SOCIOLOGY

Defining Sociology:

➢ Human tendency: to examine themselves and their social life. It resulted in the
development of several intellectual disciplines like history, theology, pol science,
psychology, ethics etc.
➢ August Comte recognized the absence of a general science that deals with society as
a whole and interrelationship between various disciplines. Also, there was no science
to deal with social institutions like marriage, family etc. and numerous social
structures and processes.
➢ Coined ‘sociology’ meaning ‘study of society’. Latin ‘socius’, Greek ‘logos’.
➢ Comte: sociology -the abstract and theoretical science of social phenomena.
➢ More aptly, -scientific study of society, its institutions, structures and processes. –
concerned with social interaction, social groups and social behaviour.
➢ Three major characteristics of Sociology:
➢ 1) it’s a social science that deal with social systems and processes.
➢ 2) it’s a general science that deals with society as a whole. Not just a particular
aspect of society. Big picture, larger society as well as the relationship among
different aspects of society and inter-connection between each of the parts.
➢ 3) it’s a pure science, not an applied science. Not about social welfare and not
designed to solve social problems and build a better society. It’s concerned with the
acquisition of knowledge about society, knowledge that can be used for the
betterment or destruction of society.

The Sociological Perspective

● Sociology (systematic study of society), rightly regarded as an extended commentary
on the experiences of daily life; an interpretation which feeds on other interpretations.
● Sociology provides a unique scientific perspective of verifying common sense
observations.
● A sociological perspective enables us to look beyond the obvious by enabling us to
look critically at commonly held assumptions about ourselves and the society.
● It is a rational perspective which enables a social scientist to justify the occurrences of
certain sociological arrangements and phenomena.
● Our perspective developed as a product of the influence of our culture on us. (Beliefs,
values, standards,institutions).
● Four dimesions: 1. Sociological perspective developed as a result of gregarious nature
of man- Human beings live in groups, and therefore their thought,actions,nature are
influenced by the groups in which they live in. For e.g. submissive and respectful
behaviour of children in Asian societies. Our social groups determine our
habits,practices and attitudes(food,language,ceremonies,marriage etc). The
sociological perspective enables us to see the connection between the particular and
the individual. Thus, the sociological perspective encourages us to be objective, to
 look at the world critically and not to take things for granted based on traditional
beliefs and practices.
2. Teaches us about the social construction of reality- A rational perspective is
developed which helps in looking beyond the common assumption situations and thus
critical analysis of social processes takes place. Often people are mistaken in their
common beliefs which are mistaken by them to be “reality” situations(seeing is
believing). Eg. before the shape of the earth was scientifically confirmed, people
perceived the flat shape of the earth to be a reality. A sociological perspective helps us
to differentiate between reality and socially construed reality and to interpret them
from a scientific point of view.

3. Reality has many layers of meaning- E.g.`s-The concept of caste superiority may
not be based on foundations of purity and pollution but invented to serve the vested
interests of higher castes. Different views of religion among functionalist
sociologists(positive view) and Marxian sociologists(negative view). What was
‘sepoy mutiny’ for the British, was the ‘First war of Independence’ for the Indian
nationalists. Sociological perspective helps us achieve a balanced view of the many
meanings and interpretations of the social phenomena.

4. Sociological Imagination- A quality of mind that provides an understanding of

ourselves within the context of the larger society. Concept introduced by C. Wright
Mills. Such imagination enables us to see the present in terms of the historical scene,
ordinary experience in terms of universal experience and isolated events in terms of
social patterns. Thus, sociological perspective is the critical eye on the world which
observes every social phenomenon in a larger social context.

AUGUST COMTE

● Influenced by Isaac Newton.

● Used scientific method in the study of society. (Positivism)
● His book-‘Positive Philosophy’.
● Introduced the concept of social statics and social dynamics.
a)Social statics-Provide stability to the society(marriage,family).
b)Social dynamics-Changes occurring in the social statics(for eg, changes in
the forms of marriage: court registration).

● Theory of Unilinear Evolution- Evolution of society falls in a straight line or a

particular direction as in the case of Law of 3 stages.
● Law of 3 stages-
1. Theological Stage-Society being governed by religious reasons; Religious view of
society; every natural phenomena attributed to a particular God; supernatural belief;
people not allowed to raise doubts. E.g.- tribal society.
2.Metaphysical Stage- Abstract stage; people started raising doubts and questioning;
deviation from religious views; some impersonal forces working in the society (for
eg. militaristic and feudal society).
3. Scientific Stage- Last stage at which society should arrive; logical reasoning at its
peak; logical reasoning at its peak; everything can be proved on the principles of
science; observations predominates over imagination. (eg. if thunder and lightening
 were attributed to god Indra durinf theological stage, the laws of physics explain the
phenomena in the scientific stage).

● 2 major societies-
1.Theological Military society- Predominance of theological thinking and military
activity. Priests endowed with intellectual and spiritual power while the military
exercised temporal authority.
2. Scientific industrial society- Priests and theologians replaced by scientists who
represent the new moral and intellectual power. In this society, the scientists
determine the cause of an illness or prescribe solutions.
● Comte ranks all sciences in a hierarchy based on the order in which each discipline
becomes positive: Sociology
|
Biology
|
Chemistry
|
Physics
|
Astronomy
|
Mathematics

Karl Marx (1818-83)

1. Not known for the originality for his ideas, but for constellation and configuration of his
ideas and insights gained from cross-fertilization.
2. Unlike Hegelian idealism, which perceived truths in ideas, he claimed that ideas were
not the realm of truth but rather matter is.
3. Hegel’s System = Dialectical Idealism, Marx System = Dialectical Materialism.
4. Life is not determined by consciousness, but consciousness by life.
5. He believed that ideas or philosophical conception reflected, rather than caused,
changes in social and material life. He did not deny the reality of subjective
consciousness or its significance in social change.
6. The changing of the society was the fundamental focus of Marx’s intellectual work, for
men must be liberated from the shackles, which they have unwittingly, have produced
for themselves. ‘Men make their own history’
7. Marx identified 4 stages of human history on the basis of modes of production:-
i. Primitive communism
● Communal ownership
ii. Ancient slave production
● Slavery
iii. Feudalism
● Production by serfdom
iv. Capitalism
● Bourgeois exploitation of wage earners
8. Each of these stages, except primitive communism, constituted a distinct mode of
exploitation of man by man and his struggle for freedom.
9. He was committed not only to the analysis of this scenario but more particularly the
final culmination in the classless society of Socialism.
10. He believed that the process of dialectical materialism in which men struggle for
survival in competition would end when the working people of the world (the
Proletariat, Eg. Shivansh Agarwal) became sufficiently strong and politically conscious
so that capitalism could finally be overthrown and Socialism would be installed.
11. This 5th and final state would constitute a classless society with no private property, and
no distinctions between controllers not the controlled.
12. He considered economy to be the foundation of the whole socio-cultural system.
13. All other social structures like State, Polity and the Legal System are based on the
Economic system of production and distribution.
14. Ideas belong the realm of superstructure and are determined by the economic
infrastructure.
15. Ideologies prevailing at any particular point in time reflect the world view of the
dominant class (the Bourgeoisie, Eg. Ceiling Boys). These views, moreover, tend to
enhance or undermine the power and control of whatever class happens to be
dominant at the time.
16. The ideas of the ruling class are, in every age, ruling ideas, i.e., the class, which is the
dominant material force in society, is at the same time its dominant intellectual force.
17. The class, which has the means of the material production at its disposal, has control at
the same time over the means of mental production.
18. He sought to trace the evolution of ideas to the life conditions in general, and the forces
and relations of production in particular.
19. Marx’s theory of class struggle is the most influential conflict perspective not only in
sociology but also in all social sciences.

