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Student part-time employment: Implications, challenges and opportunities

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Article  in  International Journal of Contemporary Hospitality Management · March 2009

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 STUDENT PART-TIME EMPLOYMENT: IMPLICATIONS, CHALLENGES AND OPPORTUNITIES FOR
HIGHER EDUCATION

Paul Barron
School of Marketing, Tourism and Languages
Napier University
Craiglockhart Campus
Edinburgh EH14 1DJ, UK
p.barron@napier.ac.uk
and
Constantia Anastasiadou
School of Marketing, Tourism and Languages
Napier University
Craiglockhart Campus
Edinburgh EH14 1DJ, UK
c.anastasiadou@napier.ac.uk

ABSTRACT

Part-time working has long been a part of the university student experience and this study aims to
provide an analysis of part time working amongst hospitality and tourism students studying at a university in
Scotland. Evaluating responses from 310 students, this study focussed on aspects of gender and nationality. This
research identified that females were more likely to have a part-time job and students from Eastern European
countries worked significantly longer hours than their peers. This paper concludes that students would like more
recognition of their employment commitments through the provision of flexible teaching methods, part time
contacts and formal credit for their experience.

Key words: Part time working, hospitality students, gender, nationality.

INTRODUCTION

Working part-time has long been a part of the university student experience. However, various changes
that have recently taken place regarding the student funding mechanism have resulted in increasing numbers of
students undertaking paid employment during term time (Watts & Pickering, 2000). Although exact numbers of
students working part-time are difficult to determine with a degree of accuracy, several studies have found that
between 50 and 60% of all full-time university students currently engage in some form of part-time employment
(Berkley, 1997; ABS, 2002; Curtis and Williams, 2002; Lashley, 2005) and that this figure is forecast to grow
(Curtis and Lucas, 2001).

University students involved in part-time employment have been the focus of studies in the UK for a
number of years (Lucas and Lammont, 1998; Kelly, 1999; Watts and Pickering, 2000; Curtis and Lucas, 2001).
This interest is due mainly to the relatively recent introduction of student loans that took the place of means
tested grants which provided, to a large extent, government funding for university fees. The introduction of
student loans gave rise to concerns regarding student hardship (Curtis and Williams, 2002) and the negative
effects on academic progress of full time students having to engage in part-time employment (Watts and
Pickering, 2000). While it is recognised that only a minority of students will begin to pay off students loans
whilst they are still studying, it has been argued that that the concept of obtaining debt as a direct consequence
of studying will impel students to become involved in part-time employment. In addition to contributing to their
educational experience, students must also pay rent, buy books and food, pay for transportation and social
activities.

EMPLOYMENT WHILST STUDYING

The concept of domestic students engaged in part-time and sometimes full-time employment whilst
studying is increasingly commonplace in countries such as Australia and the UK. Indeed Barron (2006) found
that almost nine out of ten domestic students studying hospitality and tourism management at an Australian
university either worked part time or were actively looking for employment. These findings accord well with
Anyanwu (1998) who identified that almost all Australian students work up to 30 hours per week in order to
support their studies. In the UK, Watts and Pickering (2000) found that working part-time whilst studying full-
time was an increasingly common phenomenon among students and while there were a variety of positive
outcomes of working part-time, respondents generally viewed part-time employment as a necessity to survive in
the contemporary higher education sphere. Manthei and Gilmore (2005) found that an overwhelming majority of
students they surveyed were involved in part-time employment, with 8 out of 10 students holding at least one
job during term time, for an average of 14 hours per week. The necessity for part-time employment whilst
studying was emphasised in this study, which also found that money earned was typically spent on essential
living expenses.

It would appear that students tend to work in industries such as retailing, hotels and restaurants where
the demand for labour has shown steady growth in western nations (IDS, 1999). Employers in these industries
need cheap and flexible labour in order to remain viable (Curtis and Lucas, 2001), and students wishing to work
part-time fulfil this requirement. From the perspective of the student, part-time work is often an introduction to
the world of work and their experiences assist with both personal and career development. However, it has been
argued that the world of work should be more closely linked with higher education, through both formal periods
of supervised work experience or more informally through students’ part time experiences (Beard, 1995). When
discussing the latter, the Dearing Report on Higher Education specifically states that higher education
institutions should “identify opportunities to increase the extent to which programmes help students to become
familiar with work, and help them to reflect on such experience” (Dearing, 1997: Chapter 9, Recommendation
18). The underlying thrust behind this report is the requirement for universities and industry to work more
closely together as a means of developing a link between students’ part time experiences, their educational
experience, careers guidance and, ultimately, employability (Watts and Pickering, 2000).

