SECTION 23

Physical Properties
This section contains charts, correlations, tables and pro-
cedures for predicting physical properties of hydrocarbons and
other components of interest to the natural gas industry. Figure
23-1 contains the nomenclature used in this section.
Figure 23-2 is a listing of the physical properties for a num-
ber of hydrocarbons and other selected compounds. Following
the property values are detailed footnotes and references for
the entries in Fig. 23-2. After Fig. 23-2, this Section contains
procedures for estimating the Z-factor for gases and material
relating to hydrocarbon fluid densities, boiling points, ASTM
distillation, critical properties, acentric factors, vapor pres-
sures, viscosity, thermal conductivity, surface tension, and ross
heating value.

FIG. 23-1
Nomenclature

B = s econd virial coefficient for a gas mixture, (kPa V = volume, m3

(abs)–l v = volume fraction
•
B´ = mole fraction of H2S in a sour gas stream, Equation 23-6 V = volumetric flow rate, real gas
•
Bii = second virial coefficient for component i Vid = volumetric flow rate, ideal gas
Bij = second cross virial coefficient for components i and j VABP = volumetric average boiling point, ºC
bi1/2 = summation factor for component i Wt = mass, kg
c = cost of gas WABP = weight average boiling point, ºC
CABP = cubic average boiling point, ºC yi = mole fraction of component i from analysis on dry
d = density, g/cc basis, Equation 23-38
gal = m3 xi = mole fraction in liquid phase
G = relative density (gas density) yi(cor) = mole fraction of component i adjusted for water
Gi = relative density (gas gravity) of ideal gas, MW/MWa content
Giid = molecular mass ratio of component i in mixture y = mole fraction in gas phase
Hvid = gross heating value per unit volume of ideal gas, Z = Z-factor = PV/nRT
MJ/m3 Greek
KW = Watson characterization factor, Fig. 23-12
k = thermal conductivity, W/(m • ºC) ε = pseudo-critical temperature adjustment factor,
Equation 23-6
kA = thermal conductivity at one atmosphere, W/(m • ºC)
θ = MeABP/Tpc
M = mass fraction
ρ = density, kg/m3
m = mass, kg
μ = viscosity at operating temperature and pressure,
MW = Molecular mass, g/gmol
centipoise
MABP = molal average boiling point, ºC or K
μA = viscosity at 101.325 kPa (abs) (1 atm) and
MeABP = Mean average boiling point, ºC or K operating temperature, centipoise
n = number of moles, (mass/MW) ξ = factor defined by Equation 23-20
p = price of real gas σ = surface tension, dynes/cm
pid = price of ideal gas ω = acentric factor
P = pressure, kPa (abs) η = kinematic viscosity, centistokes
Pc´ = pseudo-critical pressure adjusted for acid gas ∆t = accounting period
composition, kPa (abs)
Pvp = vapor pressure at a reduced temperature of 0.7 Subscripts r = reduced state
•
P w = vapor pressure of water, 7.3811 kPa (abs) at 40ºC V = vapor
a = air
R = gas constant, 8.3145 [kPa (abs) • m3]/(K • kg mole) v = volume
for all gases (Section 1 has R in other units) b = boiling
c = critical w = water
S = specific gravity at 15º/15ºC
T = absolute temperature, K i = component i Superscripts
t = ASTM D-86 distillation temperature for a L = liquid id = ideal gas
volumetric fraction, ºC or K, Equation 23-11 m = mixture w = water
Tc´ = pseudo-critical temperature adjusted for acid gas pc = pseudo-critical º = reference state
composition, K

23-1
 FIG. 23-2
Physical Constants

23-2
FIG. 23-2 (Cont’d)
Physical Constants

23-3
FIG. 23-2 (Cont’d)
Physical Constants

23-4
 FIG. 23-2 (Cont’d)
Notes and References for the Table of Physical Constants

23-5
 FIG. 23-2 (Cont’d)
Notes and References for the Table of Physical Constants

23-6
 FIG. 23-2 (Cont’d)
Notes and References for the Table of Physical Constants

23-7
 FIG. 23-2 (Cont’d)
Notes for the Table of Physical Constants
a T
 he molar mass for air is based upon the following com-
position expressed in mole fraction: N2(g), 0.7812; O2(g),
0.2096; Ar(g), 0.0092.
b C
 alculated with the evaluated vapor-pressure equation in
the TRC Table Database (Reference 2)
c N
 IST REFPROP Database: Reference Fluid Thermody-
namic and Transport Properties (Reference 3)
d Sublimation point
e Estimated for the hypothetical liquid state
Column Definitions and General Notes
A M
 olar mass (molecular weight) is based upon the following
atomic weights: C = 12.0107; H = 1.00794; O = 15.9994; N
= 14.00674; S = 32.066; Cl = 35.4527; He = 4.002602; and
Ar = 39.948.
B B
 oiling point: the temperature corresponding to equilib-
rium between the liquid and vapor phases at 101.325 kPa
(or 14.696 psia).
C F
 reezing point: the temperature corresponding to equi-
librium between the crystal phase and the air-saturated
liquid at 101.325 kPa (or 14.696 psia).
D T
 he refractive index values represent those determined
with light of wavelength corresponding to the sodium D-
line (589.26 nm).
E T
 he specific gravities of water used in the relative density
calculations were 8.3372 lb/gal at 60ºF and 999.103 kg •
m–3 at 15ºC. These values are included in the FPS and SI
tables.
F T
 he temperature coefficient of densityis related to the ex-
pansion coefficient by: (∂r/∂T)r/r = –(∂V/∂T)p/V in units of
1/T.
 itzer acentric factor: w = –log10(p/pc)–1.0, where p is at T =
G P
0.7 Tc.
 he summation factor is (–B/RT)0.5 where B is the second
H T
virial coefficient evaluated at temperature T and R is the
gas constant. T = 15ºC for SI units and T = 60 ºF for FPS
units.
I The density of an ideal gas relative to air is calculated by
Units and Conversion Factors
– R
 eported units are based upon the following units (SI)
with their equivalent corresponding FPS units:
– mass: 453.59237 g = 1 Pound(avdp), lbm
– length: 0.3048 meters = 1 foot, ft
– t emperature: 1.8(t/ºC) = (t/ºF) – 32; 0ºC = 273.15 K. All
temperatures are defined by the International Tempera-
ture Scales of 1990 (ITS-90).
– volume: 0.02831685 m3 = 1 cubic foot, ft3
23-8
f Temperature is above the critical temperature
g At saturation pressure
h Refractive index of the gas
i Estimated value
j Densities of the liquid at the normal boiling tempera-
ture
 stimated 2nd virial coefficients with a correspond-
k E
ing-states correlation
l Extreme values of those reported in reference 12
dividing the molar mass of the gas by the average molar
mass of air given in the table. The specific volume of an
ideal gas is calculated from the ideal-gas equation.
J T
 he heat capacity values for the liquid phase are not rig-
orously Cp, but rather are along the saturation line Csat
defined by: Csat = Cp – T(∂V/∂T)p(∂p/∂T)s. For liquids far
from the critical temperature, Csat and Cp are nearly
equal.
K T
 he heating value is the negative of the enthalpy of com-
bustion at 15ºC (or 60ºF) and 101.325 kPa (or 14.696 psia)
in an ideal reaction (one where all of the gasses are ideal).
For an arbitrary organic compound, the combustion reac-
tion is:
 nHmOhSjNk(s, l, or g) + (n + m/4 - h/2 + j) O2(g) =
C
nCO2(g) + m/2 H2O(g or l) + k/2 N2(g) + j SO2(g),
where s, l, and g denote the phase of compound. For “gross”
heating values, the water formed is liquid; for “net” heat-
ing values, the water formed is ideal gas. Values reported
are on a dry basis. To account for water in the heating val-
ue, see GPA 2172. The phase of the material combusted is
indicated in the column headings.
L T
 he heat of vaporization is the enthalpy of the saturated
vapor minus the enthalpy of the saturated liquid at the
boiling temperature.
M A
 ir required for the combustion of ideal gas for compounds
of formula CnHmOhSjNk is: V(air)/V(gas) = (n + m/4 –h/2
+j)/0.2096.
– pressure:
 6.894757 kPa = 1 pound per square inch abso-
lute, psia
– energy: 1055.056 J = 1 British thermal unit, Btu
 as constant R = 8.314472 J • K–1 • mol–1 or 10.7316 psia
– G
ft3/(lbmol • ºR)
– 1 gal = 231 in3
– 1 atm = 14.69595 psia = 760 torr = 101.325 kPa
 FIG. 23-2 (Cont’d)
References for the Table of Physical Constants

