 Application Layer (Layer 7): Emma initiates the process by using a web browser on her laptop to send a GET

GET request. The GET

request is generated at the application layer as part of the HTTP (Hypertext Transfer Protocol) in this case.
 Presentation Layer (Layer 6): The GET request data is then formatted and prepared for network transmission. Any necessary
data translation or encryption may occur at this layer.
 Session Layer (Layer 5): The session layer manages the communication sessions, establishing, maintaining, and terminating
connections if needed. For HTTP, which is stateless, there may not be much session-layer activity.
 Transport Layer (Layer 4): The prepared GET request is handed over to the transport layer, which is responsible for end-to-end
communication. In this case, the Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) is commonly used to ensure reliable data delivery.
 Network Layer (Layer 3): At the network layer, the data is encapsulated into IP (Internet Protocol) packets. The source and
destination IP addresses are added to the packet header.
 Data Link Layer (Layer 2): The IP packets are further encapsulated into frames specific to the data link layer technology in use
(e.g., Ethernet frames). MAC addresses are added to the frame header.
 Physical Layer (Layer 1): Finally, the frames are converted into electrical/optical signals and transmitted over the physical
medium (e.g., cables, Wi-Fi).
OSI Model functions and protocols
OSI Model is a structure to define the system of networking. It allows the transfer of data from one device to another over a network.
 Application: Gives access to network resources. SMTP, HTTP, FTP, POP3, SNMP
 Presentation: Responsible for translating, encrypting, and compressing data. MPEG, ASCH, SSL, TLS
 Session: Ensures establishment and termination of the session. NetBIOS, SAP
 Transport: Enables data transport from source to destination machine. TCP, UDP
 Network: Provides internetworking and packet movement. IPV5, IPV6, ICMP, IPSEC, ARP, MPLS.
 Data Link: Organize bits into frames. RAPA, PPP, Frame Relay, ATM, Fiber Cable, etc.
 Physical Layer: Responsible for providing mechanical and electrical specifications.
Advantages of the OSI Model
 Enables standardization of hardware devices.
 The standardization reduces complexity in interfaces.
 It is useful for facilitating modular engineering.
 Ensure interoperable technology and evolution acceleration.
 The protocols are replaceable with technology changes.
 Supports connection-oriented and connectionless services.
Disadvantages of the OSI Model
 The protocol fitting is very long and dull.
 It is only useful as a reference model.
 It doesn’t follow a particular protocol.
 Many layers have similar or same services.
Differences TCP is Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) and User Datagram Protocol (UDP)
 TCP connection-oriented. While UDP is a message-oriented and connectionless protocol.
 TCP It is suitable for use cases where data integrity, including images, web pages, data files, etc. matters more than
transmission speed. While UDP it is ideal for live data transmission (e.g., media), where transmission is so fast that a few
dropped packets do not matter.
 TCP’s most significant advantage is that it is highly reliable. While UDP its architecture is designed in a manner that makes it
inherently unreliable.
 TCP It is ideal for point-to-point transmission only, with confirmation of receipt. While UDP It is suitable for broadcasting data
packets to an entire group of endpoints, regardless of whether they listen.
 TCP It utilizes flow control information to calibrate the pace of data transmission, to avoid overwhelming the recipient. While
UDP it does not use flow control and sends data at a rate suitable for the originating server.
 TCP It implements congestion avoidance algorithms to prevent data packets from getting lost in a congested network. While
UDP it cannot control network congestion and drops packets if too much traffic is on the pathway.
 TCP It uses timeout, checksum, and acknowledgment to prevent and correct errors. While UDP it uses only checksum to avoid
errors and cannot correct errors.
 TCP data packets have a sequencing number in the header to maintain the order of transmission. While UDP data packets
arrive in no fixed order, and incorrect sequencing cannot be detected or corrected.
 TCP It has a longer latency time and consumes more resources. While UDP it starts the connection faster, delivers data at lower
latency, and consumes fewer resources.
 TCP is connection-oriented. While UDP is a message-oriented and connectionless protocol.
The three Way hand shake
 Step 1 (SYN): In the first step, the client wants to establish a connection with a server, so it sends a segment with
SYN(Synchronize Sequence Number) which informs the server that the client is likely to start communication and with what
sequence number it starts segments with
 Step 2 (SYN + ACK): Server responds to the client request with SYN-ACK signal bits set. Acknowledgement (ACK) signifies the
response of the segment it received and SYN signifies with what sequence number it is likely to start the segments with
 Step 3 (ACK): In the final part client acknowledges the response of the server and they both establish a reliable connection with
which they will start the actual data transfer.