HERBERT SPENCER (1820-1903)

1) It was Herbert Spencer, not Comte, who actually defined the field of Sociology and
outlined the areas of interest, which are still relevant today.
2) 3 major contributions:-
a) Organic Analogy
i) Identification of society with a Biological Organism
ii) Both society and orgasm undergo growth, development and decay.
iii) Their parts are interrelated and their functions reciprocal.
iv) With their growth, complexity of structure increases and their parts become
more differentiated.
v) Significance of this analogy is the suggestion that society, as an organism, must
be studied as a whole with interdependent parts.
vi) Any change in one part is likely to affect the other parts.

b) Evolutionary Theory
 i) AKA Universal Evolutionary Theory.
ii) Argues that every society does not necessarily go through the same fixed stages
of development as Comte proposed, but the culture of mankind, taken as a
whole, has followed a definite line of evolution.
iii) It involves 2 processes:-
a) 1st, there is the necessary movement from simple societies to various levels
of compound societies.
b) 2nd, there is change from military to industrial society.
iv) As simple societies grow in size, they become heterogeneous and complex.

c) Social Darwinism
i) Social Darwinism-Based on Survival of the Fittest; was endorsed by Herbert
Spencer.
ii) Nature is endowed with a providential tendency to get rid of the unfit and make
room for the better; it is the law of nature that the weak should be eliminated
for the sake of the strong.
iii) Spencer was an untiring advocate of individualism and laissez-faire politics.
iv) He insisted that the state has no business in education, health, social welfare, or
any programs that seek to eliminate poverty, create jobs, or improve living
conditions.
v) Nature is more intelligent than man and it will be a fatal mistake for him to
interfere with the order of nature.
EMILE DURKHEIM (1858-1917)

1) Considered to be the 1st empirical sociologist who examined massive data to formulate
his original theories of religion and suicide.
2) Durkheim’s Sociological Realism was a formal attack upon Spencerian Individualism and
much of what it stood for.
3) Unlike Marx, who focused on social conflict, Emile Durkheim was primarily concerned
with social order.

4) A crucial concept in Durkhiem’s Theory of Solidarity is the Collective Conscience which is

the sum total of beliefs and sentiments common to the average members of the society
and forming a system in its own right. This Collective Conscience, a distant reality that
persists through time and unites generations, is a product of human similarities.
a) He believed that Social Solidarity, or the Social Bonds developed by individuals to
their society, created Social Order.
b) Durkheim believed that social solidarity could be categorized into two types:-
i) Mechanical solidarity, the type found in simple rural societies based on tradition
and unity.
a) Homogeneous
b) Binding force very strong, people know each other.
c) Individualism is missing.
d) Collective conscience is powerful.
e) Laws are repressive in nature. Purpose is that nobody should disobey or is led
astray.
 f) Men, women engage in similar tasks.
g) Division of Labour is simple

ii) Organic solidarity, which was found in urban societies and was based more on a
complex division of labor and formal organizations
a) Heterogeneous, growth of individualism.
b) Binding force is weak, Social bond is weakened.
c) Individuals play more specialized roles.
d) Individuals become dissimilar in their social experiences, material, interests,
values and beliefs.
e) Laws are restitutive in nature.
f) Social values and beliefs no longer provide us with coherent or insistent
moral guidance.
g) More concerned about ourselves rather than others.
h) This loosening tends itself to anomie.
(a) Anomie = Normlessness, without law, don’t know what type of behavior
is expected, we face crisis every now and then.

5) Sociology is the study of social facts which are collective ‘ways of acting, thinking, and
feeling that present the noteworthy property of existing outside the individual
consciousness.
6) Social Facts-Eg. Social Customs, mores, laws, institutions, religious observances, rules of
professional behaviour, and even superstitions; these are handed down by society from
generations to generations.
a) They have distinctive social characteristics, are external to the individual.
b) They endure through time, outlasting individuals and groups and are endowed with
coercive power by virtue of which they impose themselves on the individual.
c) They are the first and the foremost ‘things’, which are social in nature and cannot be
explained in terms of psychological or physiological analysis.

7) Emphasizing the sui generis quality of social facts, Durkheim insisted that social
phenomena cannot be reduced to individual phenomena.
a) Sui generis is something whose existence cannot be questioned.
b) A whole is not identical to the sum of its parts; society is not a mere sum of
individuals.
c) The Social System made up of individuals represents a distinct social reality with its
own life and characteristics, and must be investigated at a higher level, scientifically.

8) Theory of Suicide
a) Suicide, which appears to be a phenomenon relating to the individual, is actually
explicable etiologically with reference to social structure and its ramifying functions.
b) Certain abrupt changes in one’s lifestyle may cause suicide.
c) Those who are single are more prone to commit suicide.
d) Formal Social Control – Law, army, courts etc.
e) Informal Social Control – Customs, practices, etiquettes etc.
f) 4 types of Suicides:-
i) Egoistic Suicide
a) Self Centered
b) Lack of/weak social integration.
c) Lives according to his own conditions, so he finds it difficult to adjust to the
society.
d) Due to weak social integration, person may commit suicide if they fall in any
adversity.
e) Eg. Catholics show fewer tendencies to suicide than Protestants because
Catholicism is able integrate its members more fully into its fold.

ii) Altruistic Suicide

a) Over-integration of individual in the society or his social group.
b) Individual’s life is governed by custom and habit that he takes his own life
because of higher commandments.
c) Doesn’t consider his life more important that the society.
d) Sacrifices his own well being for the betterment of the society.
e) Eg. Army personnel, suicide bombers, sati, freedom fighters, samurai hara-
kiri.

iii) Anomic Suicide

a) Due to social r economic abruption in individual’s life
b) Weak social regulation between society’s norms and the individual and is
most often brought on by dynamic economic or social changes.
c) Results from normlessness or deregulation in society.
d) Although it may be due to industrial or financial crisis, it is not due to poverty.
Sudden prosperity or instant fortune can have the same effect.
e) Attributed to unlimited aspirations and the breakdown of regulatory norms.
f) Eg. Crashing of stock market, death of family member who is sole bread
earner, adventure sports.

iv) Fatalistic Suicide

a) Certain religious body practice Fatalistic suicide.
b) Social regulation is completely instilled in the individual.
c) No hope of change against oppressive discipline of the society.
d) Only way to escape state is through Suicide.
e) Religion plays an important role and it is believed that everything is in the
hands of the almighty.
f) Eg. Santhara in Jainism.
Max Weber (1864-1920)

● Greatest Sociologist-contributed to every branch of sociology with original theories

and perspective-
● Definition of sociology: “A science which attempts the interpretive understanding of
social action in order thereby to arrive at a casual explanation of its course and
effects”
● Social action-reciprocally oriented action which is intentional, meaningful, and
symbolic-In contemporary sociology called “Interaction”
● Weber-interested in subjective meaning of action or meaning actors give to their
own actions-Assigned reasons for identifiable behaviour given by actor’s themselves-
Behaviour complexes, oriented by individuals within specifiable socio-historical
settings subject of sociological analysis
● When no assigned meanings by individuals-actions meaningless-outside purview of
sociology
● Weber introduced-Verstehen. Verstehen-comprehending or understanding on level
of meaning-notion of Verstehem based on advantage of social sciences over natural
sciences-
● Natural sciences-only observe uniformities-deduce generalizations about functional
relationships of elements- Comprehension is mediate
● Social Sciences-understand actions and comprehend-subjective intentions of the
actors-comprehension is immediate
● Verstehen-scientific study of social behaviour in 2 ways:
a) Direct observational understanding of the subjective meaning of actions
b) Understanding of underlying motive
● Adopted a Value-free approach of sociology-values enable scientific study of human
action-
● Values matters of faith-not scientific testimony-science cannot validate them
● Sociologist must study what is and not what ought to be or ought not to be-
investigate things as they are
● Scientific pursuit must be guided by Objectivity and scientific integrity
● Development of concept of ideal type (analytical construct that helps researcher
ascertain similarities as well as deviations in concrete cases, mental construct, an
organisation of intelligible relations
➢ Known for value-free approach. Values make possible a truly scientific study of
human actions. However, values are a matter of faith and science can’t validate
them. Therefore sociologists must investigate values but can’t provide binding
norms. Sociologists must study what is and not what ought/not ought to be.
➢ A major contribution: Development of the concept of ideal type. An ideal type is an
analytical construct that helps the researcher ascertain similarities as well as
deviations in concrete cases. Not a statistical average, not a hypothesis but a mental
construct.
➢ Developed 3 kinds of ideal types based on their level of abstraction: 1) ideal type of
historical particulars which refer to specific historical realities such as ‘Western city’,
‘modern capitalism’ 2) ideal type which refers to abstract elements of the historical
 reality that are observable in a variety of historical and cultural contexts such as
‘bureaucracy’ or ‘feudalism’ 3) ideal types ‘that constitute rationalizing
reconstructions of a particular kind of behaviour.
➢ Ideal type had nothing to do with moral ideal, for the type of perfection implied in
the ideal is purely a logical one and not one to be found in pure form of in any socio-
historical situation.
➢ It’s fundamentally a ‘model of what an agent would do if he were to act completely
rationally according to the criteria of rationality involved in his behaviour’s sense’.
➢ Theory of protestant ethic and the spirit of capitalism is one of the most influential
pieces which have inspired numerous studies. A certain cluster of values embedded
in Protestantism promoted hard work, thrift, and several similar values which
fostered capitalism in the West.
➢ His perspective on bureaucracy, social stratification and sociological methodology
continue to guide contemporary sociology.

