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definite class of hotel, whereas 'a
luxurious hotel' gives merely a sub-
jective description. 'We had a fine
time at that hotel', someone may say.
'The accommodation was luxurious.'
In guidebooks and local direc-
tories you will often see a capital
letter L prefixed to the name of a
hotel, denoting that that hotel stands
officially in the luxury class. It is
recognised as a luxury hotel because
it is classified as four-star or five-star
by the British Hotel Association,
which grades all the hotels that wish
to be so graded-there is no compul-
sion-from one-star (bed and break-
Reviews
A GRAMMAR OF
CONTEMPORARY ENGLISH.
Randolph Quirk, Sidney Green-
baum, Geoffrey Leech, Jan Svartvik.
Longman, 1972, vii+1120 pp.
A Grammar of Contemporary English
is a milestone in the history of
English grammar. In its comprehen-
siveness it is comparable with
Jespersen's monumental Modern
English Grammar on Historical Prin-
ciples, and as a description of
contemporary English it is unique.
The authors have aimed at des-
cribing the grammar of the common
core of educated English in the
world's major English-speaking
countries, with special reference to
British and American educated us-
age.
The basic idea of the comprehen-
sive approach to the description of
this common core is reflected in
Chapter 1, 'The English Language'.
Regional variation is least manifest
in English 'grammar' and the global
intercomprehensibility of educated
English usage sufficiently justifies
this approach. Regional differences
83
fast only) to five-star (like the Savoy
Hotel in the Strand). Even a three-
star hotel may appear luxurious to
healthy young tourists, but it is not
officially classed as a luxury hotel in
the technical sense.
Notice that this distinction does
not apply to other instances, such as
'an education centre' as against 'an
educational centre', where the lexical
meaning and contextual sense are the
same. Because in current English
people are rather fond of noun
adjuncts, 'education centre' sounds
neater and more up to date, and is
therefore generally preferred. [S.P.)
in pronunciation (or even in ortho-
graphy) and in idiomatic usage
hardly affect the common gramma-
tical core. Similarly, variation in the
educated usage of English resulting
from the social classes of its speakers
and from its application to variable
subject-matter and speech situations
(register, style) are dominated by
this common-core grammar. English
is also used as a lingua franca in the
world of learning and education.
Furthermore, this use of English
must allow for a great number of
varieties due to interference from the
users' first language. But even in this
kind of variation the common core is
decisively predominant. The authors
have succeeded in presenting a pic-
ture of a regionally, socially, and
stylistically neutral corpus of English
('the English of serious exposition').
What is the corpus of description
underlying A Grammar of Contem-
porary English? The authors were
associated with the research project
'Survey of English Usage', begun at
University College London, in the
early sixties. The illustrative materi-
als in the book have been chosen
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84
from this corpus, the examples being
adapted, edited, and augmented in
the light of the authors' own experi-
ences in various parts of the world.
We were anxious to know which of
the fashionable trends in method of
approach had been adopted by the
authors. It was a relief to find that
they do not accept any -ism as their
point of departure. They claim to be
just as indebted to the long tradition
of English grammatical description
as to the most fashionable linguistic
theory, i.e. transformational and
generative grammar. As can be
deduced from the well-chosen biblio-
graphy of works by British, Ameri-
can, or non-native grammarians of
English, the authors have availed
themselves of those observations that
help them explain the phenomena
most adequately. This 'compromise
position' vis-a-vis linguistic theory is
a great merit of this work. But the
authors have not ignored linguistics.
They have more generally sub-
scribed to the method of approach
usually known as the 'British School
of Linguistics', initiated by J. R.
Firth in the forties. Their general line
is that they constantly observe the
interaction of form and meaning, in
particular of syntactic and semantic
features.
The authors regard 'grammar' as
accounting for English constructions
where the greatest generalisation is
possible and assign to lexicology
constructions in which least generali-
sation can be found. The gramma-
tical conclusions are primarily of a
syntactic nature, from which the
analysis of morphological structures
is deduced (i.e. English grammar is
not presented on the level of mor-
phology and on the level of syntax).
Phonology (graphology) is not part
of the grammar, but accounts of
English grammar cannot disregard
it. So in two appendices ('Stress,
Rhythm and Intonation' and 'Punc-
tuation') the authors discuss those
phenomena which bear on the des-
cription of English grammar. A third
appendix deals with 'word-forma-
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tion', since the rules underlying those
by which words are constructed aid
the study of grammar, i.e. they help
us to recognise the grammatical
class of a word by its structure and
they show that there is flexibility in
the grammatical rules, whereby the
English speaker may transfer words
with or without affixation to a new
grammatical class. Although the
lexical rules of English word-
formation are more restricted (less
productive) than the grammatical
rules of sentence formation, the
lexical rules also embrace gram-
matical features or relations, a fact
which has not been recognised.