The Address Resolution Protocol (ARP) is a communication protocol used for discovering the link layer address, such as a MAC address,
associated with a given internet layer address, typically an IPv4 address.
Differences between Private IP Address and Public IP Address
  Private IP address scope is local to present network. While Public IP address scope is global.
 Private IP Address is used to communicate within the network. While Public IP Address is used to communicate outside the
network.
 Private IP Addresses differ in a uniform manner. While Public IP addresses differ in varying range.
 Local Network Operator creates private IP addresses using network operating system. While Internet Service Provider (ISP)
controls the public IP address.
 Private IP Addresses are free of cost. While Public IP Address comes with a cost.
 Private IP Address can be located using ipconfig command. While Public IP Address needs to be searched on search engine like
google.
SMTP (Simple Mail Transfer Protocol) is a widely used TCP protocol for email sending. The SMTP protocol is mainly used by the clients to
send emails to the servers or for the email communications between servers.
Advantages of SMTP
 SMTP ensures the dependability of outgoing email messages.
 If a message is not successfully delivered, the SMTP server will repeatedly try to resend it until the transmission is successful.
 Easy to use.
 In case of failure, SMTP will explain the failure.
Disadvantages of SMTP
 Firewalls often block ports used by SMTP.
 The security provided by SMTP is insufficient.
 SMTP servers reject email messages that are longer than a certain length.
 Server limitations.
IMAP, (The Internet Message Access Protocol), is a protocol for receiving emails from a server. Since IAMP allows access to emails from
multiple locations simultaneously, it keeps the email on the server after being delivered. Also, it doesn't;t download the entire email until
the recipient opens it.
Advantages of IMAP
 Not affected by local machine failures since the emails are stored in the server.
 Can be accessed through multiple devices at the same time.
 It supports keyboard-based email searching.
 Local storage use is minimal.
Disadvantages of IMAP
 Accessing emails is a little slower than POP3 because all folders are synchronized every time there is a send or receives.
 Emails will not work unless you have an active internet connection.
 If you use email frequently, you will need a larger mailbox storage space, which may be more costly.
POP3 (Post Office Protocol Version 3) it transfers emails from the server to the client, allowing you to read them even if you are not
connected to the internet.
Advantages of POP3
 Popular, simple to set up and use.
 Emails are downloaded to the user's computer, and messages can be viewed even if the user is not connected to the internet.
 Opening attachments is quick and simple because they have already been downloaded.
 Requires less server storage space because all emails are stored on the local machine.
Disadvantages of POP3
 Email attachments may contain viruses that may cause harm to the user's PC.
 Hard to export the local mail folder to another email client or physical machine.
 Email folders can become corrupted, potentially resulting in the loss of the entire mailbox.
Differences between SMTP, IMAP, and POP3
SMTP VS IMAP
 IMAP is used to retrieve messages, and SMTP is for sending data.
 IMAP works between the server and client for communication, and SMTP works between servers to transfer information.
 IMAP allows users to organize emails onto the server, while SMTP allows organizing emails on client storage.
SMTP VS POP3
 SMTP is a push protocol, while POP3 is known as a pop protocol.
 SMTP sends the email from the sender's device to the receiver's mailbox, and POP3 retrieves and organizes emails from the
receiver's mail server to the receiver's computer.
 SMTP functions between the sender's and receiver's mail servers, and POP3 functions between the receiver and the receiver's
mail server.
IMAP VS POP3
 POP3 downloads all the emails simultaneously, while IMAP shows you the message header before downloading the email.
 POP3 downloads an email from the server and then deletes it. IMAP stores the email on the server and syncs it across several
devices to access over multiple channels.
 POP3 does not allow you to organize emails in the mail server mailbox, while IMAP allows you to organize the server mailbox.
 IMAP keeps several copies of an email to make retrieval easier
DVMRP (Distance Vector Multicast Routing Protocol) is a multicast routing protocol used in IPv4 networks. It is a distance-vector protocol
which means it uses hop counts to determine the best path for forwarding multicast packets The DVMRP is used for multicasting over IP
networks without routing protocols to support multicast.
The DVMRP operates as follows:
  The first message for any source-group pair is forwarded to the entire multicast network, with respect to the time-to-live (TTL)
of the packet.
 TTL restricts the area to be flooded by the message.
 All the leaf routers that do not have members on directly attached subnetworks send back prune messages to the upstream
router.
 The branch that transmitted a prune message is deleted from the delivery tree.
 The delivery tree, which is spanning to all the members in the multicast group, is constructed.
Multicasting is a communication process where a single sender can send data to multiple recipients simultaneously. Instead of sending
individual packets to each receiver, multicasting uses a multicast routing process to efficiently distribute data to multiple destinations.