CULTURE:
● Culture-result of community living-distinguishes man from others
● Shapes our a) Values b) Beliefs c) Norms d) Attitudes e) Perception of the world
● Much of what we own, learn and dream – part of our culture.
● E.g. dress, language, festival, rituals, greet each other
● Ind.’s behaviour – influenced by caste, community, reliogion.
● Learned ways of behaviour
Difference b/w Society and Culture
● Society – a group of interacting individuals who share a common culture
● Culture-things in common, tangible (material things-tools, technology, fashion,
jewellery, buildings) and intangible things (beliefs, values)
Communal living necessitated shared rules and standards, beliefs and common occupation
which led to development of culture
Meaning of Culture:
1. Complex whole, includes knowledge, belief, art, morals, law , custom, and any other
capabilities and habits acquired by man as a member of society-Edward B. Taylor
2. Total way of life of social group-complex system that consists of belief, values,
standards, practices, language and technology shared by member of social groups
3. Not organic or biological-acquired through social life
4. E.g. hunger and sexual urge are biological facts-culture determines how urges are
channelled, Hindus-No Beef, Muslims and jews- No pork, arranged marriage in India,
love marriage in West, Dowry in India but in Africa the opposite.
5. culture evolves,many learned things of behaviour-now discredited, eg-slavery, nudity.
6. Culture-group’s social heritage- transmitted generation to generation ( scientific
knowledge, literary and art traditions). We don’t choose our lang. or religion.
 7. Culture-includes all means of social survival-man’s inventions and inventories- his
means to adjust environment, e.g. diff. clothes, diff. material for constructing houses.
8. Culture is symbolic, Symbol-something the meaning or value of which is bestowed on
it by us-No intrinsic meaning but profound meaning created by culture-symbols are a
cultural invention, meaning exists only till people share it. e.g. National Flag,
Difference in swastika, prayer beads, religious rituals, fasts, colours, gestures
9. Gesture-symbolic meaning- head up and down means “yes” in India but “no” in
Turkey
10. Language-symbolic culture-alphabets, grammar, literary works, philosophical
systems, acquired knowledge and communication
Ideal Culture: People think they have since mandated by society’s norms & expectations
Real Culture-The culture they actually have
Difference exists b/w reality and lofty principles, e.g. Declaration of Independence -
signatories had numerous slaves under them but wrote that “All men are created Equal”,
In India, principle casteless and classless society- Reality far from true. Position of
women in temples and society different; BIG GAP B/W IDEAL & REAL CULTURE.
COMPONENETS OF CULTURE –
● In general terms, 5 broad categories –
a. Beliefs, b. Values. c. Lang. d. Norms. e. Technology
All cultures have these components but some may be common and some may be unique.

BELIEFS –
● It is an idea or statement about reality which people accept as true. May be based on their
exp in the past, sc. evidence, religious faith or public opinion.
● May or may not be scientific or empirically verifiable.
● Eg – Hindu belief about horoscope, astrology, auspicious day & hour, Chinese faith–
creation, Hindu faith-rebirth; various beliefs in magic,superstitions.Christian belief-no. 13
● Beliefs change with time, eg – earlier belief – earth is flat, mental illness caused by evil
spirit residing inside the head, ancient Egyptians-drill hole in head to let evil spirit escape.
● Sympathetic understanding of people’s beliefs essential, to know why people in diff.
cultures view the world differently.

VALUES –
● They are shared agreements among members of a society as to what is desirable or
undesirable in social life.
● Generalized standards by which people define what is good or bad, ugly or beautiful.
Only provide broad behavioural preferences. People free to disagree on specific goals.
● Eg, freedom, justice, equality – universal values, capitalism, materialism, dignity of
labour – values of the west, politeness of children, competition.
● Guides our choice & behaviour, key to understand how we conduct ourselves in society.

LANGUAGE –
● Most imp. element of symbolic culture.
● Form of symbolic comm. through struct. & sound patterns, influenced by shared meaning.
● Written words, sound patterns – significant meanings, a symbol with culturally infused
meaning.
● Lang. universal but words and meanings differ from culture to culture.
● Part of society’s cultural heritage, lang. expresses and preserves that heritage.
● Eg. – in one lang – same word – many synonyms but in other lang. no word for it (snow,
camel).
● Five functions of lang. by James Henslin –
o Allows human exp to be cumulative. Only through lang. – transmit
knowledge, ideas, beliefs, attitudes, exp. to next generation.
o Provides a social or shared past. Memories ltd. without lang. lang. enables us
to recall past events with totality and comprehend events of past.
o Provides social or shared future. Without lang., no agreement on time, date or
place. No planning of events or invitations.
o Allows shared perspective. Ensure same meaning and ideas we intend to
comm. Possible only due to shared meanings and perspectives in lang.
o Allows complex, shared and goal directed behaviour. Allows to est. meaning
& significance of events. No lang.– no meaningful talk about holy days, bdays
● Though a product of culture, it shapes culture.
● Edward Sapir & Benjamin Whorf argument – not only that events & obj enter into the
lang with specific meanings but lang itself shapes the way we see those events & obj.
● When we learn a lang, we don’t only learn words & grammar but a particular way of
thinking and perceiving. Not only reflects our cultural exp but also shapes them.
● Lang determines our thought. Lang encompasses all systems of knowledge such as sc,
philosophy, art, music and mass comm.

NORMS –
● Est. standards of social behaviour which ind. in a group are expected to follow.
● Simply put, they are rules of conduct which prescribe & proscribe.
● Provide guidelines to patterns of behaviour, define them as correct or wrong a/c to
specific social situation.
● Explicit and Implicit norms –
o Explicit norms – Stated formally, eg uniforms for schools and colleges.
o Implicit norms – Not written rules. Generally understood by members of the group,
eg – in Indian culture – boys and girls don’t hug or kiss each other.
● Ideal and Real norms –
o Ideal norms – High standards requiring strict conformity, eg – honesty - best
policy, promise by politicians etc.
o Real norms – standards of behaviour in real situations. Eg – lying in certain
situations, excuses for being late, missing classes, broken promises of politicians.
● Norms – situational. Same norms may/ may not apply in certain situations, eg – dress for
diff. situations. In playground – noise while in lib. – silence.
● Norms vary from time to time, eg – untouchability, slavery, discrimination, corporal
punishment common before but now considered disgraceful.
● Classified into three types (Folkways, mores, laws) –
 o Folkways – Appropriate way of doing things. 1000’s of informal rules which
regulate daily lives. Specify the way things are customarily done. Violation – raised
eyebrow or murmur, no punishment, not strictly enforced, eg – matters of etiquette
(saying thank you, vacating seats for elderly etc.)., room for eccentric behaviour.

o Mores – Norms considered vital and morally imp. Most of the mores embedded in
the system of morality shared by members of a group. Violations punishable. Some
backed by law & govt while others not, eg–forgery, rape punishable but cheating in
a friendly game not. Violation, sanction – ridicule, avoidance, formal punishments.

o Laws – Rules formally est by state or other org. Formulated by govt authorities,
enforced by police. Also includes rules formally est. by associations and org.

