The Spirit of the Dutch People during the Occupation

Author(s): J. M. Romein
Source: The Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science , May, 1946,
Vol. 245, The Netherlands during German Occupation (May, 1946), pp. 169-180
Published by: Sage Publications, Inc. in association with the American Academy of
Political and Social Science

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 The Spirit of the Dutch People During the Occupation
By J. M. ROMEIN

IT would be improper to engage in POLITICAL VARIETY

any survey of public opinion in theNothing can serve better to illustrate
Netherlands during the war without this variety of personal opinions than
stating that such a study at the mo-the very sentiment which, superficially
ment, and at best, could hardly be
viewed, united the people during the
more than-as it is in this case-the
years of occupation more than any
personal impressions of someone other
who could have done then or in the
spent the entire period of occupation
past. Not more than 4 per cent of the
in the Netherlands, moving about inNetherlands
all joined the N.S.B. (the
circles, except the Nazi and the pro-
Dutch Nazi party), and this percentage
German, of course, and who fromprobably
be- fluctuated greatly during the
ginning to end gave his attentionwar to years, increasing while Germany
this question to the best of his ability.
seemed to be winning and decreasing
There are, of course, practicallywhen
no it became more and more clear
statistics. The Netherlands was not
that she would lose the war. Except
acquainted with Gallup polls. Indeed,
for this small minority, the Dutch peo-
an "Institute of Public Opinion" would ple were of one mind in rejecting Nazi
have been unable to function freely. principles. But if we were to inquire
However, the "Netherlands Statistical into the motives for the rejection, a
Foundation" has formulated a number closer analysis would show the exist-
of questions in co-operation with the ence of no fewer than eight classes, as
"Association for Opinion Study" which follows: 21 per cent condemned the
was organized shortly after the libera- Nazis among us because of their trea-
tion. But because of the lack of means son; 18 per cent because of their slavish
of communication, replies were received imitation of the German system; in the
only from the three western provinces case of 18 per cent the dictatorship and
of North Holland, South Holland, and the terror seemed to be the stumbling
Utrecht; and because retrospective polls, block; 7 per cent had religious scru-
furthermore, are of only relative inter- ples; for 6 per cent the main objection
est, we shall have to use these findings was the anti-Semitism and racial theo-
with the greatest of caution.1 ries of the Nazis; 8 per cent objected to
To secure a clear picture of our task their principles without giving any spe-
is particularly difficult, since the char- cific reason; 15 per cent objected to
acter of the Dutch people, largely as a their behavior, or rather misbehavior;
result of its history, is such that it is finally, 7 per cent either could give no
powerfully impelled in a variety of di- particular motive for their instinctive
rections. Therefore greatly divergent objections or mentioned other reasons
views are common, making it imprac- than those listed above.
tical to say about any question that the The attachment to old tradition on
people of the Netherlands ever had or the one hand, the desire to form one's
has this or that opinion concerning it. own opinion on the other, and finally,
Unless otherwise noted, the statistics in
a multitude of interests and attitudes
the following pages have been drawn from caused the political picture of the
the sources mentioned. Netherlands to become immensely com-
169

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170 THE ANNALS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY

plicated, and not to the American ob- Equally scattered wer

server alone. In this connection, too, the question: For what
the pressures of the occupation led to you have the greatest
at least a temporary simplification. All plies as a whole show
existing political parties with the ex- cent liked America be
ception of the N.S.B. were forbidden. England, and 9 per c
The desire to have a voice in the as- rest named other countries or had no
sembly, or at least to have one in the
preference. A division according to po-
future, led, in the early years of the
litical party sympathies yielded the re-
sults shown in Table 2.
occupation, to the organization of the
"Netherlands Union" in which a num-
ber of political groups joined, burying TABLE 2