The multicast routing process can be broken down into several steps:
1. Group Creation: A group is created by the sender which includes all the intended recipients who will receive the multicast data. The
sender also assigns a multicast group address to this group.
2. Group Joining: The receiver devices that want to receive the multicast data join the multicast group by sending a request to a multicast
router. This request is known as a “Group Join” message.
3. Multicast Routing Table: Each multicast router in the network maintains a multicast routing table that stores information about the
various multicast groups and the interfaces through which the router can forward multicast traffic.
4. Group Distribution Tree: Using the information from the multicast routing table, the multicast router constructs a group distribution
tree. This tree is a logical representation of the network that shows how the multicast data should be distributed from the sender to the
receivers.
5. Tree Creation: The multicast router uses various multicast routing protocols (such as Protocol Independent Multicast or Internet Group
Management Protocol) to create the group distribution tree. These protocols determine the best path for the multicast data to reach all
recipients efficiently.
6. Tree Maintenance: The multicast router constantly monitors the group distribution tree for any changes in the network topology or
membership. If a receiver joins or leaves the multicast group, the router updates the tree accordingly.
7. Packet Forwarding: Once the group distribution tree is established, the multicast router starts forwarding incoming multicast packets
from the sender to the appropriate outgoing interfaces, following the path defined by the tree
8. Packet Replication: In some cases, when multiple receivers reside on the same network segment, the multicast router may need to
replicate the multicast packets and send them individually to each recipient. This is known as packet replication.
The Address Resolution Protocol (ARP) is a communication protocol used for discovering the link layer address, such as a MAC address,
associated with a given internet layer address, typically an IPv4 address.
Difference between IPv4 and IPv6
 IPv4 has a 32-bit address length while IPv6 has a 128-bit address length
 IPv4It Supports Manual and DHCP address configuration while IPv6 It supports Auto and renumbering address configuration
 In IPv4 end to end, connection integrity is Unachievable while In IPv6 end-to-end, connection integrity is Achievable
 IPv4 It can generate 4.29×109 address space while IPv6 the address space of IPv6 is quite large it can produce 3.4×1038 address
space
 IPv4 the Security feature is dependent on the application while IPv6 IPSEC is an inbuilt security feature in the IPv6 protocol
 Address representation of IPv4 is in decimal while IPv6 Address Representation of IPv6 is in hexadecimal
 IPv4 Fragmentation performed by Sender and forwarding routers In IPv6 fragmentation is performed only by the sender
 In IPv4 Packet flow identification is not available while In IPv6 packet flow identification are Available and uses the flow label
field in the header
 In IPv4 checksum field is available while In IPv6 checksum field is not available Subnet Mask and its Functions
Class A addresses are for networks with large number of total hosts. Class A allows for 126 networks by using the first octet for the
network ID. The first bit in this octet, is always zero. The remaining seven bits in this octet complete the network ID. The 24 bits in the
remaining three octets represent the hosts ID and allows for approximately 17 million hosts per network.
Class B addresses are for medium to large sized networks. Class B allows for 16,384 networks by using the first two octets for the network
ID. The first two bits in the first octet are always 1 0. The remaining six bits, together with the second octet, complete the network ID. The
16 bits in the third and fourth octet represent host ID and allows for approximately 65,000 hosts per network.
Class C addresses are used in small local area networks (LANs). Class C allows for approximately 2 million networks by using the first three
octets for the network ID. In a class C IP address, the first three bits of the first octet are always 1 1 0. And the remaining 21 bits of first
three octets complete the network ID. The last octet (8 bits) represent the host ID and allows for 254 hosts per network. Class C network
number values begins at 192 and end at 223.
Topology: defines the structure of the network of how all the components are interconnected to each other.
Physical topology is the geometric representation of all the nodes in a network.
Bus Topology: The bus topology is designed in such a way that all the stations are connected through a single cable known as a backbone
cable. Each node is either connected to the backbone cable by drop cable or directly connected to the backbone cable. The bus topology is
mainly used in 802.3 (ethernet) and 802.4 standard networks. The most common access method of the bus topologies is CSMA (Carrier
Sense Multiple Access).
Advantages of Bus Topology:
1 It works very efficiently well when there is a small network. 2 It is easy to connect or remove devices in this network without affecting
any other device. 3 Very cost-effective as compared to other network topology mesh and star
4 It is easy to understand topology.
5 Easy to expand by joining the two cables together.
Disadvantages of Bus Topology:
1 Bus topology is not great for large networks. 2 Troubleshooting individual device issues is very hard. 3 Additional devices slow the
network down. 4 It is very slow as compared to other topologies.
Ring Topology: Ring topology is like a bus topology, but with connected ends. The data flows in one direction, i.e., it is unidirectional. The
data flows in a single loop continuously known as an endless loop. The most common access method of the ring topology is token passing.
