DATA COMMUNICATION &

NETWORKING 1

NELVIN B. GALAPON
Subject Teacher

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INTRODUCTION
▪ This chapter provides an introduction to Computer networks and covers fundamental topics like
data, information to the definition of communication and computer networks.
▪ The main objective of data communication and networking is to enable seamless exchange of data
between any two points in the world.
▪ This exchange of data takes place over a computer network.

DATA & INFORMATION

Data refers to the raw facts that are collected while information refers to processed data that enables us to
take decisions.

Ex. When result of a particular test is declared it contains data of all students, when you find the marks you
have scored you have the information that lets you know whether you have passed or failed.

The word data refers to any information which is presented in a form that is agreed and accepted upon by
is creators and users.

DATA COMMUNICATION
Data Communication is a process of exchanging data or information.

In case of computer networks this exchange is done between two devices over a transmission medium.

This process involves a communication system which is made up of hardware and software. The hardware
part involves the sender and receiver devices and the intermediate devices through which the data passes.
The software part involves certain rules which specify what is to be communicated, how it is to be
communicated and when. It is also called as a Protocol.

The following sections describes the fundamental characteristics that are important for the effective working
of data communication process and is followed by the components that make up a data communications
system.

CHARACTERISTICS OF DATA COMMUNICATION

The effectiveness of any data communications system depends upon the following four fundamental
characteristics:

1. Delivery: The data should be delivered to the correct destination and correct user.

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 2. Accuracy: The communication system should deliver the data accurately, without introducing any
errors. The data may get corrupted during transmission affecting the accuracy of the delivered
data.
3. Timeliness: Audio and Video data has to be delivered in a timely manner without any delay; such
a data delivery is called real time transmission of data.
4. Jitter: It is the variation in the packet arrival time. Uneven Jitter may affect the timeliness of data
being transmitted.

COMPONENTS OF DATA COMMUNICATION

A Data Communication system has five components as shown in the diagram below:

1. Message
Message is the information to be communicated by the sender to the receiver.
2. Sender
The sender is any device that is capable of sending the data (message).
3. Receiver
The receiver is a device that the sender wants to communicate the data (message).
4. Transmission Medium
It is the path by which the message travels from sender to receiver. It can be wired or wireless and
many subtypes in both.

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5. Protocol
▪ It is an agreed upon set or rules used by the sender and receiver to communicate data.
▪ A protocol is a set of rules that governs data communication.
▪ A Protocol is a necessity in data communications without which the communicating entities are
like two persons trying to talk to each other in a different language without know the other
language.

DATA REPRESENTATION
Data is collection of raw facts which is processed to deduce information.

There may be different forms in which data may be represented. Some of the forms of data used in
communications are as follows:

1. Text
▪ Text includes combination of alphabets in small case as well as upper case.
▪ It is stored as a pattern of bits. Prevalent encoding system : ASCII, Unicode
2. Numbers
▪ Numbers include combination of digits from 0 to 9.
▪ It is stored as a pattern of bits. Prevalent encoding system : ASCII, Unicode
3. Images
▪ An image is worth a thousand words‖ is a very famous saying. In computers images are
digitally stored.
▪ A Pixel is the smallest element of an image. To put it in simple terms, a picture or image is a
matrix of pixel elements.
▪ The pixels are represented in the form of bits. Depending upon the type of image (black n
white or color) each pixel would require different number of bits to represent the value of a
pixel.
▪ The size of an image depends upon the number of pixels (also called resolution) and the bit
pattern used to indicate the value of each pixel.
▪ Example: if an image is purely black and white (two color) each pixel can be represented by a
value either 0 or 1, so an image made up of 10 x 10 pixel elements would require only 100 bits
in memory to be stored.

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 ▪ On the other hand an image that includes gray may require 2 bits to represent every pixel
value (00 - black, 01 – dark gray, 10 5 – light gray, 11 –white). So the same 10 x 10 pixel
image would now require 200 bits of memory to be stored.
▪ Commonly used Image formats : jpg, png, bmp, etc
4. Audio
▪ Data can also be in the form of sound which can be recorded and broadcasted. Example: What
we hear on the radio is a source of data or information.
▪ Audio data is continuous, not discrete.
5. Video
▪ Video refers to broadcasting of data in form of picture or movie

DATA FLOW
Two devices communicate with each other by sending and receiving data. The data can flow between the
two devices in the following ways.