their differences. But the union, which

as a formal political party had to be Country preferred
Political
legally recognized, was compelled to sympathy
sympathy America England U.S.S.R.
make too many concessions to the vic- (Per cent) (Per cent) (Per cent)
torious enemy, and yet could not meet
Orthodox-
his exacting demands, and was finally
Protestant 56.0 24.5 2.0
outlawed. Many of the members laterRoman
found their way into the underground Catholic 53.0 25.0 3.0
movement. Liberal 52.0 26.5 4.5
Socialist 46.0 18.0 17.0
This experiment in unity during the
None 44.0 19.0 9.0
war seems, nevertheless, to have been
Communist 6.0 6.0 82.0
too brief. After the war the old parties
came back, even though hesitantly.
A classification of the rep
The replies to three retrospective ques-
tions recently addressed to a sampleingof to social classes gives
the people of the Netherlands reflect different picture. In con
more or less clearly the multicolored the
po- question last mentione
litical situation. To the question:ers
Do showed the greates
you hold the German people or only America (57 per cent), wh
in leading official positio
the Nazis responsible for the suffering
endured by our people? 57 per cent preference for England (
of the replies held the Nazis alone re-
A social classifiation of the answers
sponsible, while 38 per cent blamedtothe
the question concerning responsibility
entire German people. However, iffor weour sufferings is shown in Table 3.
separate the replies according to politi-
cal party sympathies, the results are as TABLE 3
given in Table 1. Responsibility placed on
German Nazis
people alone
TABLE 1 Social class (Per cent) (Per cent)
Workingmen 32 63
Responsibility placed on
German Nazis Farmers 35 60
people alone Middle class 39 57
Political sympathy (Per cent) (Per cent)
Administrative personnel 44 53
Communist 29.0 66.0 Leading officials 50 46
Socialist 36.0 61.0
Roman Catholic 36.0 60.0
None 38.0 56.0 Now, since the war is ov
Orthodox-Protestant 41.5 55.0 such questions should pro
Liberal 44.0 51.0 posed; and yet one could no

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 SPIRIT OF THE DUTCH PEOPLE DURING OCCUPATION 171

correct picture of the public opinion workers, the latter grew hostile. Even
during the war, since no grouping of all then, the working class did not react
replies could give an adequate under- as one. One part, no one knows exactly
standing of the shifts that occurred how large or small, hopefully looked
during the occupation period, both in for personal preferences and raked in,
the attitudes of the people as a whole not without some pleasure, the high
and within the different social classes. wages which the Germans could so
For instance, the attitude toward the easily pay with the paper money which
House of Orange clearly underwent aflowed from the presses. The largest
change. While the removal of the part showed their enmity by a consid-
Queen and the Government was looked erable slow-down at work, encouraged
upon at first as a more or less cowardlyby the urgent suggestions coming out
flight, no one later entertained the of London and particularly induced by
slightest doubt about the Queen, norlack of food, which inclined them to
was the event regarded as so very take it easy. A small part joined the
strange. People were even willing toactive resistance movement.
risk their lives for the honor of the Similar changes occurred mutatis
Queen. The writer knows well a per- mutandis within other classes. The
son in whose house, toward the endhonest of and devoted Dutch public serv-
the war, a search was made for a radio ant was compelled to learn how to
installation. Noticing the portrait sabotage
of and cheat. Many did learn,
the Queen which was defiantly hung on but others, fearful of discovery, took
the wall, one of the policemen insult- refuge to the very end behind bureau-
ingly remarked: "Communist Minnie." cratic principles. The farmers, who in
Hearing this, the owner, who found the the beginning made the most of the
remark offensive, openly declared that situation considering the prices they
he had served his Queen faithfully charged,
for changed their minds as the de-
forty years and that he hoped soonmands to of the enemy became more ex-
do it again. From my window I can acting and as compulsory regulations
now see the ruins of his house, which and prohibitions were increasingly pro-
was burned to the ground. The owner claimed and more rigidly enforced.
was allowed to go free only because at One might also attempt to distinguish
the time the occupation authorities did among attitudes and opinions according
not know what to do with their pris- to age or sex. When we say that older
oners. people, generally speaking, were more
consistent in their rejection of the
FLUID ATTITUDES WITHIN CLASSES moral irregularities of the occupation
forces-having lived in a normal world
To illustrate the shift of opinion for a longer time-and that younger
within a single social class, a large por-
people found an outlet for their spirit
tion of the working class was at first of adventure in the resistance move-
"neutral," so to speak, and was pre-
ment, it must be remembered that these
pared to wait and see if all the pretty
are observations that are valid only to
promises of the victors would be fol-the extent that one has confidence in
lowed by corresponding deeds. Soon the observer. The same is true of the
it appeared that this was not to happen.
impression that there were no real dif-
ferences between men and women in
As a matter of fact, when it became in-
creasingly clear that the enemy was their attitudes toward the occupation
only interested in making slaves of the
forces, in their dislikes, fears, bravery,

