SOCIAL GROUP

SOCIAL GROUPS - Are group of people who regularly and consciously interact with one another

1. PRIMARY GROUP
 usually fairly small and is made up of individuals who generally engage face-to-face in long-term emotional ways
 expressive function

Examples: A family of 5 living together and an adopted child living with his foster parents in the farm

2. SECONDARY GROUP
 task-oriented and time-limited
 these groups serve as instrumental function rather than an expressive one, meaning that their role is more goal- or
task-oriented than emotional
 instrumental function

Examples: a group of 7 students for research project and group of teachers assign to MHPNHS

3. IN-GROUP
 is the group that an individual feels he/she belongs to, and he/she believes it to be an integral part of who he/she is.

Example: Juan belongs to a dance group and he is comfortable with his groupmates.

4. OUT-GROUP
 conversely, is a group someone doesn’t belong to; oftenly, there may be a feeling of disdain or competition in relation
to an out-group.

Example: Juana is in her school’s cheering squad but feels alone since no one wants to be with her especially during their
training and break time.

REFERENCE GROUP - A reference group refers to a group to which an individual or another group is compared.
Sociologists call any group that individuals use as a standard for evaluating themselves and their own behavior a
reference group.

LEADERSHIP - Leader – Someone who influences other people in the group

INSTRUMENTAL LEADER - Focus in group goals, giving orders and making plans in order to achieve those goals

EXPRESSIVE LEADER - Looking to increase harmony and minimize conflict within the group

LEADERSHIP STYLE

1. AUTHORITARIAN LEADERS - Lead by giving orders and setting down rules which they expect the group to follow.
2. DEMOCRATIC LEADERS - Lead by trying to reach a consensus instead of issuing orders, they consider all
viewpoints to try and reach a decision
3. LAISSEZ-FAIRE LEADERS - They are extremely permissive, and mostly leave the group to function on its own

FUNCTIONS OF SOCIAL GROUP

1. ASSOCIATION AND PURPOSE

 In our everyday lives, most of the time, people are gathered together for a purpose.
o Example: Evacuation center
 aggregate or crowd, people who are in the same place at the same time, but who do not interact or share a sense of
identity.
 Another non-group is people who share the same characteristics but are not related with one another in any way

2. SIZE AND FUNCTION OF GROUPS

 Dyad is the smallest possible size of a group consists of two members . This can be usually seen in the nuclear family,
marriage, and friendship
 Small groups normally have strong sense of connection but small groups usually struggle when it comes to asserting
their goals and opinions against larger groups (Openstax College, 2013)
 Coalitions are large groups composed of people and have emphasis on alignment against the other groups

FORMS AND FUNCTIONS OF STATE AND NON-STATE INSTITUTION

STATE
 group of organized political leaders working for a government and by a shared set of laws . It governs society' s path
through absolute authority. A state varies in terms of its interests, geography, governance, and sovereignty. In a state
where commodities are interexchange using currencies, market exchange is the principal mechanism of economic
subsistence.
 The state and government concepts are different from one another. A government is the specific social unit in
charge of the state at any given time. The idea of a state is separate from the thought of a nation, which refers to
a broad geographic region and the individuals within who believe they share a similar identity.

As a state, it consists of actors with varying interests and assertions, social rules are implemented in the forms of laws .
These laws are created to manage the interaction among individuals and between the individuals and the state. As a
citizen of a country, an individual is subjected to the legal norms in the territory. These standards could include paying
taxes, providing military duty, and participating in societal politics. The State intends to be a strong actor in the
performance of the three important political functions. The state, in full form,

1. maintains control over violence in its domain

2. allocates resources and rewards at its discretion, and

3. stands as the major focus of identity for the large majority of the people under its authority.

ELEMENTS OF THE STATES

1. Population It is the people who make the state. Population is essential for the state. Without population there can be
no State.
2. Territory There can be no state without a fixed territory. People need territory to live and organize themselves socially
and politically. It may be remembered that the territory of the states includes land, water and airspace.
3. Government It is the organization or machinery or agency of the State which makes, implements, enforces, and
adjudicates the laws of the state.
4. Sovereignty It is the most exclusive elements of State. Without sovereignty no state can exist. State has the
exclusive title and prerogative to exercise supreme power over all its people and territory. It is the basis which the
State regulates all aspects of the life of the people living in its territory.

FORMS OF STATES

States come in a variety of forms that vary on who holds power, how positions of leadership are obtained, and how
authority is maintained. These are:

a. Authoritarian Government - Authoritarian governments differ in who holds power and in how control they assume
over those who govern. An example of this type is:

Monarchy is a style of government where the highest authority is vested to the person who serves as the head of state,
frequently for life or until resignation. The term "monarch" refers to the ruler of a monarchy.