 oursey, J. S. and Dragoset, R. A. (2001). Atomic

1. C
Weights and Isotopic Compositions (version 2.2.1),
[Online]. Available: http://physics.nist.gov/Comp [2002,
February 13]. National Institute of Standards and Tech-
nology, Gaithersburg, MD. Originally published as R.D.
Vocke, Jr., Atomic Weights of the Elements 1997, Pure
Appl. Chem., 71(8), 1593 (1999)
2. X
 . Yan, Q. Dong, X. Hong, and M. Frenkel, NIST/TRC
Table Database, NIST Standard Reference Database
85, Version 2002. NIST Standard Reference Data Pro-
gram, Gaithersburg, MD.
3. E
 . W. Lemmon and M. O. McLinden, Reference Fluid
and Thermodynamic and Transport Properties (REF-
PROP), NIST Standard Reference Database 23, Version
7, Beta Version, February 5, 2002. NIST Standard Ref-
erence Data Program, Gaithersburg, MD.
4. A
 mbrose, D.; Hall, D. J.; Lee, D. A.; Lewis, G. B. J.
Chem. Thermodyn., 1978, 11, 1089.
5. A
 .H. Harvey, A.P. Peskin, and S.A. Klein, NIST/ASME
Steam Properties, NIST Standard Reference Database
10, Version 2.2, NIST Standard Reference Data Pro-
gram, Gaithersburg, MD (2000);
and
6. H
 enderson, C.; Lewis, D. G.; Prichard, P. C.; Staveley,
L. A. K.; Fonseca, I. M. A.; Lobo, L. Q. J. Chem. Ther-
modyn. 1986, 18, 1077.
7. Francis, A. W. J. Chem. Eng. Data, 1960, 5, 534.
8. W
 ilhoit, R. C.; Marsh, K. N.; Hong, X.; Gadalla, N.;
Frenkel, M.; “Thermodynamic Properties of Organic
Compounds and their Mixtures; Densities of Aliphatic
Hydrocarbons: Alkanes,” Group IV, Volume 8, Subvol-
ume B: Landolt-Börnstein, 1996.
9. D
 ymond, J. H.; Marsh, K. N.; Wilhoit, R. C.; Wong, K. C.;
“The Virial Coefficients of Pure Gases and Mixtures;
Virial Coefficients of Pure Gases,” Group IV, Volume
21, Subvolume A: Landolt-Börnstein, 2002. In Press.
10. F
 renkel, M.; Kabo, G. J.; Marsh, K. N.; Roganov, G. N.;
Wilhoit, R. C.; “Thermodynamics of Organic Compounds
in the Gas State, Vol. I & II,” TRC Data Series, 1994.
11. Z
 abransky, M.; Ruzicka, V.; Majer, V.; Domalski, E. S.;
“Heat Capacity of Liquids,” J. Phys. Chem. Ref. Data,
Monograph 6, ACS/AIP, 1996.
12. Engineering Sciences Data Unit, “Fire Hazard Proper-
ties: Flash Points, Flammability Limits and Autoigni-
tion Temperatures,” ESDU 82030, September 1983.

 . Wagner and A. Pruss, “The IAPWS Formulation

W 13. O
 bert, Edward F.; “Internal Combustion Engines and
1995 for the Thermodynamic Properties of Ordinary Air Pollution,” Harper & Row: NewYork, 1973.
Water Substance for General and Scientific Use,” J.
Phys. Chem. Ref. Data, in press (2002).

Physical properties for compounds of interest to the natu-
ral gas industry for custody transfer appear in GPA Standard
2145, “Table of Physical Properties for Hyrdocarbons and Other
Compounds of Interest to the Natural Gas Industry.”
Figure 23-2 contains several fictitious entries: the vapor
pressures of methane, ethane and ethene at 38°C, the refractive
indicies of methane and ethane at 15°C, and the liquid densi-
ties of methane at 15°C (their use in calculating a few other
properties propagate through the figure). The reason they are
fictitious is that 15 or 38°C is above the critical temperatures
of these compounds and the liquid state does not exist at 1 atm
under such conditions. In no instance is it necessary to use these
entries from a technical perspective, but they have worked their
ways into contractual agreements. Rather than cause opening
of contracts, the GPSA includes these unphysical values in the
figure, but users should not rely upon calculations using these
values outside of contractual agreements and defined specifi-

Liquid Volume Fraction Calculation

Component x MW x • MW M kg kg/m3 m3 v
Carbon Dioxide 0.0011 44.010 0.0484 0.0011   414.39 821.94 0.504 0.0007
Methane 0.0214 16.043 0.3433 0.0079 2939.3 300 9.798 0.0126
Ethane 0.3897 30.070 11.7183 0.2680 100 330 357.76 280.439 0.3611
Propane 0.3648 44.097 16.0866 0.3679 137 731 507.30 271.498 0.3496
Iso-butane 0.0294 58.123 1.7088 0.0391   14 630 562.98 25.987 0.0335
Normal-butane 0.0877 58.123 5.0974 0.1166   43 643 584.06 74.723 0.0962
Iso-pentane 0.0171 72.150 1.2338 0.0282   10 564 624.35 16.920 0.0218
Normal-pentane 0.0182 72.150 1.3131 0.0300   11 243 631.00 17.818 0.0229
Hexanes + 0.0706 87.436 6.1730 0.1412   52 852 669.95 78.889 0.1016
TOTAL 1.0000 43.7227 1.0000 374 347 776.576 1.0000