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 172 THE ANNALS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY

or cunning, or in their perseverance and wanted to confiscate his goods, the man
pluck in resisting the enemy. walked up to them and said: "You had
better shoot me, for I cannot stand this
CHARACTER THE BASIC FACTOR any longer." When he was asked the
reason for his stubbornness he con-
The circumstance that in the last fessed that he had traded his last pair
analysis the individual's character de-
of shoes for the rye. He told the whole
termined his opinion makes any effortstory, and when an investigation was
to generalize about public opinion ex-
made, it was found that the farmer who
tremely difficult. There were many had demanded his shoes for a sack of
workers who without protest, if not of
rye already had a collection of some
their own free will, went to Germany eighty
to pairs of shoes which he had no
work in war industries; others, repre-
doubt expected to sell for much more
senting a smaller proportion, refusedthan he had charged for his rye.
from the very beginning to co-operate, Another farmer-quite a different
and suffered the consequences. Many person indeed-hid about forty Jewish
farmers took the profits from the children
in- on his farm. In order to keep
crease in prices which resulted from in-
them alive he secretly slaughtered his
creasing shortages; others, and they last cow; but the unfortunate day ar-
were in the minority, offered their rived when the S.D. (Sicherheitsdienst)
produce to the townspeople at decent made a raid on Jews in the neighbor-
prices or at least differentiated in the
hood, and also came to his farm. He
manner in which they secured payments hid himself and his proteges in a ditch
for their rye, their butter, and theirwhere they remained for two hours with
eggs. The same was true of shopkeep- only their heads above water. When
ers and public servants. It may be the bullies had gone he borrowed dry
only an impression, but a reasonable clothing from his neighbors and did not
one, that in the end the percentagerest of until he had brought the children
the leading functionaries that failedonein by one to Amsterdam in safety.
one way or another was relatively high.
This was to be expected because the re- INDIVIDUAL FLUCTUATIONS
sistance movement demanded more of
them, although they were in no way Probably the greatest difficulty is
better prepared. We shall probably not that even a given individual did not re-
be far from the truth if we estimate act in the same manner during the en-
that the percentage of collaborators tire period of occupation. It was not
was higher among industrialists and rare to find workers who had at first
merchants than in other groups, and willingly gone to Germany but who,
that the largest percentage was found when they came back on furlough, did
among the great manufacturers and not permit themselves to be caught a
merchants. It has been established second time. We know a family which,
that, generally speaking, students be-when all copper had to be turned in, in
haved themselves better than their pro-
1942, delivered up their copper utensils
fessors. the day before the official date because
As an illustration of the extremes they were going on a vacation the fol-
within a group, the following two anec- lowing day; but the same family in
dotes may serve: Control officials 1944 did not think of complying with
stopped a man with a pushcart on the blanket and clothing regulations,
which a sack of rye rested. When theyand during the entire war kept their