The Grammar thus primarily pre-
sents a description of observed syn-
tactic patterns in present-day English
(their segmentation into units, their
classification and subclassification)
but it also constantly tests how far
the general rules underlying these
constructions are valid or by what
constraints they are limited.
The lay-out of the Grammar has
been arranged in a cyclical manner.
Chapter 2 presents a 'Preliminary
View of the Sentence'. Its purpose is
to explore the structure of the English
sentence so as to provide a small-
scale map of the topics to be analysed
in detail. This chapter, providing
also a review of the major features of
English grammar, must be studied
carefully if one wishes to read the
later chapters with comparative
ease. It covers the parts of the sen-
tence. Any satisfactory classification
of English sentence-patterns depends
on a satisfactory description of the
categories of the English verb as
distinct from operators and auxili-
aries: intensive verbs (to be, to
grow, etc.), extensive verbs (the rest);
intransitive verbs, transitive verbs
(which include also ditransitive ones,
if they take an additional indirect
object, complex-transitive ones if
they take object and an object com-
plement). But of equal importance is
the distinction between stative verbs
and dynamic verbs, a fundamental
grammatical opposition in English.
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In Chapters 3-5 the authors des- common. The bulk of the chapter
cribe the special characteristics of the discusses the prepositional meanings
separate units which enter into the (place, time, cause, etc.). The mean-
sentence structures as functional ings are elucidated by paraphrase,
elements (subject, object, comple- antinomy, or grammatical transfor-
ment, adverbial, verb). The struc- mation, and classified according to
tures realising the verb phrase (VP) whether the phrase functions as
are the most straightforward. The adjunct, postmodifier, disjunct or
VP is scrutinised in Chapter 3. The complementation to verbs or adjec-
points dealt with include forms and tives. As fields of prepositional
combinations of verbs (finite and meaning are notoriously hard to
non-finite phrases), the auxiliaries classify, it is better to think in some
and modal auxiliaries (their forms, .cases of a range or spectrum of
functions and meanings), time, tense meaning (cause,-..purpose, means ......
and aspect, and the morphology of agentive) first as a single category,
lexical verbs. Chapter 4 deals with then broken up into separate over-
the noun phrase (NP). It includes the lapping subclasses (p. 320).
classification of nouns, their grada- Chapter 7 re-examines the struc-
bility, the closed-system class of ture of the simple sentence and its
determiners, predeterminers and pre- processes as they affect all elements
modifiers, the function of reference except the adverbials.
and the use of the articles, and the Chapter 8 deals with the complex
expression of number, gender and problems of adverbials, a part of
case. The analogical characteristics English grammar which has not been
of the pronouns and a brief survey of treated in like manner in any other
numerals completes the chapter. descriptive grammar of English.
Chapter 5 deals with adjectives and Adverbials are classed as they are
adverbs. The decision to devote a integrated in clause structure (ad-
separate chapter to these two word- juncts) and peripheral in clause
classes, which are neither clearly structure, either as primarily non-
defined in English nor homogeneous, connective (disjuncts) or as primarily
is more in line with the traditional connective (conjuncts). There are
concept of 'parts of speech' than with three syntactic criteria for diagnosing
the general descriptive tendency of adjuncts: (1) an adverbial cannot
the grammar. Both classes are appear initially in a negative declara-
characterised by their syntactic func- tive clause (xQuickly, they did not
tions rather than their formal leave for home); (2) an adverbial can
characteristics. So words classified be contrasted with another adverbial
as adjectives can function attribu- in alternative interrogation (Does he
tively and/or predicatively as oirect write to his parents because he wants
object if they do not require the to or does he write to them because
indefinite or zero article. The two he needs to?); (3) an adverbial can
usual criteria (acceptance of pre- be contrasted with another adverbial
modification by very and the ability in alternative negation (yVe didn't go
of accepting inflected or periphrastic to Chicago on Monday but we did go
comparison) do not seem to be of there on Tuesday) (p. 422). Disjuncts
primary diagnostic value in this and conjuncts satisfy none of the
approach (pp. 233-4). three criteria. Conjuncts are prim-
Chapter 6 bears the title 'Preposi- arily connective, i.e. they cannot
tions and Prepositional Phrases'. The serve as a response to a question (I
prepositional phrase may function in sent him a personal invitation; he
six possible ways (described further will therefore be there tomorrow.
in Chapter 13), of which those of Will he be there tomorrow? Yes,
adjunct, postmodifier, and comple- therefore.). But the non-connective
mentation of the verb are the most disjunct can function in this way (He
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86
will probably be there tomorrow.
Will he be there? Yes, probably.).