Totalitarianism is a form of government that aims to control almost every element of daily life. Theoretically, it forbids all
forms of individual liberty and tries to subject all aspects of private life to governmental control

b. Oligarchic Government - An oligarchy is a form of governance where the majority of people hold all the power with a
small elite group of people who are determined by hegemony in royalty, the military, wealth, family, or religion . An
oligarchy is ruled by several strong individuals rather than a single evident leader. A prevalent illustration is a
theocracy. A theocracy is a kind of governance where one or more deities of some sort are acknowledged as the
supreme ruling authorities and provide divine guidance to human intermediaries who oversee the daily operations of
the government.
c. Democratic Government Democracy - is a form of government when the majority of citizens in a nation or state
holds the power to rule. Both the equal exercise of all citizens ' rights and the fulfillment of all citizens ' fundamental
liberties are regarded as the two cornerstones of democracy. Either through the political process or by choosing
leaders who uphold their fundamental principles and ideas.

ROLES OF THE STATES

1. State provides security against external aggressions and war. For this purpose, the state maintains an army.
2. State ensures security against internal disturbances disorders and crimes. For this purpose, the state maintains
police.
3. State legally grants and guarantees the rights of the people.
4. The state issues and regulates currency and coinage.
5. State undertakes steps for the creation of necessary conditions for the socioeconomic-politico-cultural development of
the people.
6. State grants citizenship and protects their interests and rights.
7. State conducts foreign relations, foreign trade and economic relations.
8. State secures the goals of national interest in international relations
NONSTATE INSTITUTIONS

Nonstate institutions are individuals or groups that take part in but are not connected to any state or country in terms of
international affairs and ties. These nonstate entities include corporations and banks, unions and cooperatives,
international organizations and development agencies, as well as transnational advocacy groups. These nonstate
institutions are equally capable of influencing policy formation and implementation.

A. Banks
 Banks is a regulated financial institution that offers different kinds of services to various consumer types . Banks are
primarily in business for their lending and depositing activities. Clients are permitted to deposit their money passed to
institutions that gain growth thanks to interest rates

B. Corporations
 It is a method of conducting business that identifies the company as an independent organization led by the Board of
Directors, a group of executives. They were established by private parties, such as stockholders or shareholders, to
make a profit. Except for the right to vote and other restrictions, they possess all of the legal rights of an individual.
The state that issues its charter grants them the right to exist.

Common Types of Corporations

A corporation can be created by a single shareholder or by multiple shareholders who come together to pursue common
goal. A corporate can be formed as a for-profit or a non-for-profit entity.

 For-profit entities form most corporations, and they are formed to generate revenues and provide a return to their
shareholders, according to their percentage of ownership in the corporation. Examples: HBO in partnership with
International Rescue Committee, Ford Motors and Lynda.com.
 Not-for-profit entities operate under the category of charitable organizations, which are dedicated to a particular
social cause such as educational, religious, scientific, or research purposes. Rather than distribute revenues to
shareholders, not-for-profit organizations use their revenues to further their objectives. Human Rights Campaign is a
very impressive example of using Facebook profile photos to spread the word far and wide about campaign.
Greenpeace the environmental non-profit that used GPS technology to inform the public about their cause.
 Multinational Corporations (MNCs) are business organization that extends ownership, management,
production, and sales activities into several or more countries. MNCs are boon to the economic growth and
development of the states.
C. Cooperatives

Cooperatives are people-centers enterprises owned, controlled and run by and for their members to realize their common
economic, social, and cultural needs and aspirations. Cooperatives are businesses governed on the principle of one
member, one vote. There are several common types of co-ops, including cooperatives owned and operated by:

a. The people working there (worker cooperatives);

b. The people buying the co-op’s goods or services (consumer cooperatives)
c. The people collaborating to process and market their products (producer cooperatives); and
d. Groups uniting to enhance their purchasing power (purchasing cooperatives)

Cooperatives play a critical role in building community wealth for several key reasons:

a. They often provide quality goods and services to areas that have been shunned by traditional businesses because
they are deemed less profitable
b. They typically invest in local communities
c. Since most cooperative members are local residents, business profits remain and circulate in the community
d. Cooperative membership builds social networks and strengthens social cohesion which are essential elements of a
strong, healthy communities by connecting diverse community residents
e. Purchasing cooperatives help small, local businesses remains competitive within markets dominated by large,
national retailers
f. Worker cooperatives create quality, empowering jobs for community members

D. Trade Unions/Labor Unions

Trade unions are associations established by workers in linked industries that promote their members' common interests.
They assist employees with matters such as benefits, acceptable working conditions, hours of work, and pay equity. They
serve as a bridge between management and employees and represent a group of workers.

These unions' goal is to investigate the complaints of wagers and speak with one voice before the management. It serves
as a method of communication between management and employees. Among these trade unions that exist in the
Philippines are the Federation of Free Workers (FFW), Kilusang Mayo Uno (KMU) and the Trade Union Congress of the
Philippines (TUCP).