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 SPIRIT OF THE DUTCH PEOPLE DURING OCCUPATION 173

radio although the death penalty threat-

DEGREES OF RESISTANCE
ened such ownership. This is certainly
not an isolated instance. In order to secure a just appreciation
These individual fluctuations in atti- of the resistance, it is necessary to dif-
tudes were not haphazard. They reflect ferentiate its degrees. We shall do so
a social law which we have had the op- by classifying it into "petty resistance,"
portunity to verify and which we might "resistance," and "great resistance."
state in the following terms, paraphras-Under "petty resistance" we include
ing Lincoln's words: "You can bully listening to the English radio, forbidden
all of the people some of the time and even when the possession of a radio was
some of the people all the time, but you permitted; the reading of illegal news-
cannot bully all the people all the papers or transmission of them to a
time." Paradoxical as it may seem, to neighbor; sneaking out of the house
the degree that objective pressure in-after the curfew; social intercourse with
creased, the subjective pressure de-Jews, who after November 1940 were
creased. Finally it was not the dare- greatly discriminated against by the
devils, not even the brave alone, thatoccupation forces; and so forth. Un-
committed violations for which theyder "resistance" we would put public
might have had to pay with their livesexpression of opinion which one had
had they been discovered. Many did reason to expect to be not only disliked
it simply because one gradually becameby the occupation forces but produc-
too tired to give enough thought to the tive of consequences such as the loss of
danger involved. one's job or, worse, a sojourn in a con-
From the above, one must not drawcentration camp; consultations about
the conclusion that the entire people or planning for the postwar Nether-
participated in the resistance movement lands; participation in the publishing
or even that the majority did so. Thereof illegal newspapers, whether as au-
were half-conscious violations, for in-thor, editor, or distributor; the hiding
stance, of decrees which were techni-of Jews; and so forth. Under "great
cally issued by Dutch authorities, suchresistance" we would put participation
as the rule requiring that one should in any form in the falsification of per-
report the names of one's lodgers withinsonal identity documents, of distribu-
24 hours, or the rule prohibiting a per- tion records, or of other official rec-
son from visiting certain sections of theords; raids on distribution centers or
country unless one was a resident there. population registry offices; the hiding
The terror rather successfully fulfilledof English fliers; the retention of arms;
its purpose 'of making wholesale and the installation or operation of secret
open resistance impossible; the fear ofsending stations; sabotage in any form;
the "Green Police" was deeply in- and finally espionage.
grained. At times one had the impres- If one were to make a graphic repre-
sion that the oppressors had almost sentation of resistance as a whole, one
mesmerized the oppressed, as a snakewould put the "great resistance" in a
does a rabbit. Those who nevertheless very small circle at the center; in a
resisted, no matter how mildly, always wider but nevertheless rather small cir-
formed a minority, although perhaps clea would be the "resistance"; and in
rather large minority. Nowhere in the a very large circle the "petty resist-
world has there existed a people made ance." It is, alas, impossible to give
up entirely of heroes, and no emotion any statistics. Even an approximation
is more common than fear. would be difficult to make, for the sta-

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174 THE ANNALS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY

tistics would probably vary consid- of comrades with whom they had per-
erably from one period to another dur-haps foregathered the day before. In
ing the war. It is possible to say, proportion as the dangers which people
however, that, although toward the endfaced together became more frequent
resistance became too dangerous and and greater, the friendship among these
the danger was always increasing, allcomrades who had deliberately chosen
kinds of resistance increased as it be- the same lot frequently assumed a
came more and more obvious that the permanent character and often pos-
Germans must lose the war. After the sessed an element of the sublime.
invasion in June 1944 (D-day), and The question can probably not be
especially after the battle of Arnhemobjectively answered. The number of
in September of the same year, therevictims was great; how great no one
was a quite noticeable "inflation" of knows, although it is most probable
the spirit of resistance. Many of those that the sum should be written with
who earlier had found safety in co-op- five figures. How can one ever esti-
erating with the Germans suddenly mate the injury inflicted by the resist-
climbed onto the resistance wagon. Inance on the German war machine or on
both cases, the fear of an aroused pub- German morale? Not even a guess
lic opinion determined their conduct. would be advisable.
It is clear, then, that it was not the Although we are inclined to believe
measure of danger that determined the that direct injuries were not very great
degree of resistance, even though that in relation to the sacrifices made, we do
was naturally not without some influ-not hesitate for a moment to give a spe-
ence. In the last analysis it was the cific answer to the above question from
hope for the future; and those who from a subjective point of view. There is no
the beginning took their stand in the doubt that the spirit of resistance was
ranks of the resistance movement were of incalculably great value, if not for
surely those who constantly, and at the conduct of the war, at least for the
first with no good reason, had faith in future welfare of the Dutch people.
an Allied victory even when defeat Only through resistance in all its forms
seemed unavoidable. have the Dutch people in spite of every-
thing been able to retain their true char-
WAS RESISTANCE WORTH ITS PRICE?
acter, keeping their self-confidence and,
One doubts at times that the injury with their self-confidence, their hope for
inflicted on the oppressor was always the future. Every mimeographed little
commensurate with the sacrifices made newspaper helped to buttress this confi-
by the members of the resistance move- dence, not so much perhaps by what it
ment. Those especially who took no contained, but by the knowledge that it
part in the resistance, or a very insig- was being edited, printed, and distrib-
nificant part, used to answer this ques- uted by cold, miserable, hungry fellow
tion in the negative in justification of humans in fear of their lives.
their own aloofness. It is unnecessary And how much more forcibly did not
to say that in most instances this was the heroic deaths before the firing
a rationalization of a quite compre- squads speak to the imagination of ir-
hensible fear. But even from the resolute minds? The author himself
mouths of the members of the resist- in 1942 saw the death march of the
ance groups the question could some- "72" in a camp at Amersfoort-seventy-
times be heard, especially after the two persons sentenced to death. Al-
fresh impressions of the horrible deaths though they knew what fate awaited

