Unidad 10: Formas Perfectas

Textos

Man and his Environment

Preserving the Environment
Square roots of negative numbers
Galileo
Science and Society

Sección Gramatical
Present Perfect. Have/Has + pasado participio

Past Perfect. Had + pasado participio

Texto I

MAN AND HIS ENVIRONMENT

Throughout history man has changed his
physical environment in order to improve his
way of life. With the tools of technology he
has altered many physical features of the
earth. He has transformed woodlands and
prairies into farmland, and made lakes and
reservoirs out of rivers for irrigation purposes
or hydroelectric power. Man has also modified
the face of the earth by draining marshes and
cutting through mountains to build roads and
railways. However, man's changes to the
physical environment have not always had
beneficial results. Today, pollution of the air
and water is an increasing danger to the
health of the planet.
Each day thousands of tons of gases come out
of the exhausts of motor vehicles; smoke from
factories pollutes the air of industrialized areas
and the surrounding areas of the countryside.
The air in cities is becoming increasingly
unhealthy.
The pollution of water is equally harmful. In
the sea, pollution from oil is increasing and is
killing enormous numbers of algae, fish and
birds. The whole ecological balance of the sea
is being changed. The same problem exists in
rivers. Industrial wastes have already made
many rivers lifeless.
Conservationists believe that it is now
necessary for man to limit the growth of
technology in order to survive on earth.

(De Widdowson, 1979. Reading and Thinking in English)

A. Responda las siguientes preguntas en español.

1. Why has man changed his physical environment?

2. Why is pollution an important problem today?

3. What is happening to the air in cities?

4. In what way is the ecological balance of the sea being changed?

5. What has happened to rivers?

6. What will happen if the growth of technology is not limited?

B. ¿Estas oraciones dicen lo mismo que el texto? Justifique su respuesta.

1. El hombre ha talado bosques para construir caminos. Sí/No

2. Transformar el medio ambiente nos ha beneficiado en todo sentido. Si/No

3. Los gases que contaminan el ambiente provienen sólo de la industria

automotriz. Si/No

4. Las enormes cantidades de peces y algas están cambiando el equilibrio de los

ríos y mares. Si/No

5. Los ambientalistas abogan por el crecimiento económico. Si/No

C. El párrafo entre las líneas 1 a 11 ha sido traducido al español. Encuentre los
errores y corríjalos.

A lo largo de la historia el hombre tiene que modificar su ambiente para mejorar su vida. Con las
herramientas de la tecnología ha alterado algunas características de la tierra. Se han transformado
bosques y praderas en lagos y ríos para riego o energía hidroeléctrica. También ha cambiado la cara
de la tierra construyendo caminos y vías en las montañas.

Texto II

A. Haga una lectura rápida del texto y subraye las formas de Present Perfect que
encuentre.

B. Confeccione una lista con los distintos ejemplos y luego compárela con la
realizada por un compañero.

PRESERVING THE ENVIRONMENT

A) Recently more and more attention has been focused on the problems of preserving the
environment. The fact that a Government Ministry called the Department of the Environment has
been created shows how important the issue is considered to be.

B) Over the past thirty years or so the quality of many people's lives has deteriorated in some
respects because of technological progress. Those people living near airports are constantly assailed
by the noise of increasingly larger and more powerful jet aircraft taking off and landing. We have
ugly buildings which have sprung up in towns and cities. Some of these are blocks of flats- high-rise
buildings built because of' the high price of land, which seem more like breeding boxes than houses
where people have space to live. Worse still, much of our building effort has been channelled into the
construction of' more and more large office blocks at the expense of much needed housing for the
growing urban population.

C) The motor car has been responsible for many changes in the environment. On the one hand it has
brought mobility to millions of people, but on the other it has led to the construction of more and
more noisy and dangerous roads and has polluted the atmosphere with exhaust fumes.

D) While towns and cities have become larger and uglier and more densely populated, the rural areas
have lost most of their population owing to the need for fewer workers in agriculture. The
countryside has also been affected by the large-scale use of insecticides. For one thing the killing of
insects has resulted in a loss of balance in the ecology. Insects, although a nuisance to farmers,
provide food for birds. Many people are afraid that fruit and vegetables sprayed with chemicals may
have some poisonous effect upon the people who eat them.