Functions of Trade Unions:

1. Advocating for fairness and equality for workers’ compensations

2. Securing better working conditions for workers
3. Trade Unions will organize strikes and demonstrations on behalf of worker demands
4. Fight for social welfare for workers
5. Promote and advocate for education and proper training for workers
6. Advocate and fight the government for legislative protections of the workers
7. Promote and advocate for organizational growth and stability
8. Trade Unions acts as representatives of workers in national and international forums
9. Involved in collective bargaining agreements and disputes with management to settle any conditions on employment
10. Advising management on correct personnel policies and procedures
11. Involved in collective and personal collective grievances between management and workers.

E. Transnational Advocacy Groups

Transnational Advocacy Groups (TAGs) play an increasingly significant role in global and regional affairs and have helped
multilateral organizations and governments change their foreign and defense policies. They are particular evident in huge
issues like women's rights, the environment, international peace, and human rights. They have unquestionable
responsibilities that can be implemented through user actions, situation-specific techniques, and activities.

TAGs act as global change agents, pursuing the following goals: worldwide adjustments to practices and policies. The
very foundation of TAGS is the creation and development of their causes, ideas, values, and religious views campaigns

F. Development Agencies

Agencies development have been established to develop the collaboration between the public, private, and civil society
sectors. These are organizations with clear objectives. The phrase "development" is what unites these organizations.
These agencies concentrate on the growth, progression, and advancement of specific concerns, which can be
infrastructure or social institutions.

Types of Development Agencies:

International Organization is an association that has members from two or more different nations. Since it encourages
cooperation among its members to complete one or more tasks, its operations cut beyond national boundaries. A private
or public international organization is possible.

A Non-government Organization is a nonprofit organization that operates without interference from any government. It
advances social or political objectives like environmental and humanitarian reasons. Through their efforts and
organizational strategies, the majority of NGOs seek to progress social change and the practice of democracy among
societies. Women, the elderly, people with physical and mental disabilities, the poor, and numerous social groups that
have been disadvantaged because of their color, religion, ethnicity, caste, or social class are just a few of the population
categories that tend to be underserved by government initiatives.

Interrelationship of Government and Non-state Institutions

Government rules society. This reflects how powerful government institution can be. If nonstate institutions interfere with
the governing body, two possible things can happen:

1. Integration among these two institutions may take place to achieve precise solution towards development
2. Conflict and tension may also arise because one could exceed the other in terms of societal control and influences
(Penninx, 2013)

EDUCATION

Education

 Is the process of facilitating learning, or the acquisition of knowledge, skills, values, beliefs, and habits.
 Education also provides stability in life, and it's something that no one can ever take away from you.
 Education can take place in formal or informal settings and any experience that has a formative effect on the way one
thinks, feels, or acts may be considered educational. The methodology of teaching is called PEDAGOGY.

Types of Education

 FORMAL EDUCATION
1. It is an institutional activity because the process is done in schools, colleges, and universities.
2. It follows hierarchical structure from primary to secondary to tertiary education leading to completion of
certificates, diplomas, and/or degrees.
3. It follows a standardized, well-defined and organized curriculum that conforms to the needs of the society.
4. The teacher-student relationship is confined to the process of teaching including but not limited to supervision and
instruction.

 NON-FORMAL EDUCATION
1. It is a process of learning derived from an organized and systematic education activity working either separately
or as a special feature of a formal education institution.
2. Its curriculum is flexible, diversified in content and method because it should conform to the needs of the identified
group of learners.

Example: Alternative Learning System has a non-formal education program, in which it is the 'Basic Literacy Program'
(BLP) and Accreditation and Equivalency (A&E) Program.
 INFORMAL EDUCATION
1. It is a lifelong process where learning comes naturally from the daily experience as a result of exposure in dealing
with people.
2. It does not require a specific educational institution or set of curriculums.

Aims of Education

1. Individual
 Development as an individual of a human being.
 Moral and spiritual development
 Cultural development
 Harmonious development
 Promote positive physical development
 Development of a right personality
 Development of good citizenship
 Development of good leadership
 Emotional and mental development
 Character building
2. Social
 Through education, the child should be provided with the required assistance to become a productive and well-
adjusted member of the society, irrespective of the socioeconomic status.
3. Vocational
 Education should prepare the child to earn though his livelihood so that he can lead a productive life in the society
4. Intellectual
 Development of intelligence through education will enable the child to lead an independent life with confidence.
5. Cultural
 By undergoing education, child becomes cultured and civilized. Cultural development is through development of
aesthetic sense and respect for others’ culture.
6. Moral
 Moral values like honesty, loyalty, tolerance, justice, self-control and sincerity promote the social and moral standards
set by the society.
7. Good Citizenship
 Education enables the children to grow as productive citizens by following the social and moral standards set by the
society.