THE NECESSITY FOR PART-TIME EMPLOYMENT

The issue of financial necessity has been mentioned elsewhere in this paper and there is a plethora of
research that concludes the students’ requirement to contribute to the cost of their higher education has required
students work part time (Sorensen and Winn, 1993; Ford, Bosworth and Wilson, 1995; Callender and Kempson,
1996; Hesketh, 1996; Curtis and Lucas, 2001, ABS, 2002; Curtis and Williams, 2002; Lashley, 2005). However
there are other, perhaps less immediately noticeable reasons for working part time whilst studying. Over twenty
years ago Steiberg (1981) found that working while studying provides, quite naturally, students with an
indication of the requirements that will be needed to function effectively in one’s later career. Specifically, it has
been found that students working part time develop team working, communication, customer care and practical
skills (Lucas and Lammont, 1998). The development of these skills appears to be more important for students
who are studying a vocationally specific programme, and McKechnie, Hobbs and Lindsay, (1999) considered
that such students could directly relate the experiences of working part time which, in turn, enhanced and
improved their academic knowledge, academic motivation and employment prospects. It might therefore be
suggested that students involved in programmes which are vocationally specific and who work part time in the
specific industry would, in addition to earning money, experience a range of academic, future career and skill
development benefits. Consequently a number of researchers have concluded that a combination of financial
need and the opportunity to gain experience, and ultimately enhance career opportunities, have prompted
students to seek employment during term time in addition to the more traditional vacation employment (Harvey,
Geall and Moon 1998; Lucas and Lammont, 1998; Curtis and Lucas, 2001).

BALANCING EDUCATION AND PART TIME WORK

A variety of studies have examined the impact that part time employment might have on full time
students’ studies. For example Manthei and Gilmore (2005) considered that working part time left less time than
desired for study and Jogaratnam and Buchanan (2004) found that new students who were balancing a full time
academic load along with a part time job were likely to suffer from stress. Indeed it has been suggested that a
combination of studying full time, working part time and being in debt can have a detrimental effect on the
physical and mental heath of students and that the common method of addressing debt (i.e. increase hours
worked), can create the perception of a negative effect on academic performance (Carney, McNeish and
McColl, 2005). Curtis and Shani (2002) determined that those students who worked part time were more likely
to miss lectures and feel that they could have achieved higher grades had they not been working. However in
later research, Curtis (2002) found a majority of her (admittedly small) research sample considered there to be
wholly positive outcomes of working part time and that there was no conclusive relationship between the
students’ marks and their perceptions regarding their academic performance.

A clearer appreciation of the extent of students’ part time working commitments is a common finding
amongst research projects. Furthermore, there is a suggestion that part time employment is not always
detrimental to students' academic efforts, particularly if the hours worked are manageable given their course
load (Manthei and Gilmore 2005). Several researchers (eg, Barron, 2006; Curtis, 2005) have argued that
universities should be more aware of contemporary student life and introduce an element of flexibility in their
assessments and course requirements. This can be achieved by flexible scheduling of class times and the
offering of study support services, especially so given the increasingly non traditional students common in
modern universities (Moreau and Leathwood, 2006).

The above notwithstanding, the issue concerning the impact of part time work on student performance
is relatively under researched and the effects of part time working have been viewed from both a positive and
negative perspective. Positively, it has been found that students might acquire personal transferable skills,
enhanced employability and increased confidence in the world of work (Watts and Pickering, 2000). From a
negative perspective, reporting from a relatively small study in the UK, Lindsey and Paton-Saltzberg (1993)
found a majority of their sample worked during term time and concluded that those students who worked part
time achieved poorer marks than those that did not. Other identified impacts include missed lectures and
tutorials, reduced time for study and fatigue (Leonard, 1995), and the development of a conflict of interest
between employment and academic responsibilities (Watts and Pickering, 2000). However, this conflict of
interests does not appear to unduly influence the attitude of academic staff to their students and Curtis (2005)
found that support for working students is arbitrary and accidental, stating that “(academic) staff were largely
unaware of the difficulties students face in juggling their dual roles” (Curtis, 2005:501). Given that part time
working by students is commonplace, Jogaratnan and Buchanan (2004) consider that universities have a moral
requirement to more effectively understand and manage the stressors experienced by students studying full time
and working part time.