E) Recently, however, certain counter measures against the destruction of the environment have
been introduced. One of the first acts of Parliament to counter pollution was the Clean Air Act, which
opened the way to smokeless zones in large towns and cities.
(De Coles y Lord, 1978. Turning Point-Access to English)
C. Marque las siguientes oraciones como verdaderas o falsas. Escriba la versión correcta si
son falsas.

1. Technology has brought about only improvements in people's lives.

2. Some drawbacks of progress are noise, ugly buildings and high price of land.

3. The motor car is the cause of air pollution and the construction of dangerous roads.

4. There have not been any substantial changes in towns or cities.

5. The use of insecticides has resulted in the killing of insects and the poisoning of food.

6. Nothing serious has been done to fight this problem.

7. The preservation of the environment has become a major problem nowadays.

D. Los siguientes enunciados sintetizan la idea global de distintos párrafos del texto.
Identifique a qué párrafo (A-E) corresponde cada enunciado.

1. El impacto de la urbanización en la calidad de vida.

2. Importancia que se adjudica desde el gobierno al cuidado del medio ambiente.

3. Nuevas leyes para contrarrestar la contaminación.

4. Impacto perjudicial del desarrollo tecnológico en las áreas rurales.

5. Ventajas y desventajas del uso de automóviles.

E. El texto también presenta 10 ejemplos de comparativos en distintas oraciones. ¿Cuáles

son y en qué líneas se encuentran? Subráyelos. ¿Qué dicen esas oraciones?

Texto III

SQUARE ROOTS OF NEGATIVE NUMBERS

In the removal of factors from radicands, we have dealt only with positive numbers. Further, we have
found the square roots of positive numbers only. The questions then arise as to what to do with
negative radicands and what the meaning of the square root of a negative number is.

According to the laws of multiplication, there is no number that when multiplied by itself or raised to
an even power it will produce a negative result. For instance, it is impossible to extract the square
root of a negative number, because any real number when squared gives a positive result. Thus, the
square root of a negative number has come to be known as an imaginary number and it has become
necessary to introduce a new type of number to represent these imaginary numbers.

This new type of number derives from the fact that any imaginary number can be expressed as the
product of a positive number and  1 . For example,
  16 = (1)(16) = (  1) 16 = (  1) (4), also

 10 = (1)(10) = (  1) ( 10) = (  1) (3.16).

(Tuites, 1952. Basic Mathematics for Technical Courses)

A. Lea el texto con atención y considere las posibles acepciones de

las siguientes palabras o frases. Sólo una es correcta en este
contexto.

1. further (línea 1)
a. más alla
b. aún más
c. adicional

2. arise as to (línea 2)
a. surgen respecto de
b. suben
c. suben como

3. even (línea 5)
a. parejo
b. par
c. aún

4. has come to be known (línea (7)

a. se conoce como
b. ha venido a ser conocido como
c. ha venido a ser conocido como

5. the fact (línea 9)

a. el hecho
b. el factor
c. el factoreo

B. Identifique y subraye ejemplos de Present Perfect.

C. Responda las siguientes preguntas.

1. What questions have arisen about negative numbers?

2. What do laws of multiplication say in relation to negative results?

3. Is the square root of a negative number a positive number? Why?

4. What has been called “an imaginary number”?

5. Why is the introduction of a new type of number necessary?

D. Traduzca y complete las siguientes oraciones en español con
información del texto.

1. The authors have worked on positive numbers and their square

roots in………………………………………

2. When a real number is multiplied by itself …………………………..

3. Imaginary numbers are …………………………

4. The new type of number comes from………………

Texto IV

GALILEO

In his own time, Galileo was the centre of violent controversy. He was, above all, a man who
experimented, who despised the prejudices and book learning of the Aristotelians, who put his
questions to nature instead of to the ancients and who drew his conclusions fearlessly. He had been
the first to turn a telescope to the sky, and he had seen there evidence enough to overthrow Aristotle
and Ptolemy together. He was the man who climbed the Leaning Tower of Pisa and dropped various
weights from the top, who rolled balls down inclined planes, and then generalized the results of his
many experiments into the famous law of free fall.