Education as a Human Right

According to the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO), “Education is a fundamental
human right and essential for the exercise of all other human rights.” It is supported by the Universal Declaration of
Human Rights (UDHR) under Article 26, which emphasized that everyone has the right to education.

Even International Covenant on Economic, Social, and Cultural Rights also adheres to education as basic right of the
citizen. “The state parties to the present covenant recognize the right of everyone to education”. (Article 13)

In adherence to respect for human right, the Philippine Constitution holds on the right of all citizens to education at all
levels and that State shall take appropriate steps to make such education accessible to all. (Article XIV Section 1)

The Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR) enumerated the following points to highlight the importance of
education as a human right.

1. Everyone has the right to education. Education shall be free, at least in the elementary and fundamental stages.
Elementary education shall be compulsory. Technical and professional education shall be made generally available
and higher education shall be equally accessible to all on the basis of merit.
2. Education shall be directed to the full development of the human personality and to the strengthening of respect for
human rights and fundamental freedoms. It shall promote understanding, tolerance, and friendship among all nations
racial or religious groups and shall further the activities of the United Nations for the maintenance of peace.
3. Parents have a prior right to choose the kind of education that shall be given to their children.

Functions of Education

A. Functions of Education towards the Individual

 Development of inborn potentialities: Education helps the child to develop the inborn potentialities of child
providing scope to develop.
 Modifying behavior: Education helps to modify the past behavior through learning and through different agencies of
education.
 All-round development: Education aims at the all-round development of child-physical, mental, social, emotional,
and spiritual.
 Preparing for the future: After completion of education the child can earn its livelihood getting proper education,
which has productivity. The education should be imparted according to the own interest of the child.
 Developing personality: The whole personality of the child is developed physically, intellectually, morally, socially,
aesthetically and spiritually. He is recognized in the society.
 Helping for adjustability: Man differs from beast. Man has reasoning and thinking power. Man tries his best to adjust
with his own environment through education.

B. Functions of Education towards the Society

 Social change and control: Society is never stagnant. It is progressive and dynamic. Life and personality can be
developed. The social environment is where a youngster can develop their personality. The constantly changing
circumstances keep ancient traditions and practices alive and passed along. Education helps us to keep up with the
development of science and technology.
 Reconstruction of experiences: One cannot continue to live with past mistakes that prevent one from adjusting to
modern culture. Education, therefore, aids a person in reconstructing their experiences and adjusting to their
surroundings.
 Development of social and moral value : Society and narrowness are constantly at odds. No moral or social worth
exists. The man is acting like a beast right now. Moral education has the power to transform animality. Education
instills moral and social values such as cooperation, tolerance, sympathy, love and affection for one another, respect
for elders, and assistance to the underprivileged and those in need.
 Providing opportunity or equality: The Philippine Constitution strongly emphasizes the equality of individuals
regarding opportunities and privileges in society. Education teaches us to give equal opportunities in all aspects
irrespective of caste, creed, color, sex, and religion.

C. Functions of Education towards the Nation

 Inculcating civic and social responsibility : Education helps to make rising generation to understand its right and
duties as citizens of a democratic country.
 Training for leadership: The leadership quality of individual is developed when he participates in all spheres of
social, political, religious and educational activities.
 National integration: We are living in one country having diversities in respect of color of skin, economic status,
dialect, food preferences, and mode of dressing, habits and physical environment.
 Total national development: Education helps for bringing about total national development by providing all sectors
i.e. social, economic, cultural, spiritual, moral, educational etc.

SOCIAL STRATIFICATION

Social Stratification

 is the arrangement of any social group or society into hierarchy positions that are unequal in power, property, social
evaluation, and psychic gratification
 is a particular form of social inequality such that all societies arrange their members with regard to superiority,
inferiority, and equality.
 Stratification is a process of interaction or differentiation whereby some people rank higher than others.
 Social stratification is the structured and hierarchical ranking of individuals based on their family, occupation, income,
wealth, and (social-political) power. For sociologists, it is the pattered inequality in society due to unequal access to
wealth, privileges, and power.
 Social classes or groups of people with similar socioeconomic status are used to categorize the members. Every
society generally consists of three social classes.
 Each class can be subdivided into strata, for example, the upper class, the middle class, and the lower class.
Moreover, kinship, caste, or both can serve as a basis for forming a social stratum. Determining the structures of
social stratification arises from status inequalities among persons; therefore, the degree of social inequality
determines a person's social stratum. Generally, the greater the social complexity of a society, the more social strata
exist through social differentiation.

Components of Social Stratification

1. Social Class refers to the level or category where persons have more or less the same socio-economic privileges.
2. Social Status refers to the position of an individual or group within a social structure.
3. Social Role refers to the behavior expected of a person who occupies a certain status.