23-9
cations. An example would be calculation of the liquid volume
fractions for the components of a liquid mixture. The table above
comes from GPA Standard 8173:
The liquid volume fraction for methane is fictitious, but ex-
perience has shown that using this calculation procedure pro-
vides a reliable specification for the maximum liquid volume
fraction for methane.
COMPUTER PREDICTION METHODS
Computer methods that predict physical and thermodynam-
ic properties for light hydrocarbons and natural gas constitu-
ents are widely available. People involved in the design and op-
eration of natural gas processing facilities use them routinely.
This section emphasizes hand calculation methods that provide
reliable estimate for thermophysical properties. These methods
provide quick, order-of-magnitude checks to evaluate more de-
tailed procedures or when a computer is not available.
Some computer results appear in the section. Using equa-
tions of state to predict properties is convenient and easy, but
such methods do not apply equally well for all properties. Ac-
curate and reliable values result for gas phase densities, vol-
umes and Z-factors, while liquid volumes and densities are less
accurate but still as reliable as predictions using hand-calcu-
lation methods. Equations of state are not suitable to predict
thermal conductivities, viscosities and surface tensions. Com-
puter programs cited in this section are representative of those
widely available for prediction of physical and thermodynamic
properties. Any references to commercial products in this sec-
tion do not constitute GPA and/or GPSA endorsement of the
program(s). An accurate, reliable equation of state is always the
most convenient method for obtaining engineering accuracy gas
phase properties. Unfortunately, widespread availability and
ease of use are not suitable criteria for choosing an equation of
state program.
Z-FACTOR FOR GASES
Pure Gases
The ideal gas equation of state is a convenient and often sat-
isfactory tool when dealing with gases at pressures that do not
exceed one atmosphere. The errors associated with this equa-
tion are about 2–3% in this pressure range. However, the errors
can escalate to hundreds of per cent at higher pressures.
Section 25 presents many equations of state that represent
the pressure-volume-temperature relationships for gases. Use of
these equations for engineering calculations is complicated and
requires a computer or a programmable calculator to complete
the calculations in a reasonable amount of time. A generalized,
corresponding states plot of Z-factors is reasonably convenient
and sufficiently accurate for some engineering requirements.
The Z-factor provides the ratio of the real gas volume to that of
the ideal gas.
PV = ZnRT = ZmRT/MW Eq 23-1
The Z-factor is a dimensionless parameter, independent of
the quantity of gas, determined by the characteristics of the
gas, the temperature, and the pressure. Knowing Z, calculation
of PVT relationships are as easy at high pressure as at low pres-
sure.
­ the specific component. Tabulations of properties obtained in
23-10
The equation used to calculate ideal gas density is:
(MW) • P Eq 23-2
ρ=
RZT
The value for R is 8.3145 when pressure is kPa (abs), vol-
ume is cubic meters, quantity of gas is kg moles, and tempera-
ture is K. Values of R for other combinations of units appear in
Section 1.
The theorem of corresponding states that fluids that have
the same value of reduced temperature and reduced pressure
have the same reduced volume. The reduced property is the
property divided by the value of the property at the critical
point. Thus, according to the theorem, different fluids that have
the same reduced temperature and reduced pressure have the
same Z-factor.
­ Reduced Temperature, Tr = T/Tc Eq 23-3
Reduced Pressure, Pr = P/Pc Eq 23-4
For gas mixtures, the reduced conditions can be estimated
using pseudo-critical values instead of the true critical values:
pseudo-reduced Temperature, Tr = T/∑ (yiTci) = T/Tpc
i
Eq 23-3a
pseudo-reduced Pressure, Pr = P/∑ (yiPci) = P/Ppc
i Eq 23-4a
Any units of temperature or pressure are acceptable provided
that the same absolute units are used for T as for Tc (Tpc) and
for P as for Pc (Ppc). The “average molecular weight” for a gas
mixture is
­ MWavg = ∑ yiMWi Eq 23-5
i
Figure 23-3 illustrates calculation of pseudo-critical proper-
ties and MWavg for a typical natural gas. Estimation techniques
to calculate the critical temperature and pressure for hexanes
and heavier or heptanes and heavier fractions using molecular
weight and specific gravity or average boiling point and relative
density are presented in this section.
Attempts to prepare a generalized plot suitable for applica-
tion to the low molecular weight hydrocarbons, including meth-
ane, ethane, and propane, indicate that an error frequently in
excess of 2 to 3% is unavoidable because of deviations from the
theorem of corresponding states. Figure 23-4, prepared using
pure component and gas mixture data, can estimate Z (2–3%
error) for pure hydrocarbon gases. Use reduced temperature
and pressure instead of pseudo-reduced values for pure compo-
nents. At low pressures, the different compounds more nearly
conform to corresponding states. The Z-factor is approximately
1.0 at pressures below 1 atmosphere. Errors generally are 2–3%
for pressures ≤ 2000 kPa (abs) if the gas is 10°C or more above
its saturation temperature at the pressure of concern.
It is possible to determine gas volumes, densities and Z-fac-
tors for pure hydrocarbon and non-hydrocarbon vapors using
P-H diagrams like those in Section 24, Thermodynamic Prop-
erties. Interpolation between specific volume curves on a P-H
diagram does not yield results of high accuracy. An equation of
state provides more accurate pure component PVT properties,
particularly if that equation has been fit to volumetric data for
this way appear in the literature.12
Example 23-1 — Pure component properties
Using Fig. 24-20, the P-H diagram for propane, calculate the
density of propane vapor at 110 °C and 2000 kPa (abs).
Solution
On the P-H diagram at the intersection of the T = 110 °C, P
= 2000 kPa (abs) lines read v = 0.03 m3/kg. Then:
ρ = 1/0.03 = 33.33 kg/m3
Using the EZ*THERMO90 version of the SRK91 equation of
state, ρ is calculated to be 32.83 kg/m3, from which v = (1/32.83)
= 0.03 m3/kg.
For propane at 110 °C and 2000 kPa (abs) using data from
Fig. 24-27:
MW • P = (44.10) (2000)
Z = = 0.831
R • T • ρ (8.3145) (273 + 110) (33.33)
The SRK calculation gives ρ = 32.93 kg/m3, and Z = 0.842.
Gas Mixtures
GPA Standard 2172, “Calculation of Gross Heating Value,
Relative Density and Compressibility Factor for Natural Gas
Mixtures from Compositional Analysis” contains additional in-
formation regarding the calculation of Z-factors for mixtures at
pressures below 1000 kPa (abs).
Minor amounts of non-hydrocarbons — Fig 23-41 shows
Z-factors for typical sweet natural gases. Using Z-factors from
Fig. 23-4 should yield mixture volumes (densities) within 2% to
3% of the true values for reduced temperatures from slightly
greater than 1.0 to the limits of the chart for both temperature
and pressure. The chart has been prepared from data for binary
mixtures of methane with ethane, propane and butane and data
for natural gas mixtures. All mixtures have average molecular
masses less than 40, and all gases contain less than 10% nitro-
gen and less than 2% combined hydrogen sulfide and carbon
dioxide. Fig. 23-4 applies for temperatures –7 °C or more above
saturation up to pressures of 70 000 kPa (abs).
Appreciable amount of non-hydrocarbons — Fig. 23-4
does not apply for gases or vapors with more than 2% H2S and/
or CO2 or more than 20% nitrogen. Use other methods for va-
pors that have compositions atypical of natural gases mixtures
or for mixtures containing significant amounts of water and/or
acid gases, and for all mixtures as saturated fluids, other meth-
ods should be employed.
Fig. 23-4 provides reasonably accurate gas Z-factors for
natural gases with high nitrogen content, up to 50% (or even
higher) when using the molar average pseudo-criticals from
Equations 23-3a and 23-4a. The same approach applies to gas
condensate fluids containing appreciable amounts of heptanes
and heavier components. Critical temperatures and pressures
for heptane and heavier fractions can be estimated from molec-
ular weight and relative density, or average boiling point and
relative density, using correlations presented in this section.
Figs. 23-5, 23-6 and 23-7 provide Z-factors for low molecular
mass natural gases. These figures cover a wide range of molecu-
lar masses (15.95 to 26.10), temperatures –70 to 500 °C) and
pressures [up to 35 000 kPa (abs)]. For gases with molecular
weights between those shown in Figs. 23-5 through 23-7, linear
interpolation between adjacent charts is sufficient to compute
the Z-factors.
In general, Z-factors for gases with less than 5% noncon-
densable non-hydrocarbons, such as nitrogen, carbon dioxide,
and hydrogen sulfide, result with less than 5% error. When the
molecular weight is above 20 and the Z-factor is below 0.6, er-
rors as large as 10% may occur.
Effect of acid gas content — Natural gases containing
H2S and/or CO2 exhibit different Z-factor behavior than do
sweet gases. Wichert and Aziz3 present a calculation procedure
to account for these differences. Their method uses the standard
gas Z-factor chart (Fig. 23-4) and provides accurate sour gas Z-
factors that contain as much as 85% total acid gas. Wichert and
Aziz define a “critical temperature adjustment factor,” ε, that is
a function of the concentrations of CO2 and H2S in the sour gas.
This correction factor adjusts the pseudo-critical temperature
and pressure of the sour gas according to the equations:

FIG. 23-3
Calculation of Pseudo-critical Temperature and Pressure for a Natural Gas Mixture

Component Component
Mole Critical Component Molecular Pseudocritical Pseudocritical Mixture Mo-
Fraction, Temperature, Critical Pres- Mass, Temperature pressure lecular Mass
Component yi Tci, K sure, Pci, kPa MWi yi • Tci, K yi • pci, Kpa yi • MWi
Methane 0.8319 190.6 4599 16.043 158.560 3825.908 13.346
Ethane 0.0848 305.4 4880 30.070 25.898 413.824 2.550
Propane 0.0437 369.8 4240 44.097 16.160 185.288 1.927
i-Butane 0.0076 407.8 3640 58.123 3.099 27.664 0.442
n-Butane 0.0168 425.1 3784 58.123 7.142 63.571 0.976
i-Pentane 0.0057 460.4 3381 72.150 2.624 19.272 0.411
n-Pentane 0.0032 469.6 3365 72.150 1.503 10.768 0.231
n-Hexane 0.0063 507.5 3012 86.177 3.197 19.976 0.543
1.0000 218.184 = Tc 4565.271 = Pc 20.426 = MWW
G = 20.246/28.9625 = 0.705

23-11
 FIG. 23-4
Compressibility Factors for Natural Gas11

23-12
 FIG. 23-5
Compressibility of Low-Molecular-Weight Natural Gases11

23-13
 FIG. 23-6
Compressibility of Low-Molecular-Weight Natural Gases11

23-14
 FIG. 23-7
Compressibility of Low-Molecular-Weight Natural Gases11

23-15
 ­Tc´ = Tc – ε Eq 23-6 Example 23-2 — A sour natural gas contains 10 mol% CO2 and
20 mol% H2S. The unadjusted values of Tc′ and Pc′ can be taken
P T´ c c
as 241 K and 5700 kPa (abs), respectively. Determine the Z-
­Pc´ =

Tc + B´ (1 – B´)ε factor for the gas at 38°C and 6900 kPa (abs).
Eq 23-7
Figure 23-8 presents the pseudo-critical temperature ad- Solution Steps
justment factor. To use the factor, calculate the pseudo-critical The first step is to calculate the pseudo-critical temperature
temperature and pressure using the procedure outlined earlier. and pseudo-critical pressure for the sour gas. Read the pseudo-
Include the H2S and CO2 in this calculation as well as hydrocar- critical temperature adjustment factor from Fig. 23-8 as 16.6°C.
bon and other non-hydrocarbon constituents. Read the pseudo- The adjusted pseudo-critical temperature is:
critical temperature adjustment factor from Fig. 23-8 and use
it to adjust the values of critical temperature and pressure. The Tc´ = 241.03 – 16.6 = 224.43 K
reduced temperature and reduced pressure are calculated us- ­The adjusted pseudo-critical pressure is:
ing the adjusted values. The Z-factor is then available from Fig.
23-4. (5703.3) (224.43)
Pc´ =
= 5253 kPa (abs)
241.03 + 0.2 (1 – 0.2) (16.6)