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 SPIRIT OF THE DUTCH PEOPLE DURING OCCUPATION 175

was the thought that other people

them, only one, still a child, hung his
head while two others supported him should learn that they were "in the
under his arms. The destruction of movement." Some became actually
these precious lives was transformed heroes, simply because they wanted to
into energy in those who had escaped be admired as such. Some time ago an
their fate and had to continue the artist cleverly depicted this very human
battle. weakness on paper. A man is seen in
Even without counting this gain, bed sleeping, and nearby is a statue of
which cannot be too highly prized, theone
same man being approached by a
must mention the number of victims delegation bearing tributes of flowers.
within the resistance movement-and Underneath is the legend: "The dream
they too ran into tens of thousands- of the man who lent his typewriter to
whose lives were saved by the move- the underground." Would it be strange
ment. According to the latest informa- if the "dreamer" also told others about
tion about the organizations involved, his deed, even though in great secret?
there were no fewer than four hundred Or that someone who heard him spoke
thousand "divers" (people in hiding)of it with a wink to his wife or friend
who were being fed and clothed by theseand that the Sicherheitsdienst soon got
organizations. One would probably notwind of it, arrested the man, and
be too far from the truth if one were to forced him to give the name of the per-
estimate that without this aid at least son to whom he had lent his typewriter?
half that number would have died fromAs a result, the whole organization was
hunger and disease, or would have haddiscovered and would have been seized
to surrender to the occupation forces byhad its members not been warned in
and by, which in most cases wouldtime and gone underground.
probably have meant death.
VARIANCE WITHIN THE RESISTANCE
UNNECESSARY VICTIMIZATION

An entirely different question is On the other hand, the spirit of the

whether the number of victims in the resistance was no more a homogeneous
resistance movement may have beenentity than was public opinion generally
unnecessarily high. That is no doubtduring the occupation. Originally, the
the case. Three factors contributed to resistance, in accordance with Dutch
this even more than did the perfidious tradition, was open and aboveboard, as
methods of the Nazi police. First, be- seen in the strike of February 1941 in
trayal, which is likely to stalk when- protest against the persecution of the
ever there is anything to betray; second,
Jews, and early in 1943 when the army
the inexperience of the participants was
in again sent into captivity. The
former demonstration was limited to
the illegal opposition, especially in the
early years; and third, the fact that Amsterdam, because the rest of the
for most people it proved more difficult
country, where the Jews were not found
to keep their mouths shut all the time in any great number, had not seen the
and everywhere than they themselves merciless actions of the enemy. The
imagined. second strike was country-wide and
Again no percentages are available, would have paralyzed the entire rail-
but it is certain that a great many fell way system if all had stood fast. The
victim to their own or someone else's first strike had its martyrs by the hun-
talkativeness. In more cases than one dreds, but after the second they were to
would suspect, a contributing motive
be counted by the thousands; and af-