Base of Social Stratification

1. Power or Authority is the ability to secure one's ends in life, even against opposition. It is the degree to which one
directs, manages, or dominates others.
2. Property or Wealth refers to the rights over goods and services. It refers to how much of society's resources are
owned by specific individuals and how much they gain or earn every time.
3. Prestige or Social Evaluation implies the social judgment that status or position is more prestigious and honorable
than others. It is the degree of honor one's position evokes. It also includes the fame one attains upon reaching a
certain degree of prestige.

Three Main Objectives of Social Stratification

Sociological theories provide us with different perspectives to view our social world. A perspective is simply a way of
looking at the world. A theory is a set of interrelated propositions or principles designed to answer a question or explain a
particular phenomenon; it provides us with a perspective. Sociological theories help us define and predict the social world
we live.

Sociology includes three major theoretical perspectives. The Functionalist Perspective, the Conflict Perspective, and the
Symbolic Interactionist Perspective (also called the Interactionist Perspective or simply the Micro View). Each perspective
offers a variety of explanations about the social world and human behavior.

1. The Functionalist Perspective

 Based mainly on the works of Herbert Spencer, Emile Durkheim, Talcott Parsons, and Robert Merton.
 Society is a system of interconnected parts that work together in harmony to maintain a state of balance and social
equilibrium for the whole.
Each of the social institutions contributes essential functions for society:

Family provides a context for reproducing, nurturing, and socializing children

Education offers a way to transmit a society‘s skills, knowledge, and culture to its youth.

Politics provides a means of governing members of society

Economics offers for the production, distribution, and consumption of goods and services

Religion provides moral guidance and an outlet for the worship of a higher power.

 The functionalist perspective emphasizes the interconnectedness of society by focusing on how each part influences
and is influenced by other parts.
 For example, the increase in single-parent and dual-earner families has contributed to the number of children failing in
school because parents have become less available to supervise their children‘s homework. As a result of
technological changes, colleges are offering more technical programs, and many adults are returning to school to
learn new skills required in the workplace. The increasing number of women in the workforce has contributed to
formulating policies against sexual harassment and job discrimination.

Functional and Dysfunctional

 Functionalists use the terms functional and dysfunctional to describe the effects of social elements on society.
Elements of society are functional if they contribute to social stability and dysfunctional if they disrupt social stability.
Some aspects of society can be both functional and dysfunctional.
 For example, crime is dysfunctional because it is associated with physical violence, loss of property, and fear. But
according to Durkheim and other functionalists, crime is also functional for society because it leads to heightened
awareness of shared moral bonds and increased social cohesion. Sociologists have identified two types of functions:
1. Manifest Functions are consequences that are intended and commonly recognized.
2. Latent Functions are consequences that are unintended and often hidden.

For example, the manifest function of education is to transmit knowledge and skills to society‘s youth. But public
elementary schools also serve as babysitters for employed parents, and colleges offer a place for young adults to meet
potential mates. The babysitting and mate-selection functions are not the intended or commonly recognized functions of
education; hence they are latent functions.
2. Conflict Perspective

 The conflict perspective views society as composed of different groups and interests competing for power and
resources.
 Explains various aspects of our social world by examining which groups have power and benefit from a particular
social arrangement.
 For example, the feminist theory argues that we live in a patriarchal society—a hierarchical organization system
controlled by men. Although there are wide varieties of feminist theory, most would hold that feminism ―demands
that existing economic, political, and social structures be changed (Weir and Faulkner 2004, p.xii).
 The origins of the conflict perspective can be traced to the classic works of Karl Marx. Marx suggested that all
societies go through stages of economic development. As societies evolve from agricultural to industrial, concern over
meeting survival needs is replaced by concern over making a profit, the hallmark of a capitalist system.
Industrialization leads to the development of two classes: the bourgeoisie, or the owners of the means of production
(e.g., factories, farms, businesses), and the proletariat, or the workers who earn wages.
 The division of society into two broad classes of people. The "haves" and the "have-nots" benefit the owners of the
means of production. The workers, who may earn only subsistence wages, are denied access to the many resources
available to the wealthy owners. According to Marx, the bourgeoisie uses its power to control the institutions of society
to its advantage.
 For instance, Marx said that religion acts as the opiate of the people because it eases the pain and suffering brought
on by living in the working class and directs workers' attention away from material problems and toward spirituality,
God, and the afterlife. In essence, religion diverts the workers so that they concentrate on being rewarded in heaven
for living a moral life rather than on questioning their exploitation.
3. Symbolist Interactionist Perspective
 The functionalist and conflict perspectives are concerned with how broad aspects of society, such as institutions and
large social groups, influence the social world.
 This level of sociological analysis is called macro sociology: It looks at the big picture of society and suggests how
social problems are affected at the institutional level.
 Micro sociology, another level of sociological analysis, is concerned with the social psychological dynamics of
individuals interacting in small groups. Symbolic interactionism reflected the micro-sociological perspective and was
primarily influenced by the work of early sociologists and philosophers, such as George Simmel, Charles Cooley,
George Herbert Mead, and Erving Goffman.
 Symbolic interactionism emphasizes that human behavior is influenced by definitions and meanings created and
maintained through symbolic interaction with others.
 Sociologist W.I. Thomas (1966) emphasized the importance of definitions and meanings in social behavior and its
consequences. He suggested that humans respond to their definition of a situation rather than the objective situation
itself. Hence, Thomas noted that situations we define as real become real in their consequences. Symbolic
interactionism also suggests that our identity or sense of self is shaped by social interaction. We develop our self-
concept by observing how others interact with us a label us. By following how others view us, we see a reflection of
ourselves that Cooley calls the "looking-glass self."