(Maidana et al, 2009. Lectura Comprensiva y Traducción de Textos)

A. ¿Qué descripción podría hacer de la personalidad de Galileo considerando las

expresiones usadas en el texto que se listan a continuación?

- violent controversy (línea 1)

- despised (línea 2)

- prejudices (línea 2)

- fearlessly (línea 3)

- overthrow (línea 4)

B. Traduzca el texto

Texto V

SCIENCE AND SOCIETY

1………………………………………………….
Clearly, science has become so important a part of the modern world that no analysis of society and
culture can ignore it.
2…………………………………………….
Science includes, in addition to a body of knowledge, a set of values, conventions and practices that
govern the behaviour of scientists. It has been incorporated into complex social structures and is now
recognized as one of the institutions of society.

3…………………………………………………
Science has transformed modern warfare, and political debates over national defense are often
focused on the adequacy of expenditures for scientific research and development. Scientific policy
has become an important political issue, and presidents and prime ministers appoint special advisers
to help them cope with the control and consequences of scientific research.

4………………………………………………….
In addition to its economic and political consequences, science also affects prevailing beliefs and
values in diverse ways. Since the emergence of modern science in the seventeenth century, the world
view of Western man has been influenced by the scientific theories and new scientific facts.

5…………………………………………………….
Evolution, relativity, and other ideas of modern physics, and psychoanalysis have all contributed to
the contemporary conceptions of the nature of man and the universe.

(Maidana et al, 2007. Inglés. Lectura Comprensiva y Traducción de Textos)

A. Lea los títulos a continuación (a-e), tradúzcalos y decida cuál de ellos resume mejor los
conceptos tratados en cada uno de los párrafos (1-5).

a. Scientific investigation has turned into a matter of State.

b. Current sociological studies must include the concept of science.

c. Science has been accepted as a fundamental organization in our culture.

d. The influence of science over the man and the cosmos.

e. Modern science consequences on humanity.

 Sección Gramatical

Formas perfectas
Present Perfect

El Present Perfect es un tiempo presente en inglés. Se usa para referirse a una

acción que comenzó en el pasado y que continúa en el presente, o bien para una
acción que ocurrió en el pasado y cuyos resultados se pueden observar en el
presente. Esta forma corresponde en general al Pretérito Perfecto Compuesto en
español.

Have /has + participio pasado

Verbo haber [conjugado en presente] + participio pasado

El present perfect se forma con los auxiliares have o has y el participio pasado. El
participio pasado corresponde a la tercera columna de la lista de los verbos
irregulares y a las terminaciones -d, -ed, -ied de los verbos regulares en inglés
(Para verbos regulares, Ver Unidad 2, Tiempo Pasado). En español, los participios
terminan en -ado, -ido.

En general, el present perfect se presenta acompañado de adverbios tales como

just (acaba de), still (aun, todavía), already (ya), for (durante), since (desde).

Ejemplos:

Many countries have already introduced laws against hacking.

Muchos países ya han introducido leyes contra la piratería.

Over the course of millions of years evolution has produced various forms of life.
En el transcurso de millones de años la evolución ha producido diversas formas de vida.

Hip replacement surgery has reduced pain to millions of people worldwide.

La cirugía de reemplazo de cadera ha reducido el dolor a millones de personas en el mundo.

Technology has brought about only improvements in people’s lives.

La tecnología solo ha generado mejoras en la vida de las personas.

Past Perfect

El past perfect se usa para referirse a una acción que comenzó antes de otra acción
en el pasado y corresponde al Pretérito Pluscuamperfecto en español.

Had + pasado participio

Verbo haber [conjugado en pasado] + participio pasado

Ejemplos:

Classical physics had shown its ability to explain physical phenomena when…
La física clásica había demostrado su capacidad para explicar los fenómenos físicos cuando…
Before the Aristotelians, Galileo had already turned his telescope to the sky.
Antes de los Aristotélicos, Galileo ya había observado su telescopio hacia el cielo.