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 176 THE ANNALS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY

terwards the oppressor no longer suf- ment by its reversal of values inevitably
fered from open resistance. fostered a spirit which might charitably
Even deeper than these differences be called one of loose standards. From
were those that existed in the spirit the dodging of legal regulations, the
animating various resistance groups. falsification of records, and the risking
However, the will to unity was fairly of one's life, there is but a short step to
strong because of the pressure of the contempt for law, disdain for honesty,
enemy-strong enough to prevent con- and disrespect for the lives of others.
flicts and promote co-operation, until Indeed, it is remarkable that these phe-
finally, spurred by the Netherlands Gov- nomena are so relatively rare among
ernment in London, the heads of the former members of resistance groups.
groups joined in one organization. The Here, apparently, the regard for higher
variants within the underground move- aims mostly nullified the moral conse-
ment ranged from the extreme rightist quences of the reprehensible means.
nationalist groups, such as the Orde- Quite differently and in an unques-
dienst (the Vigilance Service) which in tionably more disastrous manner did
reality was a middle-class guard organi- such means operate on the minds of
zation designed to quell the revolution those whose intrigues and machinations
which was expected after the war, to had no other motives than selfish inter-
the extreme leftist group, which from a est. Moreover, in such cases the pat-
sociopolitical point of view may be said tern of unscrupulousness and immo-
to have been fighting National Social- rality set by the occupation probably
ism rather than the German people, had a more deeply felt influence than
even though this does not signify that among those who had entered the lists
such groups felt in any sense unpatri- against the enemy.
otic. The latter group was the largest, As elsewhere in all Europe, this de-
not in the Netherlands alone but in all generation was most obviously seen in
Europe. Indeed, if the restoration and the black market. The primary cause,
the reformation of the Netherlands is as usual, was the gradually increasing
to be achieved, it will be thanks to thescarcity which made prices gradually
spirit that arose and was nourished in rise, so one got accustomed to them.
the left-wing resistance groups-a spirit But, in addition to this primary cause,
of pluck and tenacity, of imagination there were a number of other factors.
and insight, of a willingness to sacrifice Both buyer and seller shut their eyes to
and a sense of responsibility, a spirit moral objections, assuming that they
molded by years of battling a both had any to begin with, and considered
shrewd and powerful enemy. that everything in the black market
had, so to speak, been snatched from
DEMORALIZING EFFECTS under the nose of the Germans. For
many poor people, or people in hiding,
However, there is no gain in this the black market moreover became in
world without some accompanying loss. the long run an indispensable source of
The campaign of the illegal resistance income. Usually one began by selling
movement in which the people of the ration stamps that were not absolutely
Netherlands gave the best they had to necessary for one's livelihood. A little
offer had also its dark side. Without later, when men from age 17 to 40, and
mentioning such by-products as plain in some localities up to 50, were mobi-
craving for the romantic or a merely lized for work in Germany but failed to
simulated heroism, the resistance move-show up-only a small minority did so