Characteristics of Social Stratification by Melvin M. Tumin

1. It Is Social - Stratification is social because it does not represent inequalities that are biologically based. It is true that
factors such as strength, intelligence, age, and sex can often serve as the basis for distinguishing status. But such
differences alone are insufficient to explain why some statuses receive more power, property, and prestige than
others.
2. It Is Ancient -The ancient stratification system was present even in the small wandering bands. Age and sex wear the
main criteria of stratification. The difference between the rich and poor, powerful and humble, and freemen and
enslaved people was in almost all the ancient civilizations.
3. It Is Universal - Social stratification is universal. The difference between rich and poor, the "haves" or "have-nots" is
evident everywhere. Even in non-literate societies', stratification is very much present.
4. It Is In Diverse Forms - Social stratification has never been uniform in all societies. Ancient Roman society was
stratified into the Patricians and the Plebians. The Aryan society was divided into four Varnas: (1) the Brahmins,
Kshatriyas, Vaishyas, and the Sudras (2) the ancient Greek civilization into freemen and enslaved people (3) the
ancient Chinese society was into mandarins, merchants, Farmer, and soldiers. Class and estate are the general forms
of stratification in the modern world.
5. It Is Consequential - The stratification system has its consequences. The most important, most desired, and often
the scarcest things in human life are distributed unequally because of stratification. The system has two
consequences: (i) Life chances and (ii) Lifestyle. Life chances include infant mortality, longevity, physical and mental
illness, marital conflict, separation, and divorce. Lifestyles include the mode of housing, residential area, education,
means of recreation, the relation between parent and children, and ways of conveyance.

Social Mobility In Social Stratification

 Social Mobility is the movement of people from one position to another in the stratification system. This pertains to the
idea that people have an equal opportunity to end up at the top of the stratification system; anyone can reach the
apex or peak of the hierarchy.
EXAMPLES:

1. Manny Pacquiao came from a meager family in General Santos City. However, because of his prestige as a boxing
superstar and a religious humanitarian, he was elected as a member of the Congress, which is usually composed of
politicians from well-to-do and politically popular families.
2. Iah Seraspi, the second topnotcher of the September 2015 Licensure Exam for Teachers (LET), who came from a
poor family in Romblon but still managed to top the exam - a poor that money does not equate to quality.
 In these cases, it is evident that Philippine society is open to movement and allows people's social mobility,
depending on their skills and abilities.
 Social mobility is a suitable mechanism in a highly stratified society. It gives people from the lower classes a chance
to climb the ladder. However, moving through the ranks might still be complicated despite strong motivation and effort
for different aspects of social mobility.

System Of Social Mobility

 Open (Class) System - It allows a person more accessible mobility. They can move through classes based on their
skills, abilities, and achievements. The Philippine society is committed to promoting equal access to quality education
so that everyone can acquire the necessary skills and knowledge to improve their lives. Most societies in the world, on
the other hand, implement policies that reduce barriers to social mobility.
 Closed (Caste) System - In this system, a person has little or no possibility of moving up the social ladder. One
example of this system is India‘s caste system, wherein the people from the lowest stratum are dreadfully treated and
are considered untouchables. Their image on the rest of the social strata has become so severely damaged that
these untouchables have the ladder. People in this system are socially determined based on ascribed status, such as
family background, ethnicity, or race.

Forms Of Social Stratification

 Caste is a hereditary, endogamous social group in which a person‘s rank and its accompanying rights and obligations
are ascribed based on his birth into a particular group.
 Class stratification based on class is dominant in modern society. In this, a person‘s position depends greatly upon
achievement and his ability to use it to the advantage of the inborn characteristics and wealth that he may possess.
 The Estate system of medieval Europe provided another system of stratification which gave much emphasis to birth
as well as to wealth and possessions. Each estate had a state.
 Slavery had an economic basis. In slavery, every enslaved person had his master to whom he was subjected. The
master‘s power over the enslaved person was unlimited.