By 1768, Watt had thought out his double-acting engine.

Ya en 1768, Watt había ideado su motor de doble acción.

Otros Casos

Most genetic mapping has been accomplished through experiments with genetic material.
La mayor parte del mapa genético ha sido obtenida/ se ha obtenido a través de experimentos con
material genético.

The environment on earth has been changing slowly but continuously.

El medio ambiente en la tierra ha estado cambiando lenta pero continuamente.

The transfer of industrial technology has already been going on for about a century and a half.
La transferencia de tecnología industrial se ha estado realizando/produciendo durante
aproximadamente un siglo y medio.

Measurement standards have been approved for international use.

Los patrones de medición han sido aprobados para uso internacional.

Earth satellites had been predicted by Isaac Newton in 1665.

Los satélites terrestres habían sido anticipados/predichos por Isaac Newton en 1665.

Recently there has been greater caution over the use of pesticides.
Recientemente ha habido mayor precaución sobre el uso de pesticidas.

Note that IDD’ could not have been obtained directly from IAA’.
Note que IDD’ no podría haberse obtenido directamente de IAA’.

I DD’ =IBB’ + Ad’2= …

The calculation indicated that full production must have been 25 percent defective.
El cálculo indicó que la producción total debe haber sido un 25 por ciento defectuosa.
Unidad 11: Los Condicionales
Textos
Matter in motion
Behaviour of charges in materials
Rising standards
Magnetic Fields
Computer Viruses
The Doppler Effect
What is work?
Examples I
Examples II

Sección Gramatical

Los Condicionales
Tipos de Condicionales:
- Condición Probable
- Condición Hipotética
- Condición Imposible
Condicionales mixtos
Inversión
Otras formas de expresar condicionalidad
 Texto I

A. Lea el siguiente texto. Identifique y subraye las oraciones

condicionales.

MATTER IN MOTION

Eq.8-1 V av = distance covered = Δs

time interval Δ

From Equation 8-1 you can see that the units for speed are those of distance
divided by time. If the distance is measured in centimeters and the time in seconds,
the unit of speed is centimeters divided by seconds, r cm/sec. If the distance is
measured in miles and the time in hours, the unit will be miles per hour, or mile/hr.
5 The combination of any other pair of distance and time units is possible, as for
example, feet per second, or ft/sec.
To the physicist, the words speed and velocity have different and distinct
meanings. Speed refers to how fast an object travels; velocity refers to how fast and
in what direction an object travels. The speed of the puck in Figure 8-2 is 20 cm/sec;
10 its velocity is 20 cm/sec to the right. If this puck were moving to the left at the same
speed of 20 cm/sec, its velocity would be 20 cm/sec to the left –quite different from
the velocity it had when moving to the right. If we had chosen to call the direction
to the right our positive direction, then all pucks moving to the right would have a
positive velocity (e.g., +20 m/sec) while all pucks moving to the left would have a
15 negative velocity (e.g., - 20 cm/ sec).
In this section we have found that bodies free of interactions with other bodies
move at a constant velocity. Very few objects in the world around you move with
constant velocity. Have you ever thought about what the Universe would be like if
all bodies moved without interacting with each other? Happily, objects influence
20 one another. In the next section we will see how these interactions account for
changes in velocities.

FIGURE 8-2 Successive position of a puck floating on a film of air moving to the right.

(De Wiley et al, 1969. An approach to Physical Science)

 B. Responda las preguntas en español.

1. What does Equation 8-1 show?

2. And Figure 8-2?

3. How do distance and time relate when considering speed?

4. Find two definitions in the text.

5. Refer to lines 10 – 15. Which situations are described?

6. The author directly addresses the reader through a question. What does
he ask?

7. What will be discussed in the following section?

Texto II

BEHAVIOUR OF CHARGES IN MATERIALS

Parte 1

If a charged strip is brought close to an uncharged object made of paper, aluminum or other
materials, the charges would move through the materials in response to the force exerted by
the strip. Suppose that a positively charged strip were brought close to the object. Further,
suppose that the object contains both positive and negative charges. The positive charges
5 would migrate through the material and move as far as possible from the positively charged
strip. The negative charges would migrate through the material and move as close as
possible to the strip. Thus, one end of the object would become positively charged and the
other end negatively charged, even though the object as a whole remains uncharged.
This separation of charges would result in a net attractive force between the charged strip
10 and the uncharged object. Why?