▪ Diff. b/w law and mores – Laws always explicit & recorded, mores not.

o Sanctions – means by which society enforces norms. Involves rewards and

punishments. Positive and negative sanction, eg – a thank you, pay raise, award, or
frown, avoidance, suspension or dismissal. Every unit of society – own way of
enforcing sanctions. Subtle, informal in family but well formulated in formal org.

TECHNOLOGY –
● Refers to all material things as well as accumulated knowledge about them.
● Ranges from primitive tools to modern computers.
● Some say the technical know-how is more imp than the material items. However, a
comprehensive definition must include both.
● Sets modern man apart from ancestors. New tech – new occupations – new attitudes.
● Classification of society a/c to tech at their disposal. Evolution of culture from stone age
to iron age to Industrial Age.
● Call centres – knowledge, tech, time & lang. Must be culturally sensitive to customers.

CULTURAL ORIENTATION –

● Values and beliefs vary in diff. culture. Certain practice – integral part of one culture
while vulgar in the other one. So tendency of people to think that their culture is superior.
● Ethnocentrism –
o tendency to evaluate one’s own culture as superior.
o Culture preserves social heritage, instills pride and fosters loyalty among
members of a society. Profound impact on ind’s thinking.
● 1 reason for ethnocentrism–they haven’t seen the outside world, no idea about how others
live. Believe their way is the only way, eg – Indians – shock – Chinese eating dogs, rats;
stereotypes of North & South Indians of one another; Americans think Africa – primitive.
● Ugly stereotypes based on ignorance, lack of exposure, innocent misunderstandings.
● Xenophobia –
o Irrational fear of foreigners.
o One of the outcomes of ethnocentrism.
o Eg – anti-immigration movements, laws in Europe, USA, Australia.
● Cultural Shock –
o Psychological, social maladjustment people suffer when travel to diff culture.
o Suddenly exposed to a no. of diff norms practices etc. Need time to adapt.
o Eg – westerns horrified to see Indian urinate in public places.
● Cultural Relativism –
o Principal of judging an aspect of culture in terms of the culture as a whole.
o Every element of culture – unique to the group.
o No custom,practice-to be judged in absoluteterms but in terms of its functions.
o Eg – Indian farmers not eating their cows even if they starve.
o This principle not to be invoked to justify harmful customs and practices
which are a part of many cultures, eg – slavery, honour killings etc.
CULTURAL DIVERSITY –
●Refers to the culture of a society as a whole
●Subculture – Culture of a specific group within that society.
●As many subcultures as there are linguistic, caste, religious, racial groups in society.
●Elements of culture – shared by the general population. Eg – Indians as a whole share
Indian culture which is not synonymous with Hindu culture.
● Sub-cultures abound in India.
● Subcultures have distinct values, norms – set them apart from the rest.
● Subculture not partial or miniature cultures, complete cultures unique to social group.
● In Indian society – caste, religion, lang. – 3 primary determinants of subculture.
● 1000’s of subcastes with own lifestyle, eg – all muslims – some shared beliefs but
subculture of Kerela Muslim diff. from UP’s muslim.
● Multiculturalism –
o Coexistence of diff cultures,fosters understanding,appreciation of diff cultures.
o No. of cultural groups exists side by side in the same culture.
o Not just tolerance of diff cultures but appreciation of their richness as well as
contribution to the culture as a whole.
o India – many cultures. Enormous diversity, Indian nationalism based on ‘unity
in diversity’ and ‘national integration’.
o Idea – diff culture must not only exist but cultural id also be maintained.
● Cultural universal –
o Elements of culture universally accepted by all cultures of world.
o They are broad categories of culture components, content of which varies
considerably, eg – family, housing, feasting, folklore etc.
o i.e. all cultures have the 5 components, but the content of the component
varies drastically and may also contradict.
o Though people live in diff. natural environments, they all develop some tools,
means of comm., systems of social org. with est. norms., eg – marriage,
family, incest taboo, God or supernatural power – almost universal institutions
CULTURAL CHANGE –
● Culture not static, changes from time to time. Evolved over 1000’s of years.
● Many old belief systems discarded by society if not consistent with sc evidence today.
Empirical evidence – exploded many myths and undermined numerous superstitions.
● Eg – change in cooking and eating habits, changes in caste and family system etc.
 ● Diffusion –
o Process by which elements of culture spread from 1 culture to another.
o Developments in transport and comm. – brought the world closer.
o Mass media – imp role in the spread of ideas and tech, for eg – western music,
fast foods, jeans etc.
o Democracy, freedom, equality–generally accepted values.
● Culture lag –
o Concept by William Ogburn.
o Explain how various elements of culture change at diff pace with what results.
o Definition by Theodorson & Theodorson – Situation, some parts of a culture
change at a faster rate than other, related parts, with a resulting disruption of
the integration and equilibrium of the culture.
o Usually – elements of culture related to tech change more quickly than non-
material elements. But society – a system in equilibrium with interrelated
parts. So when some part of society changes more quickly, leads to disruption
in social system . This is cultural lag. Affects every society.
o Eg – birth control tech available, but certain cultural beliefs resist their
adoption, some Indian people still refuse vaccinations against polio, measles.
o Change in tech leads to change in occupation and lifestyle.
TOWARDS A GLOBAL CULTURE –
● Changes in world eco since 1970’s, debates on postmodernism & post-Fordism.
● Globalisation process – points to extension of global cultural interrelatedness. Leads
to global ecumene or ‘region of persistent culture interaction & exchange.’
● This process, a series of cultural flow produces –
o Cultural homogeneity and cultural disorder
o Transnational cultures – ‘3rd cultures’ oriented beyond national boundaries.
● Postmodernism – questions earlier assumptions of cultural imperialism,
Americanisation and mass consumer culture which alleged a homogenising process
leading to a proto universal culture.
● Paradigm shift – recognition of ‘diversity, variety & richness of popular and local
discourses, codes and practices which resist and playback systemicity and order’.
● Appadurai – globalisation of culture not same as its homogenisation.
● A/c to him, 5 dimensions of global cultural flow –
o Ethnoscapes – Landscapes of persons such as tourists, immigrants and other
moving groups and persons who affects politics of & b/w nations.
o Technoscapes – Global config. of tech. Both mechanical and informational
which MNC’s move at high speeds across previously impervious boundaries.
o Finanscapes – Produced by rapid flow of money in currency market and stock
exchanges.
o Mediascapes – refer both to distribution of electronic capabilities to produce
and disseminate info and images they create around the world.
o Ideoscapes – Ideologies of state and the counter ideologies of movements -
consists of notions of images such as freedom, justice, rights, democracy etc.
● Intensification of contacts b/w cultures doesn’t necessarily lead to tolerance for the
globalisation process.
 ● Onslaught of globalization – not only failed to weaken or homogenize local cultures
but also led to the resurgence of localism.
● Ethnic groups around the world – tried to revive their traditional culture and reaffirm
their id.
● Wolfgang Sachs coined the term ‘cosmopolitan localism’ to refer to the assertion of
diversity as a universal right and the identification of locality as globally formed.
● Forces of globalisation and westernisation have not homogenised indigenous cultures;
in some cases they have actually revived and revitalized many of the traditional
cultures and local ethos.