1. Simplex
2. Half Duplex
3. Full Duplex

SIMPLEX

Figure: Simplex mode of communication

▪ In Simplex, communication is unidirectional

▪ Only one of the devices sends the data and the other one only receives the data.
▪ Example: in the above diagram: a cpu send data while a monitor only receives data.

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HALF DUPLEX

Figure: Half Duplex Mode of Communication

▪ In half duplex both the stations can transmit as well as receive but not at the same time.
▪ When one device is sending other can only receive and vice-versa (as shown in figure above.)
▪ Example: A walkie-talkie.

FULL DUPLEX

Figure: Full Duplex Mode of Communication

▪ In Full duplex mode, both stations can transmit and receive at the same time.
▪ Example: mobile phones

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COMPUTER NETWORK
What is a Network?
 A network consists of two or more NODES that are linked in order to share.
The generic term node or host refers to any device on a network
A Computer network should ensure:
▪ reliability of the data communication process,
▪ security of the data
▪ performance by achieving higher throughput and smaller delay times
Why Networking?
1. Sharing Information
- i.e. data communication
Do you prefer this?

Or this?

2. Sharing Resources
- e.g. Print documents

3. Centralize administration and support

- E.g. Internet-based, so everyone can access the same administrative or support
application from their PCs

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How many kinds of Network?
1. Base on Transmission Media
2. Based on Network Size
3. Based on Management Method
4. Based on Topology (connectivity)

TRANSMISSION MEDIA
Two main categories:
▪ Guided - wires, cables
▪ Unguided - wireless transmission, e.g. Radio, microwave, infrared, sound, sonar
We will concentrate on guided media here:
▪ Twisted-pair cables:
➢ Unshielded twisted-pair (UTP) cables
➢ Shielded twisted-pair (STP) cables
▪ Coaxial cables
▪ Fiber-optic cables

TWISTED PAIR
UTP (Unshielded Twisted Pair) CABLE
UTP cable is a medium that is composed of pairs of wires. UTP cable
is used in a variety of networks. Each of the eight individual copper
wires in UTP cable is covered by an insulating material. In addition,
the wires in each pair are twisted around each other.

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 STP (Shielded Twisted Pair) CABLE

Shielded twisted-pair (STP) cable combines the techniques of

shielding, cancellation, and wire twisting. The four pairs of wires then
are wrapped in an overall metallic braid or foil, usually 150-ohm cable.

COAXIAL CABLE

Coaxial cable consists of a hollow outer cylindrical conductor that

surrounds a single inner wire made of two conducting elements.

One of these elements, located in the center of the cable, is a copper

conductor.

FIBER OPTIC CABLES

An optical fiber or optical fibre is a flexible, transparent fiber made by

drawing glass (silica) or plastic to a diameter slightly thicker than that
of a human hair. Optical fibers are used most often as a means to
transmit light between the two ends of the fiber and find wide usage in
fiber-optic communications, where they permit transmission over
longer distances and at higher bandwidths (data rates) than wire
cables.

NETWORK SIZE

1. PAN (Personal Area Network)

▪ Personal area network is the smallest network
w/c is very personal to a user.
▪ This very include blutooth or infrared enabled
devices
▪ It has connectivity range up to 10m

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 ▪ Pan may include wireless computer keyboard and mouse, bluetooth enabled headphones, wireless
printers and tv remotes
2. LAN (Local Area Network)
▪ The computers are geographically close together (that is, in the same
building)
▪ Small network, short distance

3. MAN (Metropolitan Area Network)

▪ A data network designed for a town or city.
▪ It has connectivity range up to 80km
▪ Example.. Tv cable

4. WAN (Wide Area Network)

▪ It covers a wide area which may span across provinces
and even a whole country.
▪ Example: Internet

What was the first computer network?

 One of the first computer networks to use packet switching, arpanet was developed in the mid-
1960s and is considered to be the direct predecessor of the modern internet.
 The first arpanet message was sent on october 29, 1969.