Parte 2

Suppose that further experiments on the conductivity of metals demonstrated that the
moving particles in a metallic circuit carry a negative charge rather than a positive charge as
we assumed in describing the energy changes in the circuit of Figure 12-3. If the moving
charge is negative, in which direction does it move through the battery box? Will it have more
5 potential energy at A or at F? Trace the path of the charge through the rest of the circuit and
describe the energy changes. If you were asked to measure the conductance of a metal rod,
what measurements would you make? What additional measurements would be required if
you wished to determine the conductivity of the metal?
(Wiley et al, 1969. An approach to Physical Science)
 A. Haga un círculo en las palabras que introducen una condición en la Parte
1 y luego subraye las formas verbales que las acompañan.

B. ¿Cómo interpretaría esas oraciones?

C. Corrija la versión en castellano de las líneas 1 a 7 de la Parte 1. Luego

compare sus correcciones con las de un compañero.

Si una banda con carga es puesta cerrada en un objeto sin carga de papel, aluminio u otros
materiales, las cargas se moverán por el material respondiendo a la fuerza ejecutada por la
banda.
Suponer que una banda cargada positivamente es puesta cerrada en el objeto. Más lejos,
suponga que el objeto contiene ambas cargas positivas y negativas. Las cargas positivas
migrarán por el material y se moverán tan lejos como posible de la banda cargada
positivamente. Las cargas negativas migrarían por el material y se moverían tan cerca como
posible de la banda.

D. Traduzca las líneas 3 a 8 de la Parte 2.

Texto III

RISING STANDARDS

Development is essential. Unless there is growth and development, the standard of living
cannot rise. It is ridiculous to expect people with a high standard of living to suddenly stop
buying luxury items and driving cars. No one wants environmental disaster, but equally no
one wants to go back to the Dark Ages. Providing that development is controlled, it can do
5 no harm. Without economic growth, we could be still living in mud huts. We are making
progress on issues such as pollution and the unlawful killing of animals. Disease-
contaminated water has been eliminated in the more developed countries, and there are
more and more national parks to protect plants and wildlife. Providing that we work within
the system, we will win.
(O’Sullivan et al, 1992. The New Cambridge English Course III)

A. Responda las siguientes preguntas en español.

1. According to the writer, what will happen if there isn’t growth and
development?

2. What does the writer mean by “going back to the Dark Ages”?

3. When does development “do no harm”?

 Texto IV

MAGNETIC FIELDS

Every electric current flowing through a conductor generates a magnetic field. This field,
which envelopes the conductor and diminishes with distance from it, is invisible. Presence of
the field, however, can be detected by observing the forces it exerts on certain materials.
These materials are called magnets, because they react to a magnetic field. Soft iron, steel,
5 nickel, cobalt and alloys of these metals exhibit magnetic properties.

If a rectangular piece of such a metal is magnetized and suspended at its center of gravity so
that it is free to rotate in a horizontal plane, one end of the piece will turn toward the north
or the south pole of the earth. (Needles of simple compasses are magnets). The end that
10 turns toward the north pole of the earth is called the north pole of the magnet. The other is
called the south pole of the magnet.

If two magnets are brought close together, like poles will repel each other; unlike poles will
attract each other. In either case, the force exerted is proportional to the magnetic strength
15 of the poles and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between the poles.

If a magnet, such as a compass needle, is brought close to a straight conductor carrying a

direct current, the needle will turn crosswise to the conductor. This reaction indicates that the
magnetic force associated with the current encircles the conductor.