SOCIALIZATION:
● The process by which individuals learn the culture of their own society.
● Life-long process-learn content of culture-behavioural patterns of groups to which
they belong
● Socialization-most pronounced in childhood, family consciously and unconsciously
teaches the child, e.g., religious beliefs, food habits,
Rules of behaviour from peer group
School-introduces to formal rules, standard of behaviour
Job-new norms and socialization process
Marriage, Birth of child, require new adjustments
● Varnashrama Dharma-Indian culture-4 distinct stages of socialization
● Human beings (social animals)-learn culture and behavioural pattern of groups
● Socialization-aware of who we are, what we believe, and how we do things-way to
become a full member in society
● Way to transmit our social heritage from one generation to next

Difference b/w animal and man in terms of Socialization

● Animal Behaviour is by instincts
● Animals learn by experience, not from it
● Animal behaviour repetitive, not creative
● Nothing symbolic about animal behaviour

HEREDITY AND ENVIRONMENT

● Nature v. Nurture:
● Nature: human beings-product of genetic make-up
● Biological factors important than cultural and environmental factors
● Dominant thought in 19th century
● Charles Darwin’s On the Origin of Species-living organisms changed over long
period of time-process of natural selection enabled to adapt to changing
environment
● Variation in genetic traits-different adaption strategies- most advantageous genes
become dominant- natural selection gave superior traits needed to cope with each
stage in evolution- Spencer “ Survival of the fittest”
● Spencer’s thesis embraced by rich and businessmen-white man superior over
coloured people in Africa, Americas and Asia-right to conquer and ‘civilise’ the
‘inferior’
● Instinct Theory-20th century-behaviour explained in terms of instinct
● e.g., Men and women mate b/c of sexual instinct, earn money b/c of acquisitive
instinct, games b/c of competitive instinct- limitless behaviour, limitless instinct
● Easy and meaningless to explain human behaviour in terms of large repetitive
instinct
● Criticism of instinct theory-Instinct and expression mediated by culture, human
beings poorly equipped with instinct, e.g., calf moves to find milk, human is fed
and cared for longer
● Nurture
● Conditional Behaviour-Ivan Pavlov’s study
● Involuntary responses could be taught, e.g. dogs associate bell ring with arrival of
food
● John Watson-American psychologist, same conclusion as above- founded
Behaviourism school-child could be turned into anything, depended on how he
was raised
● B.F. Skinner-more emphatic-human behaviour modified by means of appropriate
rewards and punishment
● Margaret Mead-Anthropologist-propounded nurture view-differences b/w cultures
and within people of same culture b/c of differences in conditioning ( childhood
days and culturally determined)
● Sociobiology-study of the way in which biological factors influence human
behaviour and culture-founded by Edward Wilson
● Wilson-patterns of human behaviour-such as territoriality, aggression, selfishness
and hierarchies- are innate and universal- acquired through evolutionary process-
influenced human behaviour and cultural patterns
● E.g., differences in process of biological reproduction-millions of sperm but single
mature egg cell and 9 months in labour-gender differences laid foundation for
several cultural patterns such as the nature of the family, male domination and
discrimination
● Sexual urge, jealousy, aggression, biological forces influence human behaviour
but culture mediates and channels them
● Biological repertoire-dancing, painting and music
● Human beings invent things to survive-Biological factors account for minor
variations-e.g. animals can go into hibernation, humans can’t-eskimo may have
more tolerance to cold but still requires warm clothing and shelters
● No instincts-biological forces or genetic factors that can substitute for culture-e.g.
Brahmin boy thrown with tribal clan of Africa-will learn to hunt and fish, master
art of survival- innate talent won’t make him a classical musician
● Social roles-product of culture-individuals trained into them by socialization
● Environment/ culture-more important in full development of human potential
 ● Biological/heredity forces-basic data or raw materials which fine-tuned culture
RESULTS OF DEPRIVED SOCIALIZATION
● Learn our language, standards of behaviour and beliefs through socialization
● 3 Examples: a) Feral children of India, 2 girls-kept alive by animals ( pack of wolves)
● Girls 8 and a year and a half old when discovered-Wolfish appearance, behaviour,
walk on all fours, tongues hung out, howled at night- no human contact , learnt animal
ways
● Physically deformed, mentally retarded and no sign of human intelligence
● b) Anna-illegitimate and unwanted child-forced to live in room upstairs
● Only left food for her-no contact by mother or grandfather
● Age 6-discovered by social worker-could nit talk, walk or show signs of intelligence
or emotion
● Brought to an institution for proper care, but permanently damaged
At age 8-mental development lower than 2 year old kid-died at age 10 from blood
disorder b/c of long abuse
● c) Isabelle- 6 years in virtual isolation-mother deaf and mute-spent time in dark room-
communicate by gestures
● Incapable of forming relatioships-but began speaking within 2 years-able to read and
write-intensive efforts by psychologist-make up for 6 years
● Last two examples were in America-studied by Kingsley Davis, 1948
● Rene Spitz-difference b/w infants raised by mothers and orphanage-
● Raised by mothers-extensive involvement-developed normally-healthy mentally and
physically
● Orphans-isolated in cubicles-no human contact except feeding and medical help-18
months later, 1/3 orphans dead or handicapped physically, mentally or socially

THEORIES OF SOCIALIZATION
Psychological theories-concerned with personal identity and behaviour
Sociological Theories-concerned with social identity-arises from social experience over long
period of time
Self is key concept in both and its development is primary function of socialization
Sociological Theories
Symbolic Interactionism-Cooley and Mead (proponents)-Cooley stated complex relation
b/w individual and society-not empirically separable but differentiated coincidence of same
phenomenon-
No society without individual-no individual without society
“The imaginations people have of one another are solid facts of society”-“Looking-Glass
Self”-Cooley
Social self-empirical self-product of social interaction-perception of one’s self in perception
of others
Individual develops sense of ‘I’-develops simultaneously awareness of ‘you’, ‘he’, ‘she’ and
‘they’
Self emerges with interaction from other selves-conscious of other’s judgements-evaluation
of appearance
Results in dual mental image- how he appears and evaluated by others, responsive feeling on
his part to this evaluation-of pride, or self-doubt etc.
Mind, Self and Society-George Herbert Mead- Mind is an emergent phenomenon of
personal awareness on the part of an infant individual, of meaningful gestures selected out of
a whole range of indiscriminate, experiential physical motions.
● Mind-develops child’s capacity to distinguish his and other’s nonsense motions and
significant gestures-
● Child’s mind develops-increase in social communication skills
● Mind more developed in symbolic interaction skills-more sophisticate level of
meaningful communication among individuals
● Ability to use and interpret social gestures-facilitate development of mind, self and
society
● Mind emerges out of maturing capacity to distinguish/w symbols of interaction-by
perceiving, conceiving and interpreting gestures and language
● Child develops capacity to assume posture and prospective of the one whom he is
interacting- called as “take role of other”-
Mind evolves when child-
a) Understand and use conventional gesture
b) Employ the gesture-take role of other
c) Imaginatively rehearse alternative lines of action
● Man- not an animal of instinct-but with mind for rational decision and judgment
● Identity of self-develops with symbolic interaction-the symbol arouses in one’s self
what it arouses in other individual-
● Mature self-arises when generalized other is internalized so that community exercises
control over individual members-self does not mean a bag of social attitudes-
● Development of mature self-consciuosness, individual becomes an object and a
subject to himself

Psychological Theories
Psychology-focus on individual and attitudes and experiences
Psychoanalytic theory
Sigmund Freud-father of psychoanalysis- theory on 2 fundamental premises
First- Genetic approach-emphasizes childhood experiences play critical role in one’s
development-bare foundations of individuals development laid at age 5
Second-sexual energy (libido) present at birth and progress through psychosexual stages are
rooted in instinctual process of organism-tendency for different impulses and biological
forces in opposing directions inherent in humans-
Spontaneous part-selfish part of nature, want something here and now, but another part says,
2 ways to approach, right and wrong way
Raw nature-steal textbook from library, second nature states wrong to do so
People followed impulses, desires-society would disintegrate-e.g. want to party but forced to
study
Socialization channels our desires and impulses in culturally accepted ways

Freud states-3 parts of personality:

a) Id: Bundle of biological drives, spontaneous, unconscious, selfish and irrational-
maximise pleasure-avoid pain-propels impulses, desires-want to do things we want, when
we want without regard for individuals or social norms. E.g., new born babies ( no
internalized social norms)-Opposite to super-ego

b) Superego: Internalized standards of society-stands for values, norms, morals learnt

through socialization-conscience of individual into society’s expectations and standards
are organised e.g., grown-ups desires are opposed by super ego-opposite to id

c) Ego: mediator b/w id and superego-mediates b/w impulses of id and moral standards of
society-adjust desires and impulses to reality-adjust needs of individual to demands of
society-process of adjustment is essence of socialization