Types Of Social Mobility

1. Horizontal Social Mobility - This is the change of position of a person to another position of the same rank. For
example, when a chemistry teacher decides to shift to another job that requires his/her skills in chemistry, he/she is
practicing horizontal social mobility because he/she will experience a similar level of difficulty and status in the new
position.
2. Vertical Social Mobility - The more exciting mechanism for sociologists is vertical social mobility, which happens
when a person moves from one social class to another. A successful engineer who once was a poor working student
in a state university is an example of a person who experiences vertical social mobility. This type of mobility may be
upward or downward. We can also analyze this with time.
o Intergenerational Mobility is the movement of social position that started with the parents and was felt by even
children.
o Intragenerational Mobility is the movement in the social position that happens within a person‘s adult life.
o The following factors may hinder Social Mobility:
 educational attainment
 childhood poverty with associated psychological and behavioral development
 the family and all the financial, social, and cultural aspects that are formed within it
 attitudes, expectations, and aspirations
 economic barriers
 SOCIAL INEQUALITY
Social Inequality - Social inequality occurs when
resources in a given society are distributed unevenly,
typically through norms of allocation, that engender
specific patterns along lines of socially defined
categories of persons.
Forms of Social Inequality
Gender Inequality - Sex- and gender-based prejudice
and discrimination, commonly called sexism, are major
contributing factors to social inequality. The emphasis on
gender inequality is born out of the deepening division in
the roles assigned to men and women, particularly in the
economic, political and educational spheres. Women are
underrepresented in political activities and decision
making processes
A. The struggle for Equal Rights - The modern
concept of women as people with full legal rights is a
relatively new idea for many years. Like in the United
States, in the 1940's, eleven states did not permit
woman to maintain her own earnings without her
husband's approval. Sixteen states ruled that a
married woman could not make legal contracts. In
seven states women were banned from serving on
juries. And many states controlled the kinds of jobs
that women could hold.
B. The Women's Rights Movement - In 1848 a group
of women led by Elizabeth Cady Stanton, held a
convention in Seneca Falls, New York, to have a
discussion about women's rights and this marked the
start of the women's suffrage (voting) movement.
While it is true that the fight is not easy the
suffragists had to rally, demonstrate, and even chain
themselves to railings before they finally got the vote
in 1920
Racial or Ethnic Inequality - Racial or ethnic inequality
is the result of hierarchical social distinctions between
racial and ethnic categories within a society and often
established based on characteristics such as skin color
and other physical characteristics or an individual's place
of origin or culture. Unequal treatment and opportunities
between such categories is usually the result of some
categories being considered superior to others.
Types of Racial or Ethnic Inequality
A. Discrimination - Minorities are being deprived of
equal treatment and are kept in a lower status by the
dominant members of the society, and the
resistance of equality is called discrimination.
B. Prejudice - This is defined as a negative attitude
towards the members of a particular group. It is a
pre-conceived idea or judgement of others that
allows us to brands/ levels them in various
pessimistic way
C. Stereotyping - It refers to our prosperity to picture
all members of a particular category as having the
same qualities.
D. Ethnocentrism - Belief that our own nation, race or
group is the best
E. Scapegoating - The term scapegoat is taken from
the ancient Hebrew custom of identifying the sins of
the people with a goat and driving the goat into the
wilderness. This is a situation when people
encounter problems that they do not know how to
solve. Often, they feel frustrated.
F. Racism - It is the thinking that one’s own race is
superior and has the right to control or direct others.
Global Inequality - Global inequality and international
inequality refers to economic differences between
countries. The economies of the world have developed
unevenly historically, such that entire geographical
regions were left mired in poverty and disease while
others began to reduce poverty and disease on a
wholesale basis. This was represented by a type of
country differentiation that existed after WWII between
First World Countries, Developed Countries,
Industrialized Countries, Developing Countries and Third
World Countries, primarily as measured by Gross
Domestic Products (GDP).
Economic Inequality
 Economic inequality, usually described on the basis
of the unequal distribution of income or wealth, is a
frequently studied type of social inequality.
 Though the disciplines of economics and sociology
generally use different theoretical approaches to
examine and explain economic inequality, both fields
are actively involved in researching this inequality.
However, social and natural resources other than
purely economic resources are also unevenly
distributed in most societies and may contribute to
social status. Norms of allocation can also affect the
distribution of rights and privileges social power,
access to public goods such as education or the
judicial system, adequate housing, transportation,
credit and financial services such as banking and
other social goods and services
 It is described on the basis of the unequal
distribution of income or wealth, is a frequently
studied type of social inequality. Latest research,
however, has called this basic assumption into
question Economic inequality does have a positive
correlation with economic growth, but inequality in
general is not positively correlated with economic
growth. Under some conditions, in equality shows a
negative correlation with economic growth.
Ethnic Minorities
 Ethnicity is a term that describes shared culture-the
practices, values, and beliefs of a group. This might
include shared language, religion, and traditions,
