CSMA(Carrier Sense Multiple Access)

This method was developed to decrease the chances of collisions

when two or more stations start sending their signals over the data
link layer. Carrier Sense multiple access requires that each station
first check the state of the medium before sending.
1.CSMA with Collision Detection (CSMA/CD):
In this method, a station monitors the medium after it sends a
frame to see if the transmission was successful. If successful, the
transmission is finished, if not, the frame is sent again. 2.CSMA
with Collision Avoidance (CSMA/CA):
The basic idea behind CSMA/CA is that the station should be able
to receive while transmitting to detect a collision from different
stations. In wired networks, if a collision has occurred then the
energy of the received signal almost doubles, and the station can
sense the possibility of collision. In the case of wireless networks,
most of the energy is used for transmission, and the energy of the
received signal increases by only 5-10% if a collision occurs. It
can’t be used by the station to sense collision. Therefore
CSMA/CA has been specially designed for wireless networks.

ARP Vs RARP
In Address Resolution Protocol (ARP), Receiver’s MAC address is
fetched. Through ARP, (32-bit) IP address mapped into (48-bit)
MAC address. Whereas, In Reverse Address Resolution Protocol
(RARP), IP address is fetched through server. Through RARP,
(48-bit) MAC address of 48 bits mapped into (32-bit) IP address.
ARP
Through ARP, (32-bit) IP address mapped into (48-bit) MAC
address..In ARP, broadcast MAC address is used..In ARP, ARP
table is managed or maintained by local host..In Address
Resolution Protocol, Receiver’s MAC address is fetched..In ARP,
ARP table uses ARP reply for its updation..Hosts and routers uses
ARP for knowing the MAC address of other hosts and routers in
the networks..ARP is used in sender’s side to map the receiver’s
MAC address.
RARP
RARP, (48-bit) MAC address of 48 bits mapped into (32-bit) IP
address..While in RARP, broadcast IP address is used..While in
RARP, RARP table is managed or maintained by RARP
server..While in RARP, IP address is fetched..While in RARP,
RARP table uses RARP reply for configuration of IP
addresses..While RARP is used by small users having less
facilities..RARP is used in receiver’s side to map the sender’s IP.
ICMP
The ICMP stands for Internet Control Message Protocol. It is a
network layer protocol. It is used for error handling in the network
layer, and it is primarily used on network devices such as routers.
As different types of errors can exist in the network layer, so ICMP
can be used to report these errors and to debug those errors.The
IP protocol does not have any error-reporting or error-correcting
mechanism, so it uses a message to convey the information. For
example, if someone sends the message to the destination, the
message is somehow stolen between the sender and the
destination. If no one reports the error, then the sender might think
that the message has reached the destination. If someone in-
between reports the error, then the sender will resend the
message very quickly

Berkeley sockets
Berkeley sockets is an application programming interface (API) for
Internet sockets and Unix domain sockets, used for inter-process
communication (IPC). It is commonly implemented as a library of
linkable modules. It originated with the 4.2BSD Unix released in
1983.
A socket is an abstract representation (handle) for the local
endpoint of a network communication path. The Berkeley sockets
API represents it as a file descriptor (file handle) in the Unix
philosophy that provides a common interface for input and output
to streams of data.
Berkeley sockets evolved with little modification from a de facto
standard into a component of the POSIX specification. Therefore,
the term POSIX sockets is essentially synonymous withBerkeley
sockets. They are also known as BSD sockets, acknowledging the
first implementation in the Berkeley Software Distribution.

DNS
An application layer protocol defines how the application
processes running on different systems, pass the messages to
each other..DNS stands for Domain Name System..DNS is a
directory service that provides a mapping between the name of a
host on the network and its numerical address..DNS is required
for the functioning of the internet..Each node in a tree has a
domain name, and a full domain name is a sequence of symbols
specified by dots. DNS is a TCP/IP protocol used on different
platforms. The domain name space is divided into three different
sections: generic domains, country domains, and inverse domain.
HTTP
HTTP stands for HyperText Transfer Protocol..It is a protocol used
to access the data on the World Wide Web (www)..The HTTP
protocol can be used to transfer the data in the form of plain text,
hypertext, audio, video, and so on..This protocol is known as
HyperText Transfer Protocol because of its efficiency that allows
us to use in a hypertext environment where there are rapid jumps
from one document to another document..HTTP is similar to the
FTP as it also transfers the files from one host to another host.
But, HTTP is simpler than FTP as HTTP uses only one
connection, i.e., no control connection to transfer the files..HTTP
is used to carry the data in the form of MIME-like format.

SMTP
SMTP stands for Simple Mail Transfer Protocol..SMTP is a set of
communication guidelines that allow software to transmit an
electronic mail over the internet is called Simple Mail Transfer
Protocol..It is a program used for sending messages to other
computer users based on e-mail addresses..It provides a mail
exchange between users on the same or different computers..The
main purpose of SMTP is used to set up communication rules
between servers. The servers have a way of identifying
themselves and announcing what kind of communication they are
trying to perform. They also have a way of handling the errors
such as incorrect email address. For example, if the recipient
address is wrong, then receiving server reply with an error
message of some kind.

NAT(Network Address Translation)

NAT is the process of reassigning the single IP address space into
a further one by altering the network address data in the IP header
of the data packet while they are traveling through a network
towards the destination node..Generally, NAT works on a router or
gateway and interconnects two networks with each other by
translating the private addresses into the registered addresses
before the data being transmitted to another networkNAT is
having the potential to broadcast only one IP address to the public
network on behalf of the entire internal network. This provisions
the feature of security by efficiently hiding the overall IP address of
the private network behind that solo address. Thus NAT tenders
the double feature of address translation and security for
networking systems.

TCP Timers
TCP uses several timers to ensure that excessive delays are not
encountered during communications. Several of these timers are
elegant, handling problems that are not immediately obvious at
first analysis. Each of the timers used by TCP is examined in the
following sections, which reveal its role in ensuring data is
properly sent from one connection to another. TCP
implementation uses four timers:1.Retransmission Timer:To
retransmit lost segments, TCP uses retransmission timeout
(RTO). When TCP sends a segment the timer starts and stops
when the acknowledgment is received.2.Persistent Timer:To deal
with a zero-window-size deadlock situation, TCP uses a
persistence timer.3.Keep Alive Timer:A keepalive timer is used to
prevent a long idle connection between two TCPs.4.Time Wait
Timer:This timer is used during tcp connection termination.

HDLC
High-level Data Link Control (HDLC) is a group of communication
protocols of the data link layer for transmitting data between
network points or nodes. Since it is a data link protocol, data is
organized into frames. A frame is transmitted via the network to
the destination that verifies its successful arrival. It is a bit -
oriented protocol that is applicable for both point to point and
multipoint communications.:.Transfer Modes.:.HDLC supports two
types of transfer modes, normal response mode and
asynchronous balanced mode.1.Normal Response Mode
(NRM):Here, two types of stations are there, a primary station that
send commands and secondary station that can respond to
received commands. It is used for both point to point and
multipoint communications.
2.Asynchronous Balanced Mode (ABM) − Here, the configuration
is balanced, i.e. each station can both send commands and
respond to commands. It is used for only point to point
communications.