(Merrit et al, 1990. Building Engineering and Systems Design)

A. Responda las siguientes preguntas.

1. What is the effect of the electric current on a conductor?

2. Why are some materials referred to as magnets?

3. Give examples of such materials.

B. Una las causas 1- 5 con los efectos a- e.

1- Observación de las fuerzas que a- Generación de un campo

actúan sobre ciertos materiales magnético

2- Repulsión y atracción entre los b- Sus extremos se orientan hacia

polos el polo Norte o Sur
 3-Flujo de corriente eléctrica a
través de un conductor
4- Proximidad de aguja de una
brújula a un conductor de DC
c- Fuerza ejercida directamente
proporcional a fuerza magnética
de los polos
d- Detección de un campo
magnético

5- Pieza de metal imantado e- Movimiento de la aguja en

sentido transversal al conductor

C. ¿A qué se refieren estas frases?

1. This field (línea 1): ………….………

2. These materials (línea 4): ……………..

3. Such a metal (línea 6): ………………..

4. The other (línea 11): …………………….

5. This reaction (línea 17): ……………….

Texto V

COMPUTER VIRUSES

The Maltese Amoeba may sound like a cartoon character, but if it attacked your computer,
you would not be laughing. The Maltese Amoeba is a computer virus. It is a form of software,
which can “infect” your system and destroy your data. Making computer viruses is only one
type of computer crime. Others include hacking (changing data in a computer without
5 permission) and pirating (illegally copying software programs).
Viruses are programs which are written deliberately to damage data.
Viruses can hide themselves in a computer system. Some viruses are fairly harmless. Others
have serious effects. For example, if the Cascade virus attacks, all the letters in a file will fall
into a heap at the bottom of the screen.
10 Viruses are most commonly passed via disks but they can also spread through bulletin boards,
local area networks, and e-mail attachments. Use an antivirus program to check a floppy
before using it.
If you do catch a virus, there are antivirus programs to hunt down and eradicate the virus.

(Glendinning, 1999. Basic English for Computing)

 A. Complete el diagrama con información del texto.

Definición
……………
……………
Ubicación Efectos
…………… ……………
…………… ……………

VIRUS
AMEBA
MALTESA

Antídoto Propósito
…………… ………………………
…………… ………………

Forma de
transmisión
……………
……………

Texto VI

DOPPLER EFFECT

The Doppler Effect explains why stars are moving away from the earth. This phenomenon
is known as the “red shift”. The red shift is evidence that our universe is expanding.
Imagine what will happen if you stick small stars all over a balloon and then blow up the
balloon. The stars all move away from each other.
5 This clear evidence that the universe is expanding has led astronomers to develop a
theory about the origin of the universe called the “Big Bang theory”.
The Doppler Effect explains how sonic booms are generated. Consider a bug swimming
across a water surface. The bug causes the waves to pile up in front of it and become
drawn out behind it. The bug is causing a Doppler effect. The waves in front of the bug
10 act as a barrier. Should the bug swim fast enough it could break through the barrier and
then swim faster than the waves move, it would generate a new wave pattern. Two lines
of very strong waves are formed. If the moving source was a speedboat, a pair of strong
bow waves would appear. Were it a supersonic plane, a very strong sound wave would
sweep along on either side of the plane. This is the “sonic boom”.

(Murphy y Smoot, 1982. Physics. Principles and Problems)

A. Identifique ejemplos de condicionales.

B. Lea el texto y responda las siguientes preguntas en español.

1. What does the Doppler Effect account for?

2. Give the example from the text that proves the universe is expanding.

3. What effect does the bug have on the waves?

4. What theory have the astronomers set up?

5. What other thing does the Doppler Effect explain?

6. What may cause the “sonic boom”?

C. Lea el texto nuevamente y complete las siguientes oraciones.

1. Si adhiere estrellas a un globo y luego lo hace explotar,……………………...

2. Un insecto generaría un nuevo patrón de ondas si…………………………….

3. Si la fuente del movimiento fuera un bote a motor,…………………………...

4. Una onda sonora se desplazaría a los lados del avión si………………………

Texto VII
WHAT IS WORK?