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PACKET SWITCHING
 A method of distributing data over a network first developed by leonard
kleinrock between 1959 and 1962, that was used on arpanet.

In packet switching, information is broken into small segments of data known as packets and then
reassembled when received at the destination.

PROTOCOL

▪ A Protocol is one of the components of a data communications system. Without protocol

communication cannot occur. The sending device cannot just send the data and expect the
receiving device to receive and further interpret it correctly.
▪ When the sender sends a message it may consist of text, number, images, etc. which are
converted into bits and grouped into blocks to be transmitted and often certain additional
information called control information is also added to help the receiver interpret the data.
▪ For successful communication to occur, the sender and receiver must agree upon certain rules
called protocol.
▪ A Protocol is defined as a set of rules that governs data communications.
▪ A protocol defines what is to be communicated, how it is to be communicated and when it is to be
communicated.

Elements of a Protocol
There are three key elements of a protocol:
A. Syntax
▪ It means the structure or format of the data. It is the arrangement of data in a particular
order.
B. Semantics
▪ It tells the meaning of each section of bits and indicates the interpretation of each section.

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 ▪ It also tells what action/decision is to be taken based on the interpretation.
C. Timing
▪ It tells the sender about the readiness of the receiver to receive the data
▪ It tells the sender at what rate the data should be sent to the receiver to avoid
overwhelming the receiver.

STANDARDS IN NETWORKING
▪ Standards are necessary in networking to ensure interconnectivity and interoperability between
various networking hardware and software components.
▪ Without standards we would have proprietary products creating isolated islands of users which
cannot interconnect.
Concept of Standard
▪ Standards provide guidelines to product manufacturers and vendors to ensure national and
international interconnectivity.
▪ Data communications standards are classified into two categories:
1. De facto Standard
• These are the standards that have been traditionally used and mean by fact or by
convention
• These standards are not approved by any organized body but are adopted by
widespread use.
2. De jure standard
• It means by law or by regulation.
• These standards are legislated and approved by an body that is officially
recognized.

Standard Organizations in field of Networking

• Standards are created by standards creation committees, forums, and government regulatory
agencies.
Examples of Standard Creation Committees:
1. International Organization for Standardization (ISO)

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 2. International Telecommunications Union – Telecommunications Standard (ITU-T)
3. American National Standards Institute (ANSI)
4. Institute of Electrical & Electronics Engineers (IEEE)
5. Electronic Industries Associates (EIA)
Examples of Forums
1. ATM Forum
2. MPLS Forum
3. Frame Relay Forum
Examples of Regulatory Agencies:
1. Federal Communications Committee (FCC)

BASED ON NETWORK MANAGEMENT

1. Peer-to-Peer Network

 The Peer-to-Peer network is also called P2P or computer-to-computer network.

 'Peers' are the nodes or computer system which are connected to each other. In this kind
of network, each node is connected to each other node in the network.

Following are the advantages of using a peer-to-peer network:

1. Easy to implement and manage.

2. Nodes or workstations are independent of one another. Also, no access permissions are
needed.
3. The network is reliable in nature. If a peer fails, it will not affect the working of others.
4. There is no need for any professional software in such kind of networks.
5. The cost of implementation of such networks is very less.
Following are the disadvantages of using a peer-to-peer network:

1. Storage is decentralized, and also not so efficiently managed.

2. No data backup options are available in peer-to-peer networks.
3. These kinds of networks are not so secure.

2. Server-Based Network

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  A Server-Based network can also be termed as a Client-Server network.
 A server is a node that acts as a service provider for clients. They wait for client requests
and then respond to them. The server is located elsewhere on the network, usually on a
more powerful machine. Here, the server is the central location where users share and
access network resources. It controls the level of access that users have to share
resources. In other words, a server provides functionality and serve other programs called
clients.