Against the background of this
classification the authors first ex-
amine adjuncts and classify them
into viewpoint adjuncts ('-ly' ad-
verbs such as politically, '-wise'
adverbs such as weatherwise, and
corresponding adverbial phrases),
focusing adjuncts which are either
additive (again, also) or restrictive
(alone, especially), intensifiers such
as emphasisers, amplifiers, down-
toners, process adjuncts defining the
process denoted by the verb, subject
adjuncts characterising the referent
of the subject with respect to the
process or state noted by the verb
(e.g. resentfully), place adjuncts, time
adjuncts, and others.
Chapter 9 moves into a different
dimension.
The authors describe coordination,
both syndetic (which employs a co-
ordinator) and asyndetic. They indi-
cate the major differences between
coordination and subordination of
clauses. There follows a description
of the grammatical features of the
coordinators and, or, and but (the
central ones), of, for, nor, both,
either, neither (not pure coordinators)
and of the semantic implications of
the coordination of clauses by means
of the central coordinators. In dis-
cussing the predicate substitutes
(pp. 581-2) that occur in coordina-
tors (pro-forms like do and other
operators) some kind of cross-
reference should have been made to
tag-questions or tag-negations (Chs.
7 and 14), as the syntactic generalisa-
tions of tags appear to be applicable
here too. The set of rules underlying
the constructions My wife didn't
play tennis, but I did is also valid if
the first part is positive and the
second negative (My wife played
tennis, but I didn't: My wife is not a
good tennis player, but I am: My wife
is a good tennis player, but I am not.).
This critical remark also applies to
the analysis of pro-forms for predi-
cation displayed in Chapter 10.
The rest of the chapter deals with
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apposition as a special case of co-
ordination. The study of coordina-
tion and apposition within one com-
pound sentence is related to the
topic of sentence connection (Chap-
ter 10). The linking devices are
classified into time and place relators
(adjectives and adverbials), logical
connectors (coordinators), enumera-
tive, summative, resultative, refor-
mulative and contrastive conjuncts
(as first, furthermore, finally, in a
word, briefly, on the other hand, etc.),
additive adjuncts (e.g. again, too),
appositive indicators, and substitu-
tion devices, including elliptic ele-
ments (pro-forms for noun phrases,
adverbials, predication). A special
section deals with anaphoric and
cataphoric signals to establish dis-
course reference and with the specific
type of ellipsis in dialogue to estab-
lish connections between sentences
said by different speakers. Here
again no prominence is given to the
fact that the syntax of tag-questions,
tag-statements, etc., is also applied
in these instances. It is rightly em-
phasised at the end of the chapter
that in the linguistic description of
discourse the interaction of all
sentence-connecting devices must be
considered.
Chapter 11 analyses the complex
sentence. Types of subordination as
well as the order of subordination
must be considered in order to
account for the structural and
semantic complexity of complex
sentences with more than one de-
pendent clause. The dependent
clauses are classified either by
structural type or by function. After
briefly enumerating the formal indi-
cators of subordination the authors
describe in detail the two main func-
tions of dependent clauses: as sen-
tence elements in the superordinate
clause (subject, object, complement
or adverbial) or as parts within these
elements (postmodifiers of noun
phrases, preposit10nal complement,
adjectival complement). This func-
tional distinction leads to the follow-
ing classification: nominal clauses,
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adverbial clauses operating as ad-
juncts and disjuncts, non-finite and
verbless adverbial clauses, sentential
clauses as restrictive and non-
restrictive modifiers, comparative
clauses, which are constructions of
particular complexity, since they dis-
play features of adverbial and
adjectival modifiers as well as of
adverbial clauses, complementary
clauses (e.g. I found him reading a
paper), which are non-finite clauses
in complement function and parallel
to adjectival and nominal phrases,
common clauses, e.g. Food is cheap,
I believe. The descriptive procedure
in the section on comparative
clauses is remarkably lucid and
thought-provoking.
The two sections that follow dis-
cuss particular problems: the analy-
sis of the verbal phrase in the depen-
dent clause shows how the nature of
the NP is bound up with the particu-
lar type of subordinate clause it
belongs to; and the special gram-
matical features of indirect speech in
relation to direct speech.
Chapter 12 deals in detail with
three aspects of the complementation
of the English verb: voice, the dis-
tinction of phrasal and prepositional
verbs, and complementation types,
such as intensive, monotransitive,
ditransitive, complex-transitive. The
various types are further described in
the light of the active-passive rela-
tions and of the verbs that occur in
the different subtypes. Under the
headline 'Postmodification', features
such as the restrictive relative clause,
the non-restrictive relative clause,
the appositive clause, and post-
modifications by non-finite clauses
and by prepositional phrases are
discussed. Premodification, the topic
of the next section, is in general
interpreted only in terms of post-
modification, because of its greater
explicitness (e.g. some pretty college
girls='some girls who are pretty and
who are at college' (p. 860). The
function of premodifying items, such
as adjectives, participles, and geni-
tives of nouns, is then described in
87
detail and this is followed by a
section dealing with multiple pre-
modification, as in the pleasant
houseproperty tax office furniture (p.