We have now defined energy in terms of work. So we must say what is meant by the term
work. Work is the application of a force through a distance. A force is a push or a pull
that tends to set a body in motion. If a force is applied to a body but does not move it, no
work is done. For example, if we push hard on an automobile but failed to move it we have
done no work on the car. If, however, the applied force moves the body work is done.
Indeed, work is measured by multiplying the force by the distance through which the force
acts. Or,

Work=force x distance

If a matchbox is moved a distance of 20 centimeters when a horizontal force of 5 grams is

applied to it, the work done is 100 gram-centimeters. This is a derived unit (not a
fundamental unit) since it is derived from the units of force (or weight) and distance.
Let us now return to the fixed pulley with its weights of 500 grams and 200 grams and, for a
moment, we will concentrate our attention on the 200-gram weight. A 200-gram weight
exerts a downward force of 200 grams. Therefore to move it up, a force of 200 grams must
be exerted in an upward direction. Suppose that the upper weight of 500 grams falls
through a distance of 50 centimeters. As the 500-gm weight moves 50 centimeters down the
200-gram weight moves up a distance of 50 centimeters.

(Resnick, 2002. Physics - Part I)

A. Según la información del texto, las siguientes afirmaciones ¿son

verdaderas o falsas?

1. El primer párrafo contiene la definición de energía y trabajo.

2. Se hace trabajo sobre un cuerpo si, al aplicar una fuerza, aquél se mueve.

3. El ejemplo de la caja de fósforos explica la relación entre trabajo, fuerza y

peso.

4. El texto tratará principalmente sobre el estudio de la polea fija con

determinadas pesas.

5. Si en tal polea, una pesa de 500 g cae 50 cm, una de 200 g subirá una
distancia igual.

Texto VIII

A. Lea los siguientes ejemplos. Subraye las formas en present o past perfect
y corrija la versión en español, si fuera necesario.

EXAMPLES I

1. If you have studied chemistry, you may know that many chemical forces are also short-
range electric forces.

2. There is a certain temperature at which the pressure would become zero if the gas
behaved “ideally”.

3. If the Tyrannosaurus Rex had walked upright, the weight of its massive head would have
crushed its spine.

B. A continuación se presentan versiones en español de los ejemplos

anteriores. Corríjalos si fuera necesario.
EJEMPLOS I

1. Si tiene estudiada la química, puede que sepa que muchas fuerzas químicas son también
fuerzas eléctricas de corto alcance.

2. Hay una determinada temperatura a la cual la presión llegaría a cero si el gas se

comportara “idealmente”.

3. Si el Tiranosaurio Rex habría caminado erguido, el peso de su enorme cabeza hubiera

aplastado su columna.

Texto IX

A. Lea los ejemplos y complete las oraciones a continuación con información

de los mismos.

EXAMPLES II

1. Should the temperature fall, the steam will condensate.

2. Were the compressor blades made of ordinary steel, they would be unable to stand very
high temperatures.

3. Had the whole operation not been planned carefully, a great deal of money and time
would have been lost.

a. El vapor condensará………………………………………………

b. ………………………, no podrían soportar temperaturas muy elevadas

c. Si la operación no se hubiera planificado

cuidadosamente,……………………………………………….
 Sección Gramatical

Los Condicionales
Las oraciones condicionales consisten en dos partes llamadas cláusulas. La
cláusula condicional generalmente introducida por la conjunción if establece
una condición de la cual depende el resultado de lo expresado por la otra
cláusula. Es decir, que para que algo ocurra se tiene que dar una condición
específica.

Tipos de Condicionales

Los condicionales expresan diferentes grados de condicionalidad: condición

probable, condición hipotética y condición imposible.

1. Condición Probable: indica que es muy probable que se cumpla la

condición.

If + verbo en presente…, verbo en presente/ will + verbo en infinitivo

Si + verbo en presente…, verbo en presente / verbo conjugado en futuro

Ejemplos:

If we rotate a coil of wire in a magnetic field, then we have a generator of electric current.
Si hacemos rotar una bobina de alambre en un campo magnético, tenemos entonces un
generador de corriente eléctrica.

If a solid is heated, its particles will vibrate more energetically.

Si un sólido se calienta, sus partículas vibrarán más enérgicamente.

Nota: podemos encontrar verbos modales como may, can, might, etc, en
lugar de will.