FIG. 23-8
Pseudocritical Temperature Adjustment Factor3, ε , °C

23-16
The pseudo-reduced temperature and pseudo-reduced pressure
are:
38 + 273.15
Tr′ =
= 1.385
224.43
6900 tures from –80°C to 320°C. This procedure can handle signifi-
Pr′ =
= 1.314
5253
Z = 0.831 (Fig. 23-4)
­(The EZ*THERMO version of the SRK gives Z = 0.838.)
90
HYDROCARBON FLUID DENSITIES
Data and Correlations
Figure 23-9 presents saturated fluid densities (liquid and
vapor) for hydrocarbons and liquid densities for some mixtures.
Figure 23-10 is a plot of relative density as a function of tem-
perature for petroleum fractions.
Figure 23-11 contains subcooled liquid hydrocarbon densi-
ties from –20°C to +60°C. Corrections to liquid hydrocarbon
densities caused by high pressure appear in Figure 23-15.
Figure 23-12 presents specific gravities for petroleum frac-
tions with temperature ranging from 0°C to 550°C and with
pressures from atmospheric to 10 000 kPa (abs). The petroleum
fraction is identified within the center grid by two of three char-
acteristics — API gravity at 15.5°C, the Watson characteriza-
tion factor, KW, or the mean average boiling point. Figure 23-18
contains the mean average boiling point, the API gravity and
an ASTM D-86 distillation of the petroleum fraction. The char-
acterization factor, KW, is defined in the inset example that il-
lustrates use of Fig. 23-12.
Figure 23-13 contains the specific gravity of paraffinic hy-
drocarbons at their boiling points or bubble points. The no-
mograph applies to mixtures as well as to single components.
Alignment points for paraffinic mixtures and pure components
vary according to molecular weight.
Figure 23-13 generally predicts specific gravities within 3%
of measured values for paraffinic mixtures. However, the ac-
curacy is somewhat less for mixtures having:
• Reduced temperatures above 0.9.
• Molecular masses less than 30 (low temperature region)
and where methane is a significant part of the liquid.
Density of Saturated and Subcooled Liquid Mix-
tures — Standing and Katz1 proposed a versatile, manual pro-
cedure to calculate the density of gas-saturated and subcooled
hydrocarbon liquid mixtures. The basic method proposed uses
the additive volume approach for propane and heavier compo-
nents at standard conditions, then corrected this ideal volume
using apparent densities for the gaseous components ethane
and methane. Then they corrected the resulting pseudo-density
at 15°C and 101.325 kPa (abs) for pressure using a hydrocar-
bon liquid compressibility chart and for temperature using a
thermal expansion chart (Fig. 23-17). Experience with crude
oils and rich absorber oils showed this correlation could predict
densities within 1 to 4% of experimental data.
23-17
The original correlation did not have a procedure for han-
dling significant amounts of non-hydrocarbons and had a fairly
narrow applicable temperature range of 15°C to 115°C. The fol-
lowing procedures and charts are generally applicable to liquids
containing components heavier than pentanes (gas saturated
or subcooled) at pressures up to 70 000 kPa (abs) and tempera-
cant amounts of non-hydrocarbons (up to 20% N2, 80% CO2, and
30% H2S).
1. Set up a calculation table as shown in the example in Fig.
23-16.
2. Calculate the density of propane and heavier (C3+) or, if
H2S is present, of H2S and heavier (H2S+) components,
assuming additive volumes.
Density of CO2 and (N2S +)
Weight C + (or H S +) components
3 2
­ = Eq 23-8
Vol C3 + (or H2S +) components
3. Determine the weight percent of (N2 + C2) in the (N2 + C2
+) fraction.
100 [Wt (N2 + C2)] Eq 23-9
­Wt % (N2 + C2) =
Wt (N2 + C2 +)
4. Use Fig. 23-14 to determine the pseudo-density of the
(N2 + C2 +) fraction. Enter with the C3 + (or H2S plus)
density from Step 2 in the upper left of the chart and go
horizontally to the line (interpolate if necessary) repre-
senting the weight % (N2 + C2) , then look up and read
the pseudo-density of the (N2 + C2 +) along the top of the
chart.
At temperatures below –18°C, ethane can be included in
Step 2 and only N2 used in Steps 3 and 4.
5. If CO2 is not present, go to Step 6. If it is present, then
account for it on an additive volume basis:
Density o f CO2 and (N2 + C2 +)
Wt CO2 + Wt (N2 + C2 +) Eq 23-10
­=
Vol CO2 + Vol (N2 + C2 +)
where
Wt (N2 + C2 +)
Vol (N2 + C2 +) =
Density (N2 + C2 +)
­6. Calculate the weight percent methane Wt methane
­ 100 (Wt methane) Eq 23-11
Wt % methane =
total Wt
7. Enter the top of Fig. 23-14 with the pseudo-density from
Step 4 or 5 as appropriate, and drop vertically to the line
(interpolation may be required) representing the weight
percent methane. Read the pseudo-density of the mix-
ture [15°C and 101.325 kPa (abs)] on the right side of the
chart.
8. Correct the pseudo-density to the actual pressure using
Fig. 23-15. Add the correction to the pseudo-density from
Step 7.
 FIG. 23-9
Hydrocarbon Fluid Densities2, 3, 19

23-18
 FIG. 23-10
Approximate Specific Gravity of Petroleum Fractions

23-19
 FIG. 23-11
Effect of Temperature on Hydrocarbon Liquid Densities19

23-20
 FIG. 23-12
Relative Density of Petroleum Fractions

23-21
 FIG. 23-13
Relative Density of Paraffinic Hydrocarbon Mixtures

23-22
 FIG. 23-14
Pseudo Liquid Density of Systems Containing Methane and Ethane

23-23
 FIG. 23-15
Density Correction for Compressibility of Hydrocarbon Liquids

23-24
 9. Correct the density at 15°C and pressure to the actual
temperature using Fig. 23-17. Add the correction to the
density from Step 8.
This procedure is not valid in the critical region. Mixtures
at temperatures greater than 65°C that contain more than 60
mol% methane or more than 80 mol% CO2 are problem areas.
Outside the near-critical region, calculated densities usually are
within 5% of experimental data35 and errors are rarely greater
than 8%. The best accuracy occurs for mixtures containing
mostly C5+ with relatively small amounts of dissolved gaseous
components (errors are usually less than 3%). Note that densi-
ties of C2+, C3+, CO2+, or C4+ mixtures can be calculated by this
procedure at various temperatures and pressures, and that the
gaseous components need not be present.
Example 23-3 — Fig. 23-16 illustrates the procedure outlined
above to calculate necessary numbers for the following example.
Wt of C3 + 44.836 kg
Density of C3 + = =
Vol of C3 + 0.0632 m3
= 709.5 kg/m
 ensity from EZ*THERMO version of SRK using Costald92
D
= 668 kg/m3.
 xperimental density35 at 50°C and 12 000 kPa (abs) = 660
E
kg/m3
Error = (662.5 – 660)/660 = 0.0038 = 0.38%.
PHYSICAL PROPERTY Data for
Pure CO2, and CO2/H2S Mixtures
The Pressure-enthalpy chart for CO2 in Section 24 (Fig.
24-15) gives a general picture of density changes through the
phases and in the critical region, and allows rough values to
be picked off, and its author Prof J. Ely has published many
relevant papers, most recently references 95, 96, and 97.
The density of CO2 has been widely studied and modeled.
Span and Wagner in 1996 developed a 42-term equation of state
for pure CO298.
Kiselev and Ely96 (2007) referred to GPA RR’s 141 (1995)
3 and 174 (2001) for CO2/H2S mixtures density data. They found
the Stryjek-Vera equation of state easiest to adjust to best

 0.567 + 44.836 
0.567 match the experimental data. However, despite modifying the
Mass • 100
% C2 in C2 + =
= 1.25 %
interaction parameters they had limited success matching the
data closely, with the simulator over-predicting densities by
62.889 kg about 10%, which was also reported for other programs.
Density of CO2 + =
= 45.75 lbm/ft3
3 More recent work, which also covers mixtures with H2S, was
0.0845 m
summarized in a 2011 paper94 from which the following quotes
Density of C2 + from Fig. 23-14 = 705 kg/m3 were taken:
3.352 “In the past decade, much work has been per-
Mass % of CH4 in Total = • 100 = 5.1%