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 SPIRIT OF THE DUTCH PEOPLE DURING OCCUPATION 177

-thereby running the danger of being

FUSED IN THE FURNACE OF
picked up in a raid and being deported,
AFFLICTION
many of them had no other choice than
to give up their passive resistance or While there is in the whole world no
else engage in the black market in gain
or- without loss, there is also no loss
der to live. After September 1944, without a gain. The wretched life
when on the one hand there was no which the Dutch people had to sup-
more work to be had in the Nether- port, especially during the last six
lands, and on the other hand hunger months before the liberation, has-it is
began to spread throughout the entire true-on the one hand laid bare the
population, every buyer and seller egotistic
be- instinct of self-preservation in
came a black marketer, for otherwise all its brutal nakedness; but on the
both the one and the other would have other hand there was seen a spirit of
perished from hunger. enterprise and perseverance and mutual
assistance which no one had expected
But even here, one must discriminate.
There were black markets and black and which one can surely hope will con-
markets. Between the farmer who tinue to exist after the war.
bartered a certain amount of rye Here for we have in mind the so-called
something from the townsman's "hunger linen marches." By chance the au-
closet and the man who sold a jug ofsaw them when they were at their
thor
gin for an exorbitant price, the buyer peak. It was in the beginning of March
afterwards finding that there were 1945, when he had gone to Veluwe on
barely two glassfuls while the rest a borrowed
of bicycle to fetch some food.
the jug had been filled up with cement, The worst cold was past but there was
there is the same difference as between a snowstorm blowing. Because the pas-
the merchant who profited by his domi-sage of the river Ijssel would be impos-
nant position and the swindler. sible in a few days the procession had
On the whole, the social consequences trekked eastward for the last time, and
of the black market could not but be the entire pitiable expedition was now
disastrous. Whenever the normal mar- returning. Over a distance of 50 to 60
kilometers 2 there was a close file of
ket is again in a position to deliver
goods in normal amounts and at nor- the most dilapidated little carts, baby
mal prices, the black market will diecarriages,
a and bicycles piled high with
natural death. But for many people bags of rye or potatoes, with the sick
who were mixed up in it-and amongpiled in between, pushed or pulled by
them may be found young men, oldmen, women, and children in rags, at
women, and children-the road to a best protected from snow and rain by
normal life has probably been barred a sack on their heads, by run-down
forever. Accustomed as they have been shoes or clogs or pieces of boards fast-
to a relatively good income, it will be ened with bits of string, or walking
natural for them to hunt for means of barefooted in the icy water. Only here
maintaining that income, although and in there, made more painful by the
most cases they will not be able to contrast, could be seen a couple of
maintain it by honest means. Gangster sporty young ladies behind a baker's
methods, formerly unknown in the cart, dressed in winter sport clothes,
Netherlands, will presumably make their scarves reflecting the sunlight
their appearance as a result of strong which broke through the clouds now
repression, and may remain ineradicable 2 One kilometer equals nearly five-eighths of
for a generation. a mile.

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 178 THE ANNALS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY

and then, illuminating the drab gray- TABLE 4

ness of the endless miserable cortege.
It was touching to see how, whenever Conduct rating
(Percentage)
and wherever (and it was a common Classes rated

occurrence) a wheel broke and the po- Good Fair Bad

tatoes rolled all over the road, helpers
Doctors 96 3 1
ran up from all around to repair the Priests and
damage as well and as quickly as pos- preachers 92 7 1
sible. Above the procession droned theStudents 87 12 1
planes of the RAF, for the road was
Public servants 35 46 19
the great artery towards the east, alongWorkers 30 48 22
Judiciary 20 40 40
which the German Army convoys were Manufacturers 12 44 44
moving at the time, day and night, un- Contractors 3 19 78
der the fire of border batteries.

CONDUCT TOWARD THE INVADER

Roughly speaking, w
It is difficult to express any judgmentabout half reacted mode
based merely on one's own experiences.that of the other half,
Nevertheless, it seems to me that a rea- acted well and one-fifth
sonably accurate judgment may be ob-"bad" manner. When
tained if we compare our own opinionshowed "good" conduct
with that of others. This we can do,while others showed "bad" conduct in
thanks to the previously mentioned equally high degree, peculiar causes
Association for Opinion Study. In anwere at work which lack of space does
investigation which this organization not permit us to deal with in more de-
carried out in the three western prov- tail. Generally speaking, the "good"
inces, only 5 per cent of those ques-and the "bad" were pretty well dis-
tioned would not or could not express tributed according to the character of
any opinion at all about the conduct of the population.
the Dutch people toward the invader
IMPORTANT WARTIME FACTORS
during the war period. This question,
of course, does not completely cover Any sketch of the spirit of the peo-
the various matters we have been dis- ple during the occupation would be in-
cussing in this article, but the replies complete without some comments on its
are sufficiently useful in giving us a possible influence on the public mind in
typology of the Dutch spirit to merit the future. We shall offer some sug-
attention here. Forty-one per cent of gestions here to the best of our knowl-
those questioned considered the con- edge.
duct "good," 49 per cent judged it as It is perhaps easiest to classify the
"fair," while 10 per cent found it "bad." influence of the occupation on the pub-
When the question was raised as to lic mind as "good" or "bad," but the
the conduct of people of different same event may be judged either good
classes, the opinions were as presented or bad according to the character of the
in Table 4. person who has to make the choice.
These collective judgments, with This is no new idea to the sociologists
which the writer is in agreement, showamong my readers.
conversely that his fellow countrymen If we look closely, the following three
agree with him when he concludes thatwartime factors are important not only
one cannot speak of a public opinion.
because all other factors were depend-