The Server-based network can be applied for various uses and applications. Some of them are as
follows:

1. Centralization: The server administers the whole set-up in the network. Access rights and
resource allocations are also done by the server.
2. Proper Management: Due to centralized storage, it becomes easy to find a file or some other
resource.
3. Backup and Recovery: A centralized server makes data backup and recovery possible in a
convenient manner.
4. Upgradation and Scalability: Changes in the network can be made very easily by just
upgrading the server. Also, the network is easily scalable.
5. Accessibility: Servers can be accessed remotely from various platforms in the network.
6. Security: Rules defining security and access rights can be defined at the time of the set-up of
the server.
Following are the advantages of using a server-based network:

1. It facilitates a Centralized storage system.

2. Centralization makes administration easy.
3. Data can be easily backed in such networks.
4. The network is easy to scale.
5. Data sharing speed is high.
6. Servers can serve multiple clients at a time.
Following are the disadvantages of using a server-based network:

1. Dependency is more on a centralized server.

2. If the server's data is corrupted, all nodes will be affected.
3. A network administrator is required.

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 4. The cost of the server and network software is very high.
A side-to-side comparison of workgroup and domain:
Workgroup
Network type Peer-to-peer Windows computer
network
Log in User needs to have separate log
in id and password at each
workstation
Workstations Computers are limited to
maximum 10
Administrator Each user controls the resources
and security locally on their PC's
Location All computers must be on the
same local network or subnet.
Computer's settings Each user controls the settings on
their own computer. No central
settings.
Changes Each computer must be changed
manually or once changed must
be transferred to each computer.
Security User needs to have separate log
in id and password at each
workstation, but once logged in
can access the computer.
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Domain
Client/server network
User can log on at any workstation
via their account and access
domain resources
There can be up to 2000
computers
One administrator to administer
the domain and its users and
resources.
The computers can be on different
local networks, i.e. anywhere in
the world.
One can make only limited
changes to a computer's settings
because network administrators
often want to ensure consistency
among computers.
Changes made to one are
automatically made to all
computers
Domain users must provide a
password or other credentials
each time they access the domain.
NETWORK TOPOLOGY

 refers to the layout of a network and how different nodes in a network are connected to each other
and how they communicate.
 Arrangement of NODES on the network.

TYPES OF TOPOLOGY
1. BUS (LINEAR) TOPOLOGY

MAIN ADVANTAGE MAIN DISAVANTAGE

It's easy to connect a computer or device The entire network shuts down if there is a
break in the main wire

▪ In networking a bus is the central cable -- the main wire -- that connects all devices on a
local-area network (LAN).
▪ It also called a backbone

2. RING TOPOLOGY

MAIN ADVANTAGE MAIN DISAVANTAGE

It can span larger distances More expensive
If one computer fails, whole network fails

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 ▪ All of the nodes are connected in a closed loop circle.

3. STAR TOPOLOGY

MAIN ADVANTAGE MAIN DISAVANTAGE

In a star network, one malfunctioning node If the central computer fails, the entire
doesn't affect the rest of the network. network becomes unusable.

▪ In a star network devices are connected to a central computer, called a hub.

▪ Nodes communicate across the network by passing data through the hub.

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WHAT IS INTERNET?

 Is the global system of interconnected computer networks that use the internet protocol suite
(TCP/IP) to link billions of devices worldwide.
Means of connecting a computer to any other computer anywhere in the world via dedicated
routers and servers
BRIEF HISTORY OF INTERNET
▪ ARPANET (Advanced Research Projects Agency Network) – was developed by DARPA
(Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency) in the year 1969. Initially, it was used by the
defense establishment and universities.
▪ SATNET (Southern Africa Telecentre Network) – this enabled the linking North America to
Europe. Through commercial satellites in the year 1976.
▪ TCP/IP Protocol Suite – this protocol suite was taken as a standard in 1983 by ARPANET. This
popular suite allows multiple networks to be connected.
▪ NSFNET (National Science Foundation) – was launched in 1984 to serve as a backbone network
connecting some super computer sites in the USA. This was also linked to ARPANet. Later in the
year 1988 MCI provided some high speed lines.
▪ INTERNET – was originally the connection of ARPANET, NSFNet and a few others. The internet
came into existence sometime in the mid-eigthties.

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 ▪ WWW – Tim Berners-lee developed the www as we known it now in 1991, since then it has gained
enormous popularity & it being widely used.
WHY USE THE INTERNET?

▪ Apply for jobs or schools

▪ Fill out government forms
▪ Check bank accounts
▪ Communicate with family, friends and co-workers
▪ Do research
▪ Learn new skills
▪ Read news
▪ Watch videos

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