66.241 formed to develop an accurate reference equation of
state for common mixtures encountered in hydrocar-
Pseudo-density of mixture at 15°C and 101.325 kPa (abs) bon processing. The GERG-2008 equation developed
from Fig. 23-14 = 680 kg/m3 by the European Gas Research Group accomplishes
Pressure correction to 12 000 kPa (abs) from Fig. 23-15 = 12.5. this using a multi-fluid approximation……”

Density at 15°C and 12 000 kPa (abs) = 680 + 12.5 = 692.5 kg/m3 “The GERG-2008 equation should then be used to
validate specific operating points’ physical properties
Temperature correction to 50°C from Fig. 23-17 = – 30 to validate final equipment design and vendor offer-
ings design and performance data.”
Density at 10°C and 12 000 kPa (abs) = 692.5 – 30 = 662.5
kg/m3

FIG. 23-16
Calculation of Liquid Density of a Mixture at 50°C and 12 000 kPa (abs)

(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) = (4)/(5)

Mole Molecular Density (15°C),
Component Mass, kg Volume, m3
Fraction Mass kg/m3
Methane 0.20896 16.043 3.352 – –
Carbon Dioxide 0.39730 44.010 17.485 821.94 0.02127
Ethane 0.01886 30.070 0.567 – –
Propane 0.02387 44.097 1.053 507.30 0.00207
n-Butane 0.03586 58.123 2.084 584.06 0.00357
n-Pentane 0.02447 72.150 1.766 631.00 0.00280
n-Hexane 0.01844 86.177 1.589 663.89 0.00239
n-Heptane 0.02983 100.204 2.989 687.84 0.00435
n-Octane 0.02995 114.231 3.421 706.54 0.00484
n-Decane 0.18208 142.285 25.907 733.86 0.03530
n-Tetradecane 0.03038 198.394 6.027 765.90 0.00787
Total 1.00000 66.240

23-25
 FIG. 23-17
Density Correction for Thermal Expansion of Hydrocarbon Liquids

23-26
 References 99 through 105 contain most of the experimental
data used by the authors of reference 45 and by NIST in their
EOS development in REFPROP. The data comprises some 1200
points covering CO2/H2S mixtures ranging from 6% to 94% CO2,
over a very wide range of pressures and temperatures. NIST
were able to match most of these data points to better than 2%,
with a small number of deviations over 10% and a few worst
matches in the critical region. Current work is expected to be
published later in 2011 by Kunz and Wagner.
A current GPA Research Project, Project No. 042, will in-
clude density measurements for acid gas mixtures; its scope is
described under “Viscosity”.
BOILING POINTS, CRITICAL
PROPERTIES, ACENTRIC FACTOR,
VAPOR PRESSURE
Boiling Points
Fig. 23-18 shows the interconversion between ASTM D-86
distillation 10% to 90% slope and the different boiling points
used to characterize fractions of crude oil to determine the prop-
erties; VABP, WABP, CABP, MeABP, and MABP. On the basis
of ASTM D-86 distillation data, the volumetric average boiling
(VABP) point is:
­VABP = (t10 + t30 + t50 + t70 + t90)/5 Eq 23-12
­ here the subscripts 10, 30, 50, 70, and 90 refer to the volume
w lines (MeABP). Read a correction value of –29.5 on the ordi-
percent recovered during the distillation. The 10% to 90% slope
used as the abscissa in Fig. 23-18 is:
­slope = (t90 – t10)/(90 – 10) Eq 23-13
FIG. 23-18
Characterizing Boiling Points of Petroleum Fractions
23-27
­ o use the graph, locate the curve for the distillation VABP in
T
the appropriate set for the type of boiling point desired. For the
known 10–90% slope, read a correction for the VABP from the
selected VABP curve.
Example 23-4 — Determine the mean average boiling point
(MeABP) and the molecular weight for a 56.8° API petroleum
fraction with the following ASTM distillation data.
% Over Temperature, °C
IBP 37.8
5 54.4
10 67.2
20 88.3
30 102.8
40 117.8
50 137.8
60 159.4
70 195.6
80 240.0
90 311.1
EP 337.8
IBP = initial boiling point EP = end point
Slope = (311.1 – 67.2)/80 = 3.05
VABP = (67.2 + 102.8 + 137.8 + 195.6 + 311.1)/5 = 162.9°C
Refer to Fig. 23-18. Read down from a slope of 3.05 to the
interpolated curve to 162.9°C in the set drawn with dashed
nate. Then
­MeABP = 162.9 – 29.5 = 133.4°C
 The significance of the various average boiling points, in-
terconversion of D-86 and D-1160 ASTM distillations, and the
calculation of true-boiling point and atmospheric flash curves
from ASTM distillation data are in Chapters 3 and 4 of the API
Technical Data Book.36
Molecular mass can be calculated from Equation 23-14 us-
ing MeABP in K and S (relative density at 15 °C):
MW = 204.38 [(1.8 • T)0.118](S1.88) (e(0.00392T – 3.075 S)) Eq 23-14
This relationship has been evaluated in the molecular mass
range of 70 to 720; the MeABP of 36 to 560 °C; and the API
range of 14° to 93°. Its average error was about 7%. Equation
23-14 is best used for molecular masses above 115, since it
tends to over-predict below this value.
Example 23-5 — Calculation of molecular mass.
­From Example 23-4:
S = 0.7515 for 56.8° API
MeABP = 133.4 + 273 = 406.4 K
­ sing Equation  23-14,
U ω = ∑ yiωi Eq 23-18
 04.38 [(1.8 • 406.4)
MW = 2 0.118
] [(0.7515)
1.88
] If the vapor pressure is not known, ω can be estimated38 for
[e(0.00392 • 406.4) – (3.075 • 0.7515)] = 127.0
Critical Properties
Critical properties are of interest because they are used
to find reduced conditions of temperature and pressure as re-
quired for corresponding states correlations. Pseudo-critical
properties are used in many corresponding states correlations
for mixtures.
The following equations taken from the API Technical Data
Book36a, b can be used to estimate pseudo critical temperature
and pressure for petroleum fractions (pseudo, or undefined
components):
Ppc = [5.5303 (199)T –2.3125] • S2.3201 Eq 23-15
Tpc = 19.0623 • T0.58848 • S0.3596 Eq 23-16
These equations are in terms of T = MeABP (K) and relative
density (S) at 15 °C. Both of these correlations have been evalu-
ated over the range of 80 to 690 molecular mass; 20 to 150 °C
normal boiling point; and 6.6° to 95° API.
Example 23-6 — Pseudocritical temperature and pressure.
Take the previous mixture (from Example 23-4) with:
VABP = 166.4 °C Ppc = [5.5303 (109) (485.85)–2.3125] • (0.8203)2.3201
MeABP = 118.4 °C Ppc = 2141 kPa (abs)
API = 56.8° From Eq. 23-15, the pseudocritical temperature is:
Molecular Weight = 127 (Ex. 23-5)
ASTM D-86, 10% to 90% Slope = 3.05
Find its pseudocritical temperature.
Solution Steps
From Fig. 23-18 with ASTM D-86 slope = 3.05 find a VABP
correction of about – 65 °C (extrapolated from the left-hand
group).
MABP = 166.4 – 65 = 101.4 °C
Use Equation  23-16 to calculate the pseudocritical tempera-
ture as:
Tpc = 19.0623 (118.4 + 273)0.58848 (0.7515)0.3596
= 577.1 K = 304.1 °C
23-28
For this 56.8° API fluid, estimate the pseudocritical pres-
sure, using Eq. 23-15 and MeABP = 118.4 °C:
Ppc = [5.5303 (109)] (118.4 + 273)–2.3125 (0.7515)2.3201
= 2880 kPa (abs)
Acentric Factor
The acentric factor, ω, is often a third parameter in corre-
sponding states correlations. Fig. 23-2 tabulates it for pure hy-
drocarbons. The acentric factor is a function of Pvp, Pc, and Tc. It
is arbitrarily defined as
­
ω = – log(Pvp/Pc)Tr = 0.7 –1.0 Eq 23-17
This definition requires knowledge of the critical (pseudo-
critical) temperature, vapor pressure, and critical (pseudo-criti-
cal) pressure.
For a hydrocarbon mixture of known composition that con-
tains similar components, a reasonably good estimate for the
acentric factor is the molar average of the individual pure com-
ponent acentric factors:
pure hydrocarbons or for fractions with boiling point ranges of
10 °C or less using:
7  (Tc/Tb) – 1 
­ log Pc – log 14.7
ω=3 – 1.0
Eq 23-19
­Example 23-7 — Acentric factor.
A narrow-boiling petroleum fraction has a VABP of 214.4 °C,
an ASTM slope of 0.75 and an API gravity of 41°. Estimate its
acentric factor. In order to use Eq 23-19 we need the average
boiling point (MeABP); the pseudocritical temperature (a func-
tion of MABP); and the pseudocritical pressure (a function of
MeABP).
From Fig. 23-18, the correction to VABP for mean average is
–1.7 °C; and the correction for MABP is –2.8 °C. Note that for
narrow-boiling fractions, all boiling points approach the volu-
metric average. Then, MeABP = 212.7 °C and MABP is 211.6 °C.
From Eq. 23-14, the pseudocritical pressure is:
T = 212.7 + 273.15 = 485.85 K
S for 41° API = 141.5/(131.5 + 41) = 0.8203
Tpc = 19.0623 • (485.85)0.58848 • (0.8203)0.3596
Tpc = 676.4 K
7 ( 676.4/485.5) – 1 
log (2141) – log (101.325)
ω= 3 – 1.0 = 0.444
Vapor Pressure
The vapor pressures of light hydrocarbons and some com-
mon inorganics in the temperature range below 38 °C appear in
Fig. 23-19. Vapor pressures at higher temperatures, up to
315 °C, are in Fig. 23-20 for the same compounds. Note that,
except for ethylene and propylene, the hydrocarbons are all nor-
mal paraffins.
 FIG. 23-19
Low-Temperature Vapor Pressures for Light Hydrocarbons