Psychosocial Approach: Erik Erikson-8 stages of personality development-

1. Trust v. mistrust ( Hope-birth to one year)
2. Autonomy v. shame and doubt (Will-1 to 3 years)
3. Initiative v. Guilt (purpose- 3 to 6 years)
4. Industry v. Inferiority ( Competence-6 years to puberty)
5. Ego identity v. Role Confusion ( Fidelity- puberty to adulthood)
6. Intimacy v. Isolation (Love-young adulthood)
7. Generativity v. Stagnation ( Care-middle adulthood)
8. Ego integrity v. Despair ( Wisdom-old age)
Each stage-conflict b/w child’s needs or feelings and external obstacles and development of
healthy personality depends on successful resolution of conflicts-
Erikson-8 stages-universal feature of human development- cultural variations change the way
people deal with these problems and possible solutions-e.g., infant bottle fed regularly on
rigid schedule-In India, breast-fed when cries
West-infant weaned in first year- India, twice as long, child carried by mother/sister
Culture impose standards to cope- each stage, individual confronts a crisis unique to stage
and devise solutions for same-development depends on management of crisis-satisfactory
resolution, basis of child’s identity which is acceptance of self and one’s society
Cognitive Development Theory:Piaget- 2 assumptions (inborn qualities) about intelligence-

a) Form of biological adaption-adjust or attuned to conditions imposed by environment

b) Becomes organised as the individual interacts with external world-tendency for intellectual
structures and processes to become systematic and coherent
Mental structures array themselves in patterns to support complex thought (like biological
functions carried out by lungs, eyes etc.)
Assortment of experiences stemming from action of environment bring changes-encounters
in common physical and social experiences-unexpected and puzzling outcomes lead to
reorganisation of thought
4 stages for cognitive abilities to develop:
1. Sensorimotor Stage: (0-2 years)-infant experiences through sensory contact-learns to
coordinate sensory experiences with motor activities-children imitate actions and
sounds of others-no comprehension of meaning of symbols
2. Preoperational Stage ( 2-7 years)- Children begin to think-begin to engage mentally
about things they cannot sense directly-language and senses develop-attach meaning
and name still limited
3. Concrete Operational Stage (7-11 years)-Children master cognitive skills-comprehend
abstract concepts, e.g, weight, speed, time etc.-understand feelings and outlook of
other and alter their own actions/ feelings
4. Formal Operational Stage (11-15 years)-comprehend abstract thought and logic-
reason in terms of abstract qualities rather than concrete situations-develop
imagination-comprehend social roles and see themselves in those roles
Human mind-active and creative-children shape world through socialization
Learning Theory
● Albert Bandura-theory in developmental psychology-learning by watching others
perform some action (observational learning or modelling), not just direct
enforcement-
● Intrinsic reinforcement/ rewards
● Emphasis on cognitive (mental) elements of learning-accurate picture of way in which
behaviours are learned-
● Children behaviour change if reinforcement system or their beliefs about themselves
change-emphasis is more on the way environment shapes the child than on how child
understands his experience-
● Human nature-characterized by vast potentiality that can be fashioned by direct and
vicarious experience into a variety of forms within biological limits-
● Human behaviour-enormously plastic shaped by predictable process of learning

AGENTS OF SOCIALIZATION:
Acquire culture of society by participation in groups and institutions e.g. family ( first words,
language), religion and several role definitions
4 agents of socialization
Family:
● Early and impressionable years under care of family
● Large part of values, beliefs and knowledge
● First social identity
● Source of first set of values, beliefs, and attitudes
● Confirm and perpetuate caste identity, religious traditions and kinship obligations
● E.g., America, kids leave home when 18- India, live with parents for much of adult
life-Rural areas, parenst and kids live together for livelihood
● Emotional relationship b/w family may determine reaction to a situation, actively or
passively
● Adler gave an example-pampered children, excessively spoiled and protected from
life’s frustration, no independence, does not learn requirement of living in social order
● Neglected child-denied place n social order-rejection arouses resistance, feeling of
inferiority and withdraw implications of social life-socially incompetent-Child rearing
practices consist pf alternation b/w indulgence and rejection
Peer Groups:
● People of same age and interest-first peer group, neighbourhood playgroup, play
themselves, hangout and spend more time with each other than with family
● Participation in groups builds social identity-player, leader, resourceful person,
shy
● First exposure to impersonal rules-not their parent’s creation
● Peer groups in school and workplace-more influential than playground-choose
friends on basis of physical attraction, common interests, shared background,
interest in sports, music
● First taste of alcohol or act of smoking may be peer induced-young adults in
crime-ridden neighbourhoods are drawn into deviant sub-cultures
● Workplace-office norm, unwritten rules of behaviour-product of socialization
● e.g., honest day’s work not necessary-peer’s frown on those who complete task on
time, friends of workplace can help in many situations ( domestic problems,
divorce)
The School:
● First formal agency-exposes to rules of larger society
● Recognize and obey rules, practise skills, relate to people in position of authority
● Learn to behave in group settings, quietly listen to teachers, accept responsibility
● Development of social and intellectual skills- acquisition of society’s cultural
heritage
● Education refines social skills-interaction with peers and teacehers-formation of
social identity
● Civic sense, patriotism and pride in heritage-foster critical thinking-individuals
think for themselves-become creative
Mass Media:
 ● Television, radio, newspapers, magazines, movies and Records-Subtle but significant
role in socialization
● Television-not under government or single-channel-private television channels, wider
choice
● Transmission of foreign music, fashion, images, events, styles-young adults adopt
types behaviour patterns-Education channels (Discovery) inform, entertain and
instruct
● ‘Cultural pollution’-pernicious influence of west, comparison of our ideal culture with
West’s real culture
● Exposure to violence in media (movies and video games) may lead to aggressive
behaviour, insensitivity to violence, nightmares and insecurity
● Newspapers and journals-transmit information-cater to conceivable interest (women,
young adult, fashion, film, industry, sports, music, religion, news, politics etc.)
● Books-fiction, biographies and social commentaries-convey ideas-powerful
instrument of socialization
Adult Socialization
Other agencies
1. Religious institutions-play prominent role in shaping values and beliefs-provide moral
instruction
2. Workplace-different work ethics and teamwork at govt. offices, factory, Business
Corporation etc.
3. Professional organisations and clubs-own rules and standards
4. Women’s group-senior citizen’s group forums, labour unions-influence attitudes and
behaviour of members.

Resocialization
● Deliberate and systematic effort to alter an individual’s current behaviour pattern-give
him new set of values, beliefs and standards
● Voluntary or involuntary, e.g., alcoholics for rehabilitation programmes, drug addicts
at rehabilitation centres for remedial programme, criminal in prison-institutions
charged with responsibility of modifying people’s behaviour
● People join institutions and undergo resocialiation, e.g., religious institutions such as
mutts, Convents an monasteries-new cultural content and social identity-deprived of
former self-enter new social order-underground social movements rely on behaviour
modification
Total Institution
● Place of residence where individuals are stripped of old identity-resocialized into a
new way of life
● Such places, high walls, bars, fences, locked doors, and manned gates-procedure of
admittance may involve degradation and humiliation-may strip off possessions
including clothing and uniform
● Assigned new names or numbers-contact with outside world restricted- non-
conformity severely punished
 ● Membership-Some voluntary and involuntary-rules of behaviour widely differ but
involve process of complete resocialization
● e.g., Monastries, mutts, convents, Prisons, mental asylums, boarding school

Socialization by Caste, religion and gender

● India-religion and gender-overwhelming influence on socialization-
● Traditional societies, segregated neighbourhoods and occupation on basis of caste-
caste system abolished-
● Still people inherit names, choose mates, and follow many of the life-cycle of
ceremony according to caste system-variation in norms and cultural practices (dress
style, food habits, customs, spoken language and lifestyle)
● Religion-name and membership in clan on religious affiliation-identify religion by
name
● Ceremonies confirm membership in religious group or reorganize different stages in
life cycle-e.g., women before delivering baby, before naming child, first feeding of
rice, first haircut and so on
● Food habits and dress style-vary by religion-Wedding and funeral rites also differ
● India, gender socialization involves role definitions and physical appearances-
countryside, women expected to look like women (grow hair, wear women’s clothes,
and adorn bindi)
● Old traditions impose restrictions on women-women told to be modest, not cross legs
when sitting-not consume alcohol or tobacco-should cook and serve men-confine
world to kitchen
● Many caste forbid women pursuing higher studies-many occupations still taboo for
them-many restriction eased in urban areas-many employed outside home but still do
domestic chores, double burden not eased

MECHANICAL AND ORGANIC SOLIDARITY: EMILE DURKHEIM

Mechanical:-

1. Societies are relatively small, cohesive

2. People follow same line of occupation
3. People are mentally and morally homogeneous, feel the same emotions, cherish the
same values, and hold the same things sacred.
4. Communities are uniform and non-atomized.
5. Characterized by a strong collective conscience, that is, collective ways of feeling,
thinking and acting.

