Section 3.1 Section 3.

Transition to Abstract Mathematics

Chapter 3: Describing Sets
Part A

March 2022
Section 3.1 Section 3.2

Scope
• Textbook Chapter 3: Sets
• Sections 3.1 to 3.6
• Pages 59 to 86
• Class exercises and textbook exercises
Section 3.1 Section 3.2

Learning outcomes
To name, define, explain and use the following concepts
coherently:
• set; empty set; universal set; power set
• subset; proper subset; proper containment
• set equality
• Venn diagrams
• union; intersection; difference and complement of sets
• disjoint sets and pairwise disjoint sets
• relative complement of sets
• index set; indexed collection of sets
• partitions of sets
• ordered pair; Cartesian product of sets
Section 3.1 Section 3.2

Section 3.1: Set basics

A set is any collection of objects.

The objects that make up a set are called its elements (or
members).
For example:
1. The elements of this class are the students.
2. The elements of a week are the days.
3. The elements of your lunchbox are: a sandwich, an apple
and a juice.
4. The elements in the periodic table are the elements.
Section 3.1 Section 3.2

Notation

Notation:
1. Sets: A, B, C, D, X, Y
2. Elements: a, b, c, d, x, y
3. Membership: a ∈ A
4. Non-membership: a 6∈ A
The empty set (also called: null set or void set)

∅ = {}
Section 3.1 Section 3.2

Describing Sets by listing; the empty set

Examples for describing sets by listing elements:

1. A = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5} = {1, 3, 5, 2, 4}
2. B = {Elephant, Rhino, Lion, Buffalo, Leopard}
3. C = {2, 4, 6, 8, 10, 12, 14, 16, 18, 20} = {2, 4, . . . , 20}
4. D = {♠, ♥, ♦, ♣}
5. E = {} = ∅
√
6. F = { 5, ∅, A, {−3, 12 }}.
Section 3.1 Section 3.2

Important sets with their own special notation

1. Natural numbers: N = {1, 2, 3, . . .}

2. Integers: Z = {. . . , −2, −1, 0, 1, 2, . . .}
3. Rational numbers: Q
4. Real numbers: R
5. Complex numbers: C
Alternative notation: N, Z, Q, R, C
Section 3.1 Section 3.2

Cardinality of sets

The cardinality of a set S, denoted |S|, is the number of

elements it has.
A set S is finite if |S| = n for some non-negative integer n.
Otherwise it is infinite.
What is the cardinality of each of the following sets?
1. A = {1, 3, 5, 2, 4}
2. B = {1, 3, 5, {2, 4}, ∅}
3. C = ∅
4. D = {{1, {3, 5}}, {2, 4}, A}
5. E = {1, 3, 5, 7, . . .}
Write down what you think the answers are before going to the
next slide to view the answers (in orange).
Section 3.1 Section 3.2

Cardinality of sets

The cardinality of a set S, denoted |S|, is the number of

elements it has.
A set S is finite if |S| = n for some non-negative integer n.
Otherwise it is infinite.
What is the cardinality of each of the following sets?
1. A = {1, 3, 5, 2, 4} |A| = 5
2. B = {1, 3, 5, {2, 4}, ∅} |B| = 5
3. C = ∅ |C| = 0
4. D = {{1, {3, 5}}, {2, 4}, A} |D| = 3
5. E = {1, 3, 5, 7, . . .} |E| = ∞
Section 3.1 Section 3.2

Describing sets: Set builder notation

General form:

S = {x : p(x)}
or

S = {x | p(x)}
For example:
1. A = {y : y is an even integer}
2. B = {2x : x is a natural number}
3. C = {α : α can do a handstand}
4. D = {β ∈ C : β is holding a blue pen right now}
Section 3.1 Section 3.2

Example

Let A = {n ∈ Z : 2 ≤ |n| ≤ 4},

B = {x ∈ Q : 2 < x ≤ 4},
√ √
C = {x ∈ R : x2 − (2 + √2)x + 2 √2 = 0} and
D = {x ∈ Q : x2 − (2 + 2)x + 2 2 = 0}.
1. Describe the set A by listing its elements.
2. Give an example of three elements that belong to B but do
not belong to A.
3. Describe the set C by listing its elements.
4. Determine the cardinality of each of the sets A, B, C and D.