23-29
 FIG. 23-20
High-Temperature Vapor Pressures for Light Hydrocarbons

23-30
 VISCOSITY to mixtures, calculate the pseudo-critical volumes, Z-factors, and
temperatures using the Prausnitz and Gunn42 mixing rules:
Figures 23-21 through 23-29 give the viscosity of hydrocar-
bon liquids and vapors, water, steam, and miscellaneous gases. ­ Vcm = ∑ yiVci Eq 23-23
i
Figure 23-21 gives data on hydrocarbon liquids. Figures 23-22,
23-23 and 23-24 present data on hydrocarbon gases. To correct ­ Zcm = ∑ yiZci Eq 23-24
i
for pressure, adjust the gas viscosity from Fig. 23-22 from at-
mospheric pressure using Fig. 23-24, or read directly from Fig. ­ Tcm = ∑ yiTci Eq 23-25
i
23-23. Figure 23-24 is better when the reduced temperature is
greater than 1.0. Figure 23-28 gives the viscosity of hydrocar- ZcmRTcm
P =cm



bon liquids containing dissolved gases. Note that Fig. 1-7 gives Vcm Eq 23-26
conversion factors for viscosity.
­Example 23-9 — For a temperature of 10°C and a pressure of
Calculation of Gas Mixture Viscosity 2000 kPa (abs), estimate the viscosity of a mixture of 80 mole
percent methane, 15 mole percent nitrogen, and 5 mole percent
Example 23-8 — Determine the viscoity of a gas of molecular carbon dioxide. See Fig. 23-30:
mass 22 at 6895 kPa (abs) and 40°C. Tc = 226.9 K, Pc = 4885
ZcmRTcm (0.2871)(8.31)(186.6)
kPa(abs). Pcm = =

Vcm 0.0973
Solution Steps = 4581.8 kPa (abs)

Gid = 22/28.9625 = 0.760 Substituting from the calculation table in Fig. 23-30 into
Eq 23-20:
­From Fig. 23-22 at 40°C: (21.74)(186.6)1/6
ξ =
= 0.043

μA = 0.0105 mPa • s (19.237)1/2(4581.8)2/3
­Then: T 283
T = = = 1.52

r

40 + 273 6895
Tcm 186.6
Tr =
= 1.38
Pr = = 1.411
226.9 4885 Because Tr > 1.5, the expression for ξμA is Eq 23-21.

Note: Pseudocritical temperature and pressure should be ξμA = [166.8 (10–5)] [(0.1338 Tr – 0.0932)5/9]
calculated as outlined in this section, if the composition of the = [166.8 (10–5)] [(0.1338 • 1.52 – 0.0932)5/9]
gas is available.
ξμA = 48.98 (10–5)
Because Tr > 1.0, Fig. 23-24 is preferred over Fig. 23-23 to μA = 0.01147 mPa • s
obtain the correction for elevated pressure to the viscosity at
one atmosphere. Using Fig. 23-22 and correcting for the nitrogen and carbon
dioxide content of this mixture gives a μA of 0.0116 cp. This is a
­From Fig. 23-24: good check. Had a 20% N2 content been chosen for this example,
μ the N2 range of Fig. 23-22 would have been exceeded and use of

= 1.21 the Dean and Stiel method would have been required. When the
μA conditions at hand fall within the limits of Fig. 23-22, use this
­Hence, the viscosity at 6895 kPa (abs) and 40°C is: figure and not the Dean and Stiel correlation.

­ μ = (1.21) (0.0105) = 0.0127 mPa • s Viscosity of Petroleum Fractions

The method of Dean and Stiel is best for calculating the 41
Mid-Boiling Point Method — The viscosity of a crude
viscosity of a gaseous mixture with large amounts of non-hydro- oil or crude oil fraction can be estimated using the equations
carbons. This method is particularly useful for handling natural given below if the mid-boiling point and gravity are known:
gas with high CO2 content. Compared to 30 CO2-N2 mixtures,
this method has an average deviation of 1.21% at pressures up Mid-boiling point is defined as the boiling point at 50% vol-
to 24 300 kPa (abs). The method uses a factor, ξ, defined as: ume distilled.
­ η = A • eB/T Eq 23-27
­
Kw
A = (91.83 Tb –0.175
– 29.263)
Eq 23-28

B
Eq 23-20 ln (B) = 4.717 + 0.00526 Tb Eq 23-29
­Example 23-10 — At 40°C and 100°C find the viscosity of a
heavy condensate having a mid-boiling point of 163°C and a
relative density of 0.7688.

If Tr > 1.5, then ξμA = 166.8(10–5) Solution Steps

3
(0.1338 Tr – 0.0932)5/9 Eq 23-21

√
163 + 273 • 1.8
­KW =
= 11.99
If Tr ≤ 1.5, ξμA = 34.0(10–5) (Tr8/9) Eq 23-22 0.7688
­In either case, μA is ξμA divided by ξ. ln(B) = 4.717 +(0.00526) (163 + 273) = 7.01
B = 1108
Equations 23-20 through 23-22 predict the viscosity of pure 11.99
gases as well as mixtures. To apply the Dean and Stiel41 method A = [98.83(436)–0.175 – 29.263] = 0.02638

1108

23-31
 FIG. 23-21
Viscosities of Hydrocarbon Liquids

23-32
 The same constants are employed at 40°C and 100°C.

THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY
1108

Thermal conductivity for natural gas mixtures at elevated
η = 0.02638 • e 313 = 0.909 cs at 40°C pressure can be calculated from an atmospheric value and a

1108
pressure correction. Figs. 23-31 through 23-36 present low pres-
η = 0.02638 • e 373 = 0.513 cs at 100°C sure thermal conductivity data for gases developed from pub-
lished data51, 54. The pressure correction of Lenoir et al.52 shown
The reported values are 0.93 and 0.52 centistokes, respec- in Fig. 23-32 applies to these low pressure data. The thermal
tively. conductivity of liquid paraffin hydrocarbons appears in Fig. 23-
35 and the thermal conductivity of liquid petroleum fractions
Viscosity of Pure CO2 and CO2/ H2S Mixtures appears in Fig. 23-36.
Gaseous CO2 viscosity, away from the critical region, is ac- Example 23-11 — Find the thermal conductivity of a 25 molecu-
curately predicted by conventional methods. Reference 57 re- lar mass natural gas at 4826 kPa (abs) and 140°C. Tc = 244 K,
ports on extensive experimental measurements of liquid CO2 Pc = 4550 kPa (abs)
viscosity. The authors discuss earlier attempts to represent the
excess viscosity by two equations, joined by a blending func- Solution Steps
tion, and on their development of a single equation to cover the
whole of the thermodynamic surface. ­From Fig. 23-31, at 140°C:
Reference 105 (2008) discusses experimental and modeling kA = 0.0445 W/(m • °C)
work on mixtures of CO2 and H2S in detail and lists 50 ref-
Tr = (140 + 273)/244 = 1.69
erences with several (related to modeling) as recent as 2006.
However, the latest experimental work listed in this review was Pr = 4826/4550 = 1.06
dated 1970.
­From Fig. 23-32:
A current (2011) GPA Research Project, Project No 042, is
to measure physical properties (heat capacity, density, thermal k/kA = 1.13
conductivity, viscosity) in high pressure acid gas streams. H2S k = (1.13) (0.0445) = 0.0503 W/(m • °C)
contents will range from 20 – 80 mol%, temperatures from 10
– 177°C, and pressures 3450 – 34 500 kPa (abs).