Organic:-
 1. Larger the size of the society, the more they are increasingly differentiated and a
number of new economic roles develop.
2. Societies are heterogeneous because of different occupations.
3. Mental and moral similarities disappear.
4. Characterized by specialization, division of labour, and individualism.Also by
weakening of collective conscience.
5. Held together by interdependence of parts, rather than by the homogeneity of
elements.
6. With increasing specialization of functions, similarities in values and belief tend to
disappear.

GEMEINSHAFT AND GESELLSCHAFT: FERDINAND TONNIES

Gemeinshaft = Community

Gesellschaft = Society

Closely follows Durkheim’s typology but focused primarily on the difference between traditional and
modern societies.

Gemeinshaft

1. Small, traditional rural community.

2. People share the same values and beliefs and have a strong sense of belonging to
the community.
3. Customs and Traditions are sacred, and family, and kinship, and ascribed statuses
are important.
4. Characterized by Natural Will, which meant relationships are personal and often end
in themselves.
5. People’s actions were not motivated by profits or personal benefits but by a sense of
the community.

Gesellschaft

1. Based on Rational Will, or individual self-interest.

2. Human actions are no longer motivated by social obligations or community well-
being.
3. Societies are large urban conglomerations where individuals are free to follow their
private interests.
4. Social relationships are generally formal and impersonal.
5. People are individualistic and may not share the same values, beliefs, and ideas.
6. General weakening of the sense of community, like in Organic solidarity.
FOLK AND URBAN SOCIETIES: ROBERT REDFIELD

Probably Not in syllabus.

Redfield’s folk-urban continuum has become a standard typology in rural sociology.

Types of Social Groups

Groups are classified into 4 different types:-

1. Aggregate
● Physical proximity
● Come together temporarily
● Lack organization or meaningful social interaction
● People don’t know each other personally
● No sense of belonging to the group
● Eg. Audience, a crowd, passengers on same bus, people watching fireworks
display and football matches

2. Societal Group
● Common values and interests and some feeling of solidarity.
● Sense of belonging or a consciousness of kind is the primary characteristic of
the societal group.
● Members identify themselves with these groups and are aware of their
common characteristics.
● But, groups mat be scattered far and wide, and except for consciousness of
kind, there may not be any meaningful interaction among them.
● Eg. Caste and religious groups as well as linguistic and nationality groups;
Chinese, Irish, Brahmins etc.

3. Social Group
● Common identity, atleast some feeling of unity, certain common goals and
shared norms, and faitly high levels of interaction.
● Regular channels of communication and social interaction.
● Members share common identity and a sense of belonging but may not know
each other, and may not be in a position to interact with each-other.
● Sometimes Societal and Social groups are clubbed together by Sociologists.
● Eg. Family, peer group, a social club, neighborhood group.

4. Associational Group
● Organized group with formal structure.
 ● Stated purposes, written rules, criteria of membership, standards of
procedure, and clearly defined authority structure.
● Very prominent in modern complex societies.
● Employees of a corporation or members of an all-India association may not
know one another, but have established means of communication and
members do share common interests.
● Eg. State and Union Govts., corporations, prtofessional associations, labour
unions, social clubs, political parties, and local panchayats.

Primary and Secondary Groups: Charles Cooley

Primary Groups:-
1. Relatively small size
2. Face to face association
3. Unspecialized character of that association
4. Relative intimacy
5. Durable relationship
● Characterized by a sense of belonging, emotional warmth, and cooperation.
● Sense of we-feeling fosters a strong identification with the group.
● Harmonious and affectionate, but competition, self assertion, and passionate
contentions also emerge.
● A prostitute-client relationship and a committee is not a primary group because it
ceases after the realization of the goal, and because of transient and specialized
character of relationship.

Secondary Groups:-

● Characterized by impersonal, contractual, formal and rational relationships.

● In this group, we only engage the specialized part of our personality.
● Eg. Interaction with shopkeeper or a clerk at the post office, bank, or a Govt. office,
our interaction is formal and the relationship is confined to special purpose on hand.
● According to Cooley, all groups, which are not Primary Groups, are Secondary
Groups.

In-groups and Out-groups

In-Groups:-
● Feeling of pride and strong loyalty towards group.
● AKA ‘we’ groups, i.e. group of insiders.
● Eg. Caste groups, religious groups, political parties, linguistic groups, and football
teams.
● Whenever there is a communal or inter-caste crisis, members on each side become
far more united and sensitive.

Out-Groups:-
 ● AKA ‘they’ groups or a group of outsiders
● Groups towards which there is a feeling of contempt and even hostility.

Reference Groups

It is a group to which a person uses to shape his own values, beliefs, attitudes, and behavior.
This may be real group to which the individual wants to belong, or simply as social category
whose standards he uses to guide his behavior.
Examples:-
1. Members of the new middle class often adopt the lifestyle of the old middle class
hoping to join it.
2. Persons who want to join a political party accept the ideology and programmes of
the party.
3. Students of MBA class want to dress and act like business professionals.

Anticipatory Socialization:- (probably not in syllabus)

1. It is a process by which individuals begin to learn the rights, obligations,
expectations, and beliefs of reference groups to which they want to belong.
2. It makes a person’s adjustment of a status change easier.
3. Eg. Little children imitating grown-ups. Graduate students, computer scientists, and
political status-seekers adopt the standards of the groups which they hope to join.
4. M.N Srinivas’ concept of Sanskritisation is a form of anticipatory socialization.
● It is a process by which the people of low castes are able to rise to a higher caste
positioning in the social hierarchy by adopting sysmbols of higher status, thus
taking over, as far as possible, the customs, rites, beliefs, and lifestyles of higher
castes.
● In the past, people of lower castes who tries this were punished by the higher
castes, but the process could not be stopped and has been going on for hundreds
of years.

Electronic Communities

1. Modern concept.
2. Sociologically, hard to place them but they are groups because people interact with
one another and share common interests.
3. Many chat groups are fiercely loyal and have a deep sense of belonging.

FORMAL ORGANIZATIONS AND BUREAUCRACY

1. Associational groups are largely formal organizations.

2. Modern governments, industries, business corporations, and huge trade unions are
large complex organizations with well-defined structure called Bureaucracy.
 3. In traditional rural communities most businesses were family enterprises. The head
of the family managed the affairs with the help of kinsfolk.
4. With Industrial Revolution, giant Corporations with large labour force etc., families
and kinship were not suitable for supplying workforce. People started hiring labour
with written contracts specifying everything from pay to leaves to work hours to
benefits etc.

Max Weber gave an elaborate account of the development of bureaucracy as well as its causes
and consequences.

He analysed the characteristics of a typical bureaucracy.

It has the following characteristics:-

1. Principle of fixed and official jurisdiction areas which are ordered by rules. Each
status-prescribed regular activities, distributed in a fixed way as official duties.
The structure of authority is clearly delineated and strictly delimited by rules.
2. The principle of office hierarchy and levels graded authority with a firmly ordered
system of super-ordination and subordination in which there is a supervision of
the lower offices by the higher ones.
3. A division of labour based on specialized functions and responsibilities.
4. A system of written documents (‘the files’) defining the procedure as well as the
rights and duties of people in all positions.
5. Office management based on thorough and expert training.
6. Selection for employment and promotion based on technical competence,
specialized knowledge, or skill.
7. Office-holding as a ‘vocation’. Official work is no longer a secondary activity but
something that demands the full working capacity of the official.
8. Provision for pecuniary compensation as a fixed salary.
9. Appointment of employees by higher officials, rather than by election
10. The system of tenure of life. Normally the position of the bureaucrat is held for
life as specified by contract.
11. A clear distinction between the sphere of office and that of the private affairs of
the individual. The bureaucratic official is not an owner of the enterprise and
therefore not entitled to the use of official facilities for personal needs except as
defined by strict rules.
12. The practice of performing specialized administrative functions according to
purely objective considerations and the official discharge of business according
to calculable rules and without regard for persons.