NB: Try writing down the answers yourself before going to the
next slide.
Section 3.1 Section 3.2

Example

Let A = {n ∈ Z : 2 ≤ |n| ≤ 4},

B = {x ∈ Q : 2 < x ≤ 4},
√ √
C = {x ∈ R : x2 − (2 + √2)x + 2 √2 = 0} and
D = {x ∈ Q : x2 − (2 + 2)x + 2 2 = 0}.
1. Describe the set A by listing its elements.
{−4, −3, −2, 2, 3, 4}
2. Give an example of three elements that belong to B but do
not belong to A. {2.5, 10 15
3, 4}
√
3. Describe the set C by listing its elements. { 2, 2}
4. Determine the cardinality of each of the sets A, B, C and D.
|A| = 6, |B| = ∞, |C| = 2, |D| = 1.
Section 3.1 Section 3.2

Section 3.2: Subsets

Definition (Subset). A set A is called a subset of a set B if

every element of A also belongs to B.
Notation: A ⊆ B
NOTE
• The empty set is a subset of every set.
• Every set is a subset of itself.
Section 3.1 Section 3.2

Section 3.2: Subsets

Theorem. Subsethood is transitive. If A ⊆ B and B ⊆ C then

A ⊆ C.
Example. Find two sets A and B such that A is both an element
of and a subset of B.
Example. Let S = {a, {b}, {a, b}}.
1. List all the elements of S.
2. List all the subsets of S.
Terminology. For the purposes of a particular discussion, all
sets may be considered subsets of a universal set, e.g. R or Z.
Section 3.1 Section 3.2

Section 3.2: Subsets

Theorem. Subsethood is transitive. If A ⊆ B and B ⊆ C then
A ⊆ C.
Example. Find two sets A and B such that A is both an element
of and a subset of B. A = {2}, B = {2, {2}}
Example. Let S = {a, {b}, {a, b}}.
1. List all the elements of S. a, {b}, {a, b}
2. List all the subsets of S.

∅, {a}, {{b}}, {{a, b}}, {a, {b}}, {a, {a, b}}, {{b}, {a, b}},
{a, {b}, {a, b}}

Terminology. For the purposes of a particular discussion, all

sets may be considered subsets of a universal set, e.g. R or Z.
Section 3.1 Section 3.2

Intervals of real numbers

For a, b ∈ R with a < b, the open interval (a, b) is the set

(a, b) = {x ∈ R : a < x < b}.

For a, b ∈ R with a ≤ b, the closed interval [a, b] is the set
[a, b] = {x ∈ R : a ≤ x ≤ b}.
For a, b ∈ R with a < b, the half-closed / half-open intervals
[a, b) and (a, b] are the sets
[a, b) = {x ∈ R : a ≤ x < b} and (a, b] = {x ∈ R : a < x ≤ b}.
With a ∈ R we associate the following the infinite intervals:
(−∞, a) = {x ∈ R : x < a}, (−∞, a] = {x ∈ R : x ≤ a}
(a, ∞) = {x ∈ R : a < x}, [a, ∞) = {x ∈ R : a ≤ x}
(∞, ∞) = R
Example. Which intervals are subsets of which?
Section 3.1 Section 3.2

Set equality, proper containment, Venn diagrams

Definition (Set equality). Two sets A and B are equal if they
have the same elements.
Notation: A = B
Proposition. Let A and B be sets. Then A = B iff A ⊆ B and
B ⊆ A.
Venn-diagrams:

Definition (Proper subsets). A is a proper subset of B if A ⊆ B

and A 6= B.
Notation. A ⊂ B or A ( B.
Section 3.1 Section 3.2

Power sets
Definition (Power set). The power set of a set A is the set
consisting of all subsets of A.
Notation. P(A).

a
b
∅
c
a b
a
A b
a c a
c b
c
b c

P(A)
Section 3.1 Section 3.2

Power sets (2)

Example. Determine the power set of each of the following
sets. Determine the cardinality of the power set in each case:
1. ∅
2. A = {α}
3. B = {leopard, lion}
4. C = {a, b, c}
See also Section 3.2, Example 9 in the e-book on Ulwazi
(Canvas).

If |A| = n, then |P(A)| = · · ·

Please try these yourself before going to the next slide (nobody
will know if you got it wrong, and you will learn something!).
Section 3.1 Section 3.2

Power sets (2)

Example. Determine the power set of each of the following
sets. Determine the cardinality of the power set in each case:
1. ∅
P(∅) = {∅}, |P(∅)| = 1
2. A = {α}
P(A) = {∅, {α}}, |P(A)| = 2
3. B = {leopard, lion}
P(B) = {∅, {leopard}, {lion}, {leopard, lion}}, |P(B)| = 4
4. C = {a, b, c}
P(C) = {∅, {a}, {b}, {c}, {a, b}, {a, c}, {b, c}, {a, b, c}}
|P(C)| = 8
See also Section 3.2, Example 9 in the e-book on Ulwazi
(Canvas).

If |A| = n, then |P(A)| = 2n

Section 3.1 Section 3.2

Conclusion

Now you can complete Chapter 3: Class Exercise A in the

Modules tool in Ulwazi.

Thereafter, try as many of the exercises in your textbook as

possible:
Sections 1 and 2: Pages 75 to 78, Questions 1 to 21.