FIG. 23-22
Viscosity of Paraffin Hydrocarbon Gases at One Atmosphere

23-33
 FIG. 23-23
Hydrocarbon Gas Viscosity

23-34
 FIG. 23-24
Viscosity Ratio vs. Pseudoreduced Temperature

FIG. 23-25 FIG. 23-26

Viscosity of Miscellaneous Gases — One Atmosphere Viscosity of Air43, 44, 45

23-35
 Stiel and Thodos53 present another method for estimating
thermal conductivity. To determine the thermal conductivity of
a gaseous mixture of defined components, the thermal conduc-
tivity of each component at the given temperature is read from
the charts provided and the thermal conductivity of the mixture
is determined by the “cube root rule56.” This rule is applicable
to mixtures of simple gases; it does not apply to mixtures con-
taining CO2 because its thermal conductivity goes through a
maximum.
Eq 23-30
Compared to 17 systems56, the cube root rule has an aver-
age deviation of 2.7%. The method of Li55 based upon volume
fractions works best for the thermal conductivity of a liquid
mixture.
­Example 23-12 — Find the thermal conductivity of the gaseous
mixture shown in Fig. 23-37 at 100°C and one atmosphere.
km = 0.10780 = 0.0382 W/(m • °C)
2.822
FIG. 23-27
Water Viscosity at Saturated Conditions
23-36
Thermal Conductivity of Pure
CO2 and CO2/ H2S Mixtures
A surprising source for thermal conductivity data for pure
CO2 was found in reference 108 despite its title mentioning only
oxygen. They included data on CO2 to help in modeling other
gases near the critical point, saying “Detailed and reliable ther-
mal conductivity data in the immediate vicinity of the critical
point are presently limited to carbon dioxide.” A graph shows
a five-fold variation, as temperature changes from 31 to 50°C,
within a spike of conductivity in the critical region.
Concerning data for mixtures, a literature search revealed a
few articles but no rich source of data. See the reference to GPA
Research Project 042, under “Viscosity”.
TRANSPORT PROPERTY REFERENCES
No simple correlations exist for the transport properties of
viscosity and thermal conductivity. For pure components, the
best approach is a complicated equation with many constants
that must be fit to experimental data, or extensive tables.
Vargaftik62 and Touloukian65 each have extensive collections of
experimental data.
Transport Properties of Oxygen,
Nitrogen, and Helium
These gases are now more commonly being used, or pro-
duced, in gas processing operations. Their use in rocket launch
facilities led to extensive work to measure and model physical
properties, and the data from the 1970s still provides one of the
best sources. References 108–110 contain extensive tabulations
(more than 100 pages each) of density, enthalpy, viscosity and
thermal conductivity.
SURFACE TENSION
The interior molecules of a liquid exert an inward force of
attraction upon the surface molecules that tends to minimize
the surface area of the liquid. The work required to enlarge the
surface area by one square centimeter is the surface free en-
ergy. The perpendicular force in the liquid surface, called sur-
face tension, exerts a force parallel to the plane of the surface.
Surface tension is an important property for wetting, foaming,
emulsification, and droplet formation and is used in the design
of fractionators, absorbers, two-phase pipelines, and in reser-
voir calculations.
Pure Components
Figure 23-38 provides the surface tension of pure hydrocar-
bons as a function of temperature.
Mixtures
Surface tension for binaries of known composition at or near
amospheric pressure may be calculated78 using:
­ σm = (­σ1­σ2)/(­σ1x2 + ­σ2x1) Eq 23-31
The presence of inert gases, such as N2 and CO2, in the liq-
uid phase tends to lower the surface tension of the liquid. When
the concentration of inert gases in the liquid exceeds 1.0 mol%,
estimated values of surface tension may be 5 to 20% higher
than actual values for the mixture.
 FIG. 23-28
Liquid Viscosity of Pure and Mixed Hydrocarbons Containing Dissolved Gases at 38°C and 101.325 kPa (abs)

23-37
 Fig 23-38 and the “mixtures” equation (Equation 23-31) will
not suffice in many cases, e.g:
(a) non-hydrocarbons are not covered and
(b) the equation obviously fails for mixtures containing
methane at warmer temperatures.,
In such cases, more sophisticated estimation methods are
FIG. 23-29
Viscosity of Steam46, 47
needed. All prediction methods rely on extremely accurate val-
ues for densities. Several “parachor-based” methods have been
developed since McLeod’s work in 1923;111 his is the simplest
method and may suffice for a rough estimate:
(Surface tension) 0.25 = (P/MW) (liq. density – vap density)
Where surface tension is in dynes/cm, MW is the molecular
weight of the liquid, both densities are in gm/c.c., and P is a
“Parachor” estimated as follows:
For paraffins, and mixtures to a molecular weight of 100,
  P = 40 + (2.6 × MW)
For mixtures having a molecular weight above 100,
  P = 300 + [2.25 × (MW –100)]
McLeod’s method is not recommended for use below a re-
duced temperature of 0.85.
Several “parachor-based” methods increased in complexity
with the years.39,112, 113, 114 Mansoori, most recently, has spent
years of research refining the estimate of parachor values based
on statistical mechanics. His very complex methods are claimed
to give the best accuracy, but still rely on accurate densities.

GAS FLAMMABILITY
Fig. 23-2 lists the lower and upper flammability limits as
“volume % in air mixture” for pure combustible compounds.
Those standard numbers apply only if that compound is mixed
with air-only, at atmospheric pressure, and at a standard tem-
perature (usually 25°C) before ignition. Other situations are
quite common in gas processing — e.g., higher pressures, differ-
ent starting temperatures, and with the addition to the mixture
of either more oxygen or an inerting agent such as nitrogen,
carbon dioxide, or steam. These conditions can greatly change
the flammability of a gas. Also, the flammability of a hydrocar-
bon mixture, rather than a pure compound, often needs to be
estimated.
Reference 93 provides data and methods to calculate gas
flammability for the above, non-standard, conditions. The Low-
er Flammable Limit (LFL) of paraffinic gas mixtures can be
estimated with good accuracy. Upper Flammable Limits (UFL)
for mixtures are more difficult to estimate, and a reference is
included for help with that problem (which, fortunately, is less
often of concern). In addition, a method is provided to estimate
the flash point of a paraffinic hydrocarbon liquid mixture with
reasonable accuracy.

FIG. 23-30
Calculation of Viscosity of a Gas Mixture

Mole Molecular Mass, Pci, Vci = MWi • vci Pci • Vci

Tci, K Vci, m3/kg
Zci =
Fraction, yi MWi kPa (abs) m3/kg mole 8.31 • Tci
CH4 0.80 16.043 4599 190.56 0.00617 0.0990 0.2875
N2 0.15 28.013 3398 126.21 0.00318 0.0891 0.2887
CO2 0.05 44.010 7374 304.11 0.00214 0.0942 0.2749
Mixture 1.00 19.237 – 189.59 – 0.0973 0.2871
Σ MWcm = Σyi • MWi Tcm = Σyi • Tci Vcm = Σyi • Vci Zcm = Σyi • Zci

23-38
 FIG. 23-31 FIG. 23-33
Thermal Conductivity of Natural and Hydrocarbon Thermal Conductivity of Miscellaneous
Gases at One Atmosphere [101.325 kPa (abs)] Gases at One Atmosphere59, 60, 61, 62

Data Sources

1. "Thermal Conductivity of Light Hydrocarbon

W / (m • ˚C)

and Methane-Propane Mixtures at Low Pressures,"

Smith, Durbin and Koboyashi: J. Chem Eng. Data,
Vol 5, No. 3, July 1960.
2. "Self-Consistent Correlation of Thermodynamic
and Transport Properties," K.E. Starling, et al,
GRI/AGA Project No. BR-111-1: OU-ORA Project
No. 2036 156-716. Report: GR/AGA/BR-111-1/77-36.

Experimental data on mixtures indicate

this plot can be used to estimate the
thermal conductivity (± 10%) of mixtures
using the mixture molecular mass.