919). Special attention is paid to tho
sequence of these premodifiers.
In Chapter 14, the final chapter,
'Focus, Theme, and Emphasis', the
authors deal with grammatical fea-
tures which are explicable only
through discourse analysis. 'How
the sentence elements can be manipu-
lated within the structure of sen-
tences for different kinds of pro-
minence serving the total sequential
organisation of the message trans-
mitted in discourse' (p. 938). These
observations are based on the
awareness of language as a linearly
organised communication system in
which the ordering and placement of
emphasis are important for the
proper understanding of the message.
This is the first English grammar to
deal with this grammatical tepic
specifically. The first section des-
cribes focus in relation to informa-
tion and the realisation of focus by
means of establishing contrasts in
sentence structures· and word struc-
tures (signalled by intonation, distri-
bution of stress, given and new
information, etc.). The contrast of
given and new information (i.e. the
focus, and it is usually placed
towards the end of the clause) is
realised by means of voice (passivisa-
tion) and the reversing of the order
of roles. The other communicatively
prominent element of the sentence is
the theme (the given information)
which is as distinct as it can be from
the focus. It usually comes first in a
clause. A special section of elements
can often be associated with inversion
of word order and with special con-
structions, which can give both
thematic and focal prominence to a
particular element. Another specific
type of focal prominence, existential
sentences (there+be), is described in
the next section. The final section
describes postponement by means <9f
extraposition and other discontinu-
ous constructions which also serve
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88
the purpose of thematic and focal
prominence.
This long review has, I hope, indi-
cated how this comprehensive ac-
count of the grammar of contem-
porary English differs from any of its
predecessors and how this consistent
description discloses very many so
far unnoticed structural relations and
meanings in English. The Grammar
is highly original and truly modem.
Another great quality is its compre-
hensibility even for the linguistically
less instructed readers. The authors
have been highly economical in
their choice of grammatical terms,
only a few of which are new or em-
ployed in a new sense. Comprehen-
sibility is greatly facilitated by many
ingenious graphic and tabular pre-
sentations of the phenomena des-
cribed. There is a well-devised
system of numbering the chapters,
sections. and subsections, as well as
many cross-references indicating how
the phenomena in question are
Books and Periodicals Noted
Teaching and Learning English as a
Foreign Language:
ENGUSH AS A SECOND LANGUAGE; AN
INDIVIDUAUSED APPROACH. Francis
C. Johnson. Murray. 1914. £6.50.
SECOND-LANGUAGE LEARNING; Myth
and Reality. Paul Christophersen.
Penguin Education. 1973. 40p.
NEW DIRECTIONS IN TEACHING ENGUSH
LANGUAGE. William B. Currie. Long-
man. 1973. £1.
Applied Linguistics:
READINGS FOR APPLIED LINGUISTICS.
Ed. by J. Allen and S. P. Corder.
The Edinburgh Course in Applied
Linguistics, Vol. 1. O.U.P. 1973.
LALL series. Paper, £2.80. Boards,
£4.75.
APPLIED AND CON'IRASTIVE LINGUIS-
TICS. Vol. 1 (ed. by G. Nickel) of the
Books and Periodicals Noted
analysed in various parts of the
volume. Many sections are supple-
mented by 'Notes' which refer to
features not covered in the systema-
tic presentation or which may
require a different interpretation. It
is in these notes that differences
between British and American usage
are often indicated. The 27-page
index of terms, words, and phrases
is neither too detailed nor too short.
I would not like to imply that the
Grammar is mainly a work of refer-
ence. On the contrary, it should be
read and studied as a whole. Al-
though this recommendation may
seem demanding for the average
teacher of English, I am sure that on
completing study of the Grammar
every reader will feel rewarded, as he
should have acquired a new picture
of how the grammar of contemporary
English functions in acts of com-
munication. No serious student of
the English language should avoid
studying this book.
Proceedings of the Third AILA
Congress, Copenhagen 1972. Julius
Groos. Heidelberg, 1974.
First-Language Acquisition:
A FIRST LANGUAGE: THE EARLY
STAGES. Roger Brown. Allen and
Unwin. 1973. £5.95.
The English Language:
AN INTRODUCTION TO MODERN
ENGUSH WORD-FORMATION. Valerie
Adams. Longman. 1973. £3.25.
THE LINGUIST AND THE ENGUSH
LANGUAGE. Randolph Quirk. Arnold.
1974. Paperback, £1.75. Boards, £4.
N.B. The rest of 'Books and Periodi-
cals Noted' will appear in the next
issue. We regret that, owing to
pressure on space, the Editorial
section has also been held over.