Ejemplo:

If electrons flow from the negative plate to the positive plate, they can do work.
Si los electrones fluyen del ánodo negativo al ánodo positivo, pueden realizar/hacer
trabajo.
2. Condición Hipotética: se usa en casos hipotéticos, situaciones
imaginarias y poco probables.

If + verbo en pasado…, would + verbo en infinitivo

Si + verbo con terminación -era/-ese…, verbo con terminación -ría

Ejemplo:

If you collected the seven colours of the spectrum and joined them together, you would
see white light.

Si se agruparan/asen los siete colores del espectro y se los mezclara, se vería la luz blanca.

Nota: en la segunda cláusula podemos encontrar los verbos modales might,

could o should en lugar de would.

Ejemplo:

If the bridge collapsed, we could not do anything to save the highway below.

Si se cayera/se el puente, no podríamos hacer nada para salvar la carretera que está debajo.

3. Condición Imposible: indica una condición en el pasado que no se

cumplió.

If + had + participio pasado…, would + have + participio pasado

Si + hubiera/ese + particio pasado…, habría + participio pasado

Ejemplo:

If Galileo had not turned his telescope to the sky, he would not have seen there enough
evidence to overthrow Aristotle and Ptolemy’s theories.

Si Galileo no hubiera/ese orientado su telescopio hacia el cielo, no habría visto allí

suficiente evidencia para descartar las teorías de Aristóteles y Tolomeo.

Nota: en los tres casos de condicionales, la cláusula que contiene la

conjunción if puede o no estar al inicio.

Ejemplo:
We have a generator of electric current if we rotate a coil of wire in a magnetic field.
Tenemos un generador de corriente eléctrica si hacemos rotar una bobina de alambre en
un campo magnético.

Why does the pressure inside a container filled with a gas increase if its temperature
increases?
¿Por qué la presión en un contenedor lleno de gas aumenta si la temperatura del gas
aumenta?

Condicionales Mixtos

Los condicionales mixtos son otros casos donde se combinan de manera

diferente las formas verbales de las cláusulas descriptas anteriormente.

Ejemplo:

If matter is made of particles that attract one another, then liquids would display surface
tension.

Si la materia está formada por partículas que se atraen unas a otras, entonces los líquidos
evidenciarían tensión superficial.

Inversión

Si una oración afirmativa comienza con Should, Were, Had es también una
oración condicional. Estas oraciones corresponden a los tres tipos de
oraciones condicionales presentados anteriormente y la versión en español
se inicia con la palabra Si en todos los casos

Ejemplos:

Should the state apply effective methods, industrial output will increase.
Si el estado aplica métodos efectivos, aumentará la producción industrial.

Were the average world temperature drop by only 5ºC, a new glacial age would begin.
Si la temperatura mundial promedio descendiera/ese sólo 5ºC, comenzaría una nueva era
glaciar.

Had an aluminium alloy been used, the resistance of the moving parts would have been
less.
Si se hubiera/ese usado una aleación de aluminio, la resistencia de las partes móviles
habría sido menor.
Otras formas de expresar condicionalidad

También podemos encontrar oraciones en las que la condición se expresa

por medio de las siguientes palabras.

whether si
unless a menos que
providing/provided (that) siempre que
suppose/supposing suponga/suponiendo
as long as siempre que
so long as siempre que

Ejemplos:

The software checks whether the user is registered.

El software verifica si el usuario se registró.

Unless there is growth and development, the standard of living cannot rise.
A menos que haya crecimiento y desarrollo, el estándar de vida no puede elevarse.

Providing that development is controlled, it can do no harm.

Siempre que el desarrollo esté controlado, no puede hacer daño.

Suppose a computer requires two millionths of a second to perform the calculation we

desire. The machine would be calculating less than 1/1,000,000 of the time.
Suponga que una computadora necesita dos millonésimas de segundo para ejecutar el
cálculo que deseamos. La máquina estaría calculando menos de 1/1.000.000 del tiempo.

Man will survive on earth as long as the growth of technology is limited.

El hombre sobrevivirá en la tierra siempre que /en tanto se limite el crecimiento de la
tecnología.