FIG. 23-32 FIG. 23-34

Thermal Conductivity Ratio for Gases Thermal Conductivity of Hydrocarbon
Gases at One Atmosphere67, 68, 69

23-39
 FIG. 23-35
Thermal Conductivity of Liquid Paraffin Hydrocarbons

FIG. 23-36
Thermal Conductivity of Liquid Petroleum Fractions58

23-40
 GROSS HEATING VALUE OF
NATURAL GASES
A complete compositional analysis of the mixture permits
calculation of the gross heating value, specific gravity, and Z-
factor of a natural gas mixture. Some definitions are in order
before starting this discussion. It is necessary to understand
the concepts: real gas, ideal gas, gross heating value (higher
heating value, higher calorific value), net heating value (lower
heating value, lower calorific value), hypothetical state.
Real Gas — refers to an actual fluid in its vapor phase.
It is possible to collect samples of these fluids and to measure
their thermophysical properties.
Hypothetical State — refers to a definition of a fluid in a
state that cannot actually exist, e.g. methane as a liquid at 15°C
and 101.325 kPa (abs). Methane cannot be in its liquid phase at
this temperature and pressure, but such a state, when defined,
can be used in calculations. Unfortunately, it is not possible to

FIG. 23-37
Calculation of Thermal Conductivity

Thermal
Mole Molecular
Component Conductivity 3 3 3
Fraction Mass √MWi (yi √ MWi) (yi ki √ MWi)
W/(m • °C)

CO2 0.10 0.0225 44.010 3.530 0.3530 0.00794

H2S 0.20 0.0240 34.076 3.242 0.6484 0.01556
N2 0.05 0.0310 28.013 3.037 0.1519 0.00474
CH4 0.60 0.0410 16.043 2.522 1.5132 0.07474
C2H6 0.05 0.0310 30.070 3.109 0.1555 0.00482
Total 1.00 2.8220 0.10780

FIG. 23-38
Surface Tension of Paraffin Hydrocarbons85

23-41
find an unambiguously suitable numerical value for methane
properties at these conditions.
Ideal Gas — refers to a hypothetical state in which a fluid
behaves in a particularly simple manner. A simple equation of
state describes an ideal gas exactly. The ideal gas is a useful
concept even if the state cannot be achieved because an un-
ambiguous path exists to reach the state starting with a real
fluid.
Gross Heating Value — by definition is the total en-
ergy transferred as heat in an ideal combustion reaction at a
standard temperature and pressure in which all water formed
appears as liquid. The gross heating is an ideal gas property
in a hypothetical state (the water cannot all condense to liquid
because some of the water would saturate the CO2 in the prod-
ucts):
Hvid = ∑ Hviid Eq 23-32 –Β/RΤ = ∑ xi bi  Eq 23-36
i 
Values for Hvid and MWi are in Fig. 23-2.
Calculation of the ideal energy flow requires multiplication
of the gross heating value by the ideal gas volumetric flow rate
of gas for the time period. To employ a real gas flow to calcu-
late the ideal energy flow requires converting the real gas flow
rate to the ideal gas flow rate by dividing by the Z-factor. Often
the heating value Hvid appears in tables divided by the Z-factor
in preparation for multiplying by the real gas flow rate. Thus,
Hvid/Z is the ideal gross heating value per unit volume of real
gas. Note that the Z-factor must be determined for the natural
gas mixture and then divided into the gross heating value of the
mixture. It is not correct to divide each pure component gross
heating value by the pure component Z-factor and then take the
molar average.
Net Heating Value — by definition is the total energy
transferred as heat in an ideal combustion reaction at a stan-
dard temperature and pressure in which all water formed ap-
pears as vapor. The net heating is an ideal gas property in a
hypothetical state (the water cannot all remain vapor because,
after the water saturates the CO2 in the products, the rest would
condense). It is a common misconception that the net heating
value applies to industrial operations such as fired heaters and
boilers. While the flue gases from these operations do not con-
dense, the net heating value does not apply directly because the
gases are not at 15°C. Were the gases to cool to 15°C, some of
the water would condense while the remainder would saturate
the gases. It is possible to use either the gross or net heating
value in such situations taking care to utilize the hypothetical
state properly.
Cost of Gas — comes from a simple accounting equation
• •
c = VidHvidpidΔt = VHvpΔt Eq 23-33
This equation shows that for custody transfer it is not nec-
essary to use real gas heating values (real gas heating values
could be calculated from the ideal gas values using well known,
but computationally intense methods). If the price is set by con-
tract, it is possible to set either a real gas price or an ideal gas
price. For the former, it is necessary to use real gas values; for
the latter, the ideal gas values are correct. Because it is much
simpler to obtain the ideal gas values, it is preferable to estab-
lish contracts based upon the ideal gas values. The ideal gas
flow rate comes from the real gas flow rate
•id = •
V V/Z Eq 23-34
23-42
­ ecause the Z-Factor is the ratio of the real gas volume to the
b
ideal gas volume.
This paragraph represents the justification for using the
GPA property tables for custody transfer. The GPA tables pres-
ent ideal gas properties that are more accurate to use in mix-
ture calculations and easier to present in tables than real gas
properties.
Z-Factor — when dealing with custody transfer of natural
gas, it is common to use a simple equation of state for calcula-
tions because the base pressure (at which transfer occurs by
definition) is near atmospheric. The equation is
­ Z = 1+ BP/RT Eq 23-35
­It is common to assume that
2
Ν 
i = 1 
­and
bi =  –B/RT (not
√ valid for He or H2) Eq 23-37
­ his Z-Factor is sufficiently accurate at low pressure for calcu-
T
lations involving natural gas mixtures.
Specific gravity (also termed relative density or gas
gravity) — by definition is the ratio of gas density (at the tem-
perature and pressure of the gas) to the density of dry air (at
the air temperature and pressure).
G = ρ/ρa = (PTaZa/PaTZ) (MW/MWa) Eq 23-38
­The ideal gas relative density is the ratio of the molecular mass
of the gas to the molecular massvof dry air.
Gid = MW/MWa
­For a mixture
Gid = ∑ yiGiid Eq 23-39
i
The relative density G is measured and is generally used to
calculate the molecular mass ratio Gid when the gas composi-
tion is not available.
Gid = MW/MWa = GPaTZ/PTaZa Eq 23-40
The temperatures and pressures used must correspond to
actual measurement conditions or serious errors in Gid can oc-
cur.
Corrections for Water Content — When the gas con-
tains water, but the component analysis is on a dry basis, the
component analysis must be adjusted to reflect the presence of
water. The mole fraction of water in the mixture is estimated
from the definition of relative humidity:
yw = hgPwσ /P = nw /(1 + nw)  
(on a one mole basis) Eq 23-41
­where h is the relative humidity of the gas (h = 1 for saturated
g g
gas). Rearranging Eq 23-41 for the moles of water:
nw = yw/(1 + yw)  Eq 23-42
­Then, the corrected mole fractions of the gas become:
 1   1 
yi (cor) = y i 
1+nw 
=y i
 1 + yw/(1 yw)  = (1 – yw i )y
   
Eq 23-43
­and the gross heating value becomes: question becomes more complex. It is obvious that all the water
formed in a reaction cannot condense because in a situation in
Hv = (1 – yw) ∑
id
yiHviid Eq 23-44 which both air and gas are dry, some of the reaction water must
i
saturate the product gases while the remainder condenses. It is
If the compositional analysis determines water as a compo- possible to account for these effects, but those interested should
nent, and the summation contains the water term, the heating consult GPA Standard 2172, “Calculation of Gross Heating
value becomes: Value, Relative Density and Compressibility Factor for Natural
Gas Mixtures from Compositional Analysis,” for the analysis.
Hvid = ∑yiHviid – ywHvidw Eq 23-45 This standard contains additional details and examples cover-
i ing all these calculation methods. GPA 2172 contains a listing
of the Basic source code for a computer program to perform the
We remove the effect of water because, although water has calculations.
a heating value (the ideal enthalpy of condensation), we assume
that the water carried by wet gas (spectator water) does not SPECIFIC HEAT
condense while we assume that the water formed by the reac-
tion does condense. Figs. 23-39 and 23-40 present specific heat curves for two
different gas mixtures. These curves are not based on experi-
Accounting for water using Eqs 23-41 through Eq 23-45 is mental data but were developed using calculated values from a
sufficient for custody transfer purposes because the contracting process simulator. These charts should give reasonable results
parties can agree to accept the hypothetical state for the gross for quick calculations of sensible heating/cooling.
heating value. When trying to model actual situations, the

FIG. 23-39 FIG. 23-40

Specific Heat for 0.58 Relative Density Gas (16.7 MW) Specific Heat for 0.75 Relative Density Gas (21.6 MW)

23-43
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