HOSPITALITY EDUCATION AND PART-TIME EMPLOYMENT

Curtis and Lucas (2001) contend that employers’ demand for students centre around their desire to
control their employees. This control manifests itself in three ways. Firstly students working part time afford
employers an opportunity to control wage costs (Walsh, 1990) due to lower levels of pay (Booth, 1998), and a
reduction in employee benefits (McMullen, 1995), when compared to full time, permanent employees.
Secondly, students provide employers with a highly flexible workforce (Lucas and Ralston, 1996) in two ways:
through numerical flexibility, hours can be increased or decreased in line with business demands, or indeed
laying off part-time workers should business be poor; and, through functional flexibility, where part-time
students might undertake tasks for which they were not originally employed (Lucas, 1997). Finally, it has been
found that students working part time bring certain qualities to employment that might be lacking in other
employees. For example Lamont and Lucas (1999) considered that employers perceived students to be
intelligent, articulate, good communicators, easy to train and willing to follow instructions.

It therefore might be seen that full-time students deciding to work part-time provide employers with a
variety of advantages over other full and part-time employees. It might therefore be suggested that the
advantages these employees bring to the workplace are particularly valuable to the service sector in general and
the hospitality and tourism industry in particular. The opportunity to closely control employee costs through pay
rates and employee levels, coupled with employees that are able to multi task and bring certain qualities to the
workplace would appear attractive to many employers.

Consequently the most common source of part-time employment for students is found in the general
service industries with students being commonly employed in retailing, and hotel and catering establishments
(Curtis and Lucas, 2001). Indeed (Lashley, 2005) found that 65% of all students working part time were
employed in the retail or hospitality sectors; industries argues Milman (1999) that possess relatively low entry
thresholds and the opportunities for unskilled positions. It might therefore be concluded that students would be
particularly welcomed by the service industry which is characterised by high labour costs and extreme
fluctuations in demand. In addition, students provide the service industry and particularly the hospitality sector
with a ready supply of young employees who assist the industry in portraying a youthful image. It is not
surprising therefore to recognise a coincidence of needs. On the one hand students wishing to work part time
enjoy the opportunities afforded to them by the hospitality and tourism industry, while on the other hand, the
industry appreciates the flexibility and other benefits students bring to the workplace.

The popularity of the hospitality industry coupled with the attractiveness of hospitality students as part-
time employees might present an opportunity to fill an increasingly common gap in hospitality management
curricula. Evidence would suggest that less emphasis is being placed on the practical aspect of hospitality
management education, as universities are either contracting out the practical element of their programme
(Baker, et al, 1995), or removing it altogether from their curricula (Raybould and Wilkins, 2005). However,
practical skills, while perhaps enjoying less emphasis as part of hospitality and tourism curricula, are still felt to
be important and it is generally felt that graduates should have some experience of the world of work, preferably
in the hospitality industry upon graduation (Riley, 2005; Raybould and Wilkins, 2005; Ladkin, 2000; Baker, et
al 1995).

What seems appropriate is for educators and industry to take the opportunity to make the part time
employment opportunity more formal and better controlled and subsequently provide students with personal and
practical skills that might be useful in their future careers. It is suggested that advantages might accrue to the
three parties involved in the education of hospitality and/or tourism management graduates. Firstly, it has
already been argued that the hospitality industry requires a steady supply of young, cheap, flexible and
intelligent employees; one might assume that students attending programs in this area would be most attractive.
For hospitality and tourism students, part time employment in the hospitality industry, in addition to providing
reasonably regular work and financial reward, will assist in personal development and the development of
contacts that might result in the possibility of brighter employment prospects in the future. Finally, universities
who are struggling with the debate regarding the cost or validity of practical skills training might be able to take
advantage of the synergy that exists as a means of solving these tensions. Consequently it is the purpose of this
study to develop an understanding of part-time employment amongst hospitality students.