Drawbacks:-

1. Red tape, missing files, delayed action, and indifferent officials.

2. Bureaucrats quote rules and wash their hands off matters while the people whom
they are intended are intended to serve suffer the consequences.
 3. Formalism and the rule-bound and cool ‘matter-of-factness’ of bureaucratic
organizations depersonalize human relationships.
4. Weber counts the crpto-plutocratic distribution of power and increasing
concentration of the materials of management among other vices.

SIZE AND GROUP DYNAMICS:-GEORGE SIMMEL

1. Simmel 1st to analyse the effects of sheer numerical size on forms of interaction.
2. In small groups, members typically have a chance to interact directly with one-
another.
3. As the size of the group increases, its members become more unlike one another.
4. Beyond a certain size, individualism and structural differentiation develop. Face-to-
face interaction is replaced by formal arrangements consisting of offices, written
rules, and well-defined tasks and responsibilities.
5. Interaction in small groups involves the total personality of individual members,
participation in large groups is weak and restricted to a segment of personalities.
6. As small groups grow in size, cliques and factions develop within them. Similarly,
when associations and companies become large complex organizations, bureaucratic
structures develop to manage affairs and to exercise formal control.
7. Similarly, direct democracy changes to indirect, representational democracy as cities
grow into states.
8. Hence, the size of the group affects its inner dynamics as well as its relationship to its
own members and the outside world.

SOCIAL ORGANIZATION

A Society is a group of people who share a distinct culture, occupy a particular territorial
area, and have a sense of distinguishable identity. It is a comprehensive social system with
all necessary social institutions and organizational forms necessary for its own survival.

A Group is simply a collectivity or any plurality of individuals. But the type of a group varies
with its size, quality of interaction among its members, and the nature of its organizational
form.
The nature of the Social Organization determines the nature of the group.
Social Organization means ‘a relatively stable pattern of social relationships of individuals
and subgroups within a society or group, based upon systems of social roles, norms, and
shared meanings that provide regularity and predictability in social interaction. In this sense,
social organization is essentially synonymous with Social Structure.’

1. Organization or structure must be viewed as a continuum with wholly unorganized

groups at one end and highly organized groups or associations at the other.
2. Groups may range themselves at any point on this continuum.
3. A Crowd is unorganized but a business corporation is organized.
4. A Primary Group is somewhat organized with an informal structure and a Social Club is
relatively more organized with a set of formal rules.
5. A Government Department or a Corporation is fully organized.
6. The most highly organized groups are associations that can sustain a total turnover in
their membership and can last for long periods of time.

Conceptual Clarification is essential for the establishment of sociology as a science of

society.

Collective Behaviour
Collective behaviour is a type of social behaviour that occurs in crowds or masses. Riots,
mobs, mass hysteria, fads, fashions, rumour, and public opinion are all examples of collective
behaviour. It is argued that people tend to surrender their individuality and moral judgment in
crowds and give in to the hypnotic powers of leaders who shape crowd behaviour as they
like.

Theories of Collective Behaviour

Contagion Theory
➢ Condition of anonymity can turn individuals in a crowd into beasts. People lose their
sense of values and place in the society.

➢ Individuals in a crowd lose their individuality and acquire a collective mentality

which transforms them from cultured humans into destructive anti-social elements.

Five Stages of Acting Crowd (by Herbert Blumer)

➢ Tension or Unrest: People become disturbed about some conditions in the society.
➢ Exciting Event: Startling event occurs, people get preoccupied with it.
➢ Milling: People start talking about it starts a circular reaction.
➢ Common object of attention: The attention of the crowd is riveted on some aspect of
the event.
➢ Common Impulses: People give in to the engulfing mood and the crowd spirals out of
control
Emergent Norm Theory
➢ Crowd behaviour may seem out of control but it is not entirely normless behaviour.
➢ New Norms emerge which may justify collective action when established norms don’t
cover unexpected behaviour.

Convergence Theory
➢ Why does Crowd turn into a mob?
➢ According to convergence theory, collective behaviour is the outcome of situations
which draw together people with similar characteristics attitudes and needs.
➢ Stresses on the ‘role of individual’ rather than collective excitement.

Value Added Theory

➢ Structural Conduciveness – Existing social order may be conducive to emergence of
collective behaviour.
➢ Structural Strain – Perception of an unjust social situation cause disruption in the
social system.
➢ Growth and spread of a generalized belief
➢ Precipitating Factor – A triggering event which suddenly grips the consciousness of
the people.
➢ Mobilization for Action – Actual onset of collective action. In absence of a previous
leader, a group is swayed by its more boisterous members.
➢ Mechanism of social control – Agents of social control move in to restore order. Eg –
Law enforcement officials

Crowd
➢ A temporary aggregate of individuals
➢ With a common focus
➢ In physical proximity
➢ Without a History of previous Interactions
➢ People in a crowd are less constrained by normal rules of behaviour

Characteristics of Crowd (Elias Canneti)

➢ Crowds are self-generating without natural boundaries
➢ Crowds are characterized by equality – No social distincions
➢ Crowds love density
➢ Crowds need direction
Five types of crowd:

➢ Ego Involved – Feel a personal stake in the unusual event.

➢ Concerned – they also have an interest but less so than the ego involved
➢ Insecure – Join the crowd as it gives them a sense of power
 ➢ Curious Spectators – Join the crown because they are curious about what is
happening.
➢ Exploiters – Do not care about the motives. Use it for their own purpose such as
looting.

➢ Acting Crowd – A group of people whose sentiments have been aroused because of
some focal event and they are bent upon action to achieve some seemingly important
purpose.
➢ Threatened Crowd – It is a type of crowd which is in a state of alarm due to
perception of some imminent danger.
➢ Expressive Crowd – A group of people who display unrestrained collective
excitement and participate in emotionally gratifying events.
➢ Conventional Crowd – A gathering of people for a purpose according to
institutionalized norms.
➢ Casual Crowd – A group of people who happen to be at the same place at the same
time.
RUMOUR

➢ Rumour – A rumour is an unverified information informally communicated from

person to person. Rumours are frequently but not always false. Rumours are likely to
spread when:
➢ Rumours provide information important to people
➢ There is some general uncertainty suggested by rumour.
➢ The rumour produces high level of personal anxiety.
➢ One’s belief in rumour is strong.
FADS and FASHION

➢ Fads and Fashions refer to periodic changes in styles and patterns of behaviour.
➢ A Fad is a new form of behaviour that briefly catches the attention of the people and
then fades away.
➢ A craze is similar to a fad but has an even shorter life.
➢ Fashions are relatively institutionalized forms of collective behaviour pertaining to
standards of dress and manners. Fashion change gradually unlike fads and crazes and
some are even durable.
Social Movements

➢ A social movement is a form of collective behaviour in which a large number of

people are united in an attempt to promote or resist social change.
➢ Alternative Social behaviours seek to alter some specific behaviour.
➢ Transformative social movements are revolutionary movements which aim to bring
total transformation in the social order.
➢ Reactionary Social Movements embrace the value of past or tenets of some faith and
want to return the society to yesterday’s values.
➢ Expressive social movements express feelings of satisfaction and well-being and
people join them for mutual support or togetherness.
Life Cycle of a Social Movement
Incipience – Discontentment and frustration prevails among the masses. Relative deprivation
and discontent usually occur at time of economic crisis or war. Then emerge leaders who
channel the frustration of the people and give them a voice.
Coalescence – Interest groups are formed around leaders and plans formulated. They network
with other like-minded groups.
Institutionalization – If movements attract large number of people it can no longer depend on
charismatic qualities of the leader. A formal organization with full time staff and functional
division of labour comes up.
Fragmentation – Conflicts arise over a number of issues such as leadership style, doctrine,
bureaucratization and even the message. Rebel groups emerge.
Demise – Social movement ends. Organization may survive but many of the goals of original
movement may have been accomplished.