Advantages of Ring topology:
1 In this data flows in one direction which reduces the chance of packet collisions. 3 Equal access to the resources.
4 It is cheap to install and expand.
5 Minimum collision.
6 Speed to transfer the data is very high in this type of topology.
7 Easy to manage.
Disadvantages of Ring topology:
1 Due to the Unidirectional Ring, a data packet (token) must have to pass through all the nodes. 2 It is slower in performance as compared
to the bus topology 3 it is Expensive. 4 Difficult to troubleshoot the ring. 5 Total dependence in on one cable. 6 They were not scalable.
Star Topology: Star topology is an arrangement of the network in which every node is connected to the central hub, switch or a central
computer. Coaxial cable or RJ-45 cables are used to connect the computers. Hubs or Switches are mainly used as connection devices in a
physical star topology. Star topology is the most popular topology in network implementation.
Advantages of Star topology
1 Its speed is very high. 2 The network is highly scalable. 3 It is the most efficient.
Disadvantages
1 Maintenance cost is very high.2 Central device dependency. 3 It is very expensive
Tree topology: Tree topology combines the characteristics of bus topology and star topology. A tree topology is a type of structure in
which all the computers are connected with each other in hierarchical fashion. There is only one path exists between two nodes for the
data transmission. Thus, it forms a parent-child hierarchy.
Advantages of Tree topology
1. It is easily to expand. 2. It is easily to manage. 3. Error detection and error correction are very easy.
Disadvantages of Tree topology
1 It is very costly 2 Reconfiguration is difficult. 3 It is Difficult when troubleshooting
Mesh topology: Mesh technology is an arrangement of the network in which computers are interconnected with each other through
various mesh topology is mainly used for WAN implementations where communication failures are a critical concern redundant
connections.
Advantages
1. The addition of a new device is very easy. 2. High level of traffic is manageable by it after the completion of the setup.
Disadvantages
1. Initial setup is very difficult. 2. Implementing post for mesh topology comparatively higher
Hybrid Topology: The combination of various different topologies is known as Hybrid topology. A Hybrid topology is a connection between
different links and nodes to transfer the data.
Advantages
1 Efficiency 2 Adaptability
3 Scalability 4 Reliable Data Link & Secure Transmission Method
Disadvantages
1 High Costs 2 Installation Challenges 3 More Hardware Requirement 4 Cable Failures.
A computer network is a group of computers linked to each other that enables the computer to communicate with another computer and
share their resources, data, and applications.
1. Personal Area Network (PAN): PAN is the most basic type of computer network. This network is restrained to a single person, that is,
communication between the computer devices is cantered only on an individual’s workspace. PAN offers a network range of 1 to 100
meters from person to device providing communication. Its transmission speed is very high with very easy maintenance and very low cost.
Examples of PAN are USB, computer, phone, tablet, printer, PDA, etc.
2. Local Area Network (LAN): LAN is the most frequently used network. A LAN is a computer network that connects computers through a
common communication path, contained within a limited area, that is, locally. A LAN encompasses two or more computers connected
over a server.
Advantages: 1 Fast and efficient communication between devices. 2 Easy sharing of resources like printers and files. 3 Enhanced security
within the local network.
Disadvantages: 1 Limited coverage area, requiring additional infrastructure for expansion. 2 May suffer from congestion and slower
speeds with increased devices. 3 Vulnerable to security breaches if not properly secured.
4. Metropolitan Area Network (MAN): A MAN is larger than a LAN but smaller than a WAN. This is the type of computer network that
connects computers over a geographical distance through a shared communication path over a city, town, or metropolitan area.
Advantages: 1 Facilitates efficient communication between organizations within a city. 2 Enables resource sharing and collaboration on a
larger scale. 3 Supports high-speed data transfer within the metropolitan area.
Disadvantages: 1 Costly to implement and maintain compared to LANs due to infrastructure requirements. 2 Limited coverage area may
require additional networks for broader connectivity. 3 Vulnerable to disruptions and performance issues if not properly managed.
5. Wide Area Network (WAN): WAN is a type of computer network that connects computers over a large geographical distance through a
shared communication path. It is not restrained to a single location but extends over many locations.
Advantages: 1 Enables communication and data sharing between geographically distant locations. 2 Supports large-scale connectivity for
organizations with multiple branches. 3 Facilitates access to internet resources and services.
Disadvantages: 1 slower data transfer rates compared to LANs due to the vast geographical coverage. 2 Requires additional setup and
configuration for secure and efficient data transmission. 3 It relies on external telecommunication infrastructure, making it susceptible to
disruptions