratio volume), and other rock property
volumes if desired. If step one was too difficult, try to accomplish this over a
sequence or between two horizons.
3.

Diverge into whatever workflow is appropriate to your goal.