among other commonalities.
 Ethnic minority or minority group refers to any group
of people who because of their physical or cultural
characteristics, are singled out from the others in the
society in which they live for differential and unequal
treatment, and who therefore regard themselves as
objects of collective discrimination
Characteristics of Minority Group (Charles Wagley)
1. Unequal treatment and less power over their lives.
2. Distinguishing physical or cultural traits like skin
color or language.
3. Involuntary membership in the group
4. Awareness of subordination
5. High rate of in group marriage
How people become minorities? There are the basic
ways in which minority definitions develop according to
sociologist, namely migration, colonialism, and
annexation.
1. Migration - When people move, or migrate, from
one society to another, they are common called
minorities in the new society. Migration could be
voluntary (by choice), or could be involuntary. For
instance, the incident of blacks who were forcibly
brought the American continent as slaves is one
example of involuntary migration. But most of the
people who have migrated to the US have gone
there through voluntary migration.
2. Colonialism - Some people become minorities in
their own country, without ever leaving their place of
birth. This happens when people from another
country decides to settle in a new land and then take
control of the society. We call this method of
establishing control as colonialism. Examples within
our own country are the Spanish and American
colonizers. When Magellan came to the Philippines,
he already found tribes of people. After 333 years of
Spanish colonization here in the Philippines came
the Americans. History is full of other examples of
colonialism
3. Annexation - Citizens may turn out to be a minority
when their country is joined, or annexed, to another
nation. Annexation could either be voluntary or
involuntary. Annexation usually happens after a war
ends
Additional Minority Groups A. Lesbians, Gays,
Bisexuals, Transgenders (LGBTs) Community - A
sexual minority is a group whose sexual identity,
orientation or practices differ from the majority of the
surrounding society. It can also refer to transgender,
genderqueer including third gender or intersex
individuals.
Persons with Disabilities (PWDs)
 This is normally a condition either caused by
genetics or disease, accident, trauma, which may
hamper a person’s mental, sensory or mobility
functions to carry out or perform a task in the same
way as a person who does not have a disability.
 People with a disability comes in different sizes,
shapes, sex, color, and culture just as we all do.
Another difference between a disabled and a normal
individual is the ability to do things normally like the
majority of the society.
 Disability is the result of an impairment that may be
physical, cognitive, mental, sensory, emotional
development or some combination of these. A
disability may be present from birth or may happen
during a person’s lifetime
Ways of Categorizing Disability
 Physical Disability - Any impairment which limits
the physical function of limbs, fine bones or gross
motor ability is a physical impairment not necessarily
a physical disability. The social model of disability
defines physical disability as manifested when
impairment meets a non-universal design or
program. Example, a person who cannot climb stairs
may have a physical impairment of the knees when
putting stress on them from an elevated position
such as with climbing or descending stairs.
 Sensory Disability - It is impairment of one of the
senses. The term is used primarily to refer to vision
and hearing impairment, but other senses can be
impaired.
o Vision Impairment - Vision impairment is vision
loss of a person resulting from disease, trauma
or congenital or degenerative conditions that
cannot be corrected by conventional means
such as refractive correction, medication or
surgery.
o Hearing impairment - Refers to the conditions
in which individuals are fully or partially
incapable to recognize or perceive at least some
frequencies of sound which can typically be
heard by most people.
 Intellectual Disability - This is a broad concept that
ranges from mental retardation to cognitive deficits
too mild or too specific to qualify as mental
retardation
 Mental Health and Emotional Disabilities - A
mental disorder or mental illness is a psychological
or behavioral pattern generally associated with
subjective distress or disability that occurs in an
individual and perceived by the majority of society as
being outside of normal development or cultural
expectations.
 Developmental Disability - Any disability that
results in problems with growth and development is
called developmental disability. Although the term is
often used as a synonym or euphemism for
intellectual disability, the term also encompasses
many congenital medical conditions that have no
mental or intellectual component.
Disability Laws
1. Anti-Bullying Act Republic Act Number 10627,
dated 05 June 2013 - "Bullying shall refer to any
severe or repeated use by one or more students of a
written, verbal or electronic expression, or a physical
act or gesture, or any combination thereof, directed
at another student that has the effect of actually
causing or placing the latter in reasonable fear of
physical or emotional harm or damage to his
property, creating a hostile environment at school for
the other student; infringing on the rights of the other
student at school; or materially and substantially
disrupting the education process or the orderly
operation of a school. "
2. Equal Opportunity Employment Republic Act
Number 10524, dated 23 July 2012. - "At least one
percent (1%) of all positions in all government
agencies, offices or corporations shall be reserved
for persons with disability: Provided, that private
corporations with more than one hundred (100)
employees are encouraged to reserve at least one
percent (1%) of all positions for per sons with
disability. "
Other Policies:
DepEd Child Protection Policy Dated 14 May 2012 - in school from violence, exploitation, discrimination,
The document outlines the Philippine Department of bullying, neglect, abuse, cruelty and other conditions
Education Policies and Guidelines on protecting children prejudicial to their development.