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 SPIRIT OF THE DUTCH PEOPLE DURING OCCUPATION 179

ent on them but also because they havetensified. Political assassinations be-
put their stamp on the Dutch people came a relatively common phenomenon,
for some time to come. They are isola-although in our country the last earlier
tion, the resistance movement, and political murder had occurred in 1672.
want, all united by bonds of mutual The isolation from the rest of the
dependence. world was complete. Certain sources
The Dutch people has become more of spiritual life dried up. As compen-
conscious of its own character. This sation, intellectual life sprouted in cir-
may be seen, for instance, in the cles in- where previously sport and the
crease in literature in the historical radio had been the chief interests. And
the intellectuals who had turned a cold
field during the early years of the war,
when books could still be bought. Thisshoulder to politics vied with one an-
heightened the national self-awareness,
other in their plans for a better future,
and, coupled with the fact that the longing to know what was being thought
Dutch East Indies had shared the same in the outer world but no longer help-
fate, increased the awareness of the less when thrown on their own re-
empire and even, in a certain sense, sources.
created such an awareness. More than Want proved a good teacher. Al-
ever did the Crown serve as a symbol most everyone found that he could
of this sentiment. Even among Com- stand work and bear things that every-
munists and Indonesian nationalists, body else and he himself first of all
the republican idea took a back seat.would have declared impossible before.
Community feeling was strengthened, And want taught us to pray, as in
and its effect could be seen in the re- olden days. As in the First World War,
lationships among social classes, be-but more powerfully since we were this
tween the sexes, and among political time direct victims of the conflict, there
groups. All class differences did not was a religious revival, strengthened
disappear, but their attitude towards by the patriotic stand of the church
each other changed when worker and denominations as such. But want did
employer stood side by side fighting for more than all this. It strengthened
the same cause. Whatever differences mutual helpfulness, which was never
there may have been, husbands andmore openhearted than during the war
wives certainly were drawn closer to- years. But it also stimulated the in-
gether when they were forced to tradestinct of self-preservation. Thievery,
occupations. The men under age 40, swindling, bribery, and fraud were ev-
at least, had to keep off the streets for eryday occurrences.
fear of raiding parties, especially dur-
ing the last winter of the war. There- WHAT WILL THE HARVEST BE?
fore they had to take care of the house
and the children, and leave the foraging Some people look for a turn for the
to their wives. Nor did all political better as a result of the positive gains
differences vanish; but political op- which isolation, resistance, and want
ponents could begin to discuss politics, brought to the spirit of the people in
at least, since the Communists learned spite of everything. Others fear that
to think in national terms, and thethe evils, which the above factors have
clerical party members found their dis- let penetrate into the public mind, have
trust of the Soviet Union suddenly taken root there forever. Both are
transformed into admiration. On the mistaken. Like nature, of which it is
other hand, political hatreds were in- a part, history tends to be very prodi-

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180 THE ANNALS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEmY

gal. She retains everything, no doubt, vanish and want will be relieved, and
but in closed compartments, or in di- then the spirit they nourished will pass
luted amounts. No.one knows whether away. Only the resistance has a perma-
the influence of the past years will be nent significance, for therein were
bad or good. We only know that, in manifest the craving for rehabilitation,
the last instance, it will depend upon the will to renewal, and the spirit of
our own will whether the good or the progress which, by the very nature of
bad seeds take root. The isolation will man, are immortal.

Dr. J. M. Romein specializes in history and literature and in international relation

In 1939 he was appointed professor of Dutch history at the University of Amsterdam
In 1942 he was dismissed by the German occupation authorities and imprisoned at Amers
foort. After the liberation of the Netherlands in May 1945 he was reinstated at th
University of Amsterdam as professor of modern and theoretical history and as secretar
of the Senate of the university. He is author of Machten van deze Tijd ("The Powers
the Present World") and De Lage Landen bij de Zee ("The Lowlands by the Sea"), and
co-author with his wife of Erflaters van onze Beschaving ("The Founders of Our Civili
tion").

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