Specifically, this paper aims to determine the extent of part time employment amongst a cohort of
hospitality; to determine the reasons for engaging in part time employment and to evaluate the impact of gender
and age on the likelihood of engaging in part-time employment.

METHODS

The sample and setting for this research were all undergraduate students enrolled on courses offered by
a tourism and hospitality management school at a Scottish university. Based on a detailed literature review, a
questionnaire was developed specifically to investigate the extent of part time employment among the sample
and separate questionnaires were devised for students with and without part time jobs. The first section of each
questionnaire asked respondents to answer demographic questions concerning age, gender, nationality and
ethnicity. This section also asked questions that attempted to determine motivations for current area of study and
reasons for choosing their particular program at the university. The second section consisted of a variety of
questions regarding employment such as: type of organisation, length of service, job title, nature of duties, level
of responsibility and hours worked. The last section contained questions about benefits of working, their likes
and dislikes in their part time employment and what they felt might be done to develop the relationship between
the parties involved in part time work. Those students without part time jobs were asked about intention to work
in the future and subsequently, different questions were asked of this group. The majority of questions required
a Yes/No response but also presented respondents with the opportunity to provide qualitative comments as a
means of elaboration.

In order to achieve a maximum response, and to answer questions students may have had during the
completion of the questionnaire, the questionnaire was administered in the controlled environment of formal
class time and under the supervision of the researcher. The controlled nature of the questionnaire administration
resulted in a total of 232 useable questionnaires being completed by students studying courses within the school.
The sample comprised a majority of students (81%) under 24 years and a majority of females (63%). Of the 232
completed questionnaires, it was determined that 150 (65%) students in this cohort currently had some form of
part time employment. While mention will be made of those students without part time jobs, students currently
working are the focus of this paper and results from this group of students will be discussed in the following
section. Initial results indicated that this cohort of students comprised 28% (65) in their first year of study; 20%
(46) in the second year, 37% (86) in the third year and 15% (35) in the fourth year of their four year
undergraduate degree. No significant differences were found as a consequence of undertaking cross tabulations
as a means to determine the extent of part time employment dependent on year level. The data collected from
the questionnaire were analysed via SPSS and a range of frequency tables and cross tabulations were generated
which allowed for the development of bar charts. These charts will be presented in the next section along with a
selection of appropriate qualitative responses made by students.

RESULTS

Initially, this research identified the reasons for becoming involved in part-time employment. It was
found that financial concerns were the most frequently indicated with 60% of respondents identifying this as the
main reason for becoming involved in part-time employment whilst studying. Gaining experience (12%) and
developing practical skills (9%), developing career contacts (8%) and developing personal skills (7%) were also
articulated reasons. Students would appear to be aware of the growing importance assigned to employability as
well as academic skills in the workplace and the need to have work experience by the time they graduate (Riley,
2005; Raybould & Wilkins, 2005; Ladkin, 2000; Baker, et al 1995. These findings would indicate that while
financial rewards appear to be the main motivation for the majority of this cohort, non pecuniary reasons for
part-time employment also appear important. Respondents were also asked to indicate the type of employment
undertaken whilst studying. It was found that the hospitality related employment was the most common with
62% (93) of respondents. A further 20% (30) worked in the retail industry.

Students were asked to indicate the length of tenure with their current employer. Chart 1 below details
an element of polarisation regarding months employed. It can be seen that the majority of respondents had either
been with their current employer for a very short or relatively long time. The average tenure with the current
employer was 14 months; however a significant number of students had also been with their current employer
for more than 30 months (22%). In addition, a number of participants stated that they were still employed with
the company they undertook their student placement in their second year of study. Similar employment patterns
were reported in previous studies (Barron, 2006).

Chart 1
Length of Employment with Current Employer
40

35
Percentatge of Respondents

30

25

20

15

10

0
<6 7 to 12 13 to 18 19 to 24 25 to 30 31 to 36 >36
Months Em ployed

There were a higher number of female participants (63%) than males in the study sample, which is an
accurate representation of the student population of this cohort. Results indicated that more female students
(69%) than male students (57%) in this cohort held part-time employment. A series of cross-tabulations were
undertaken to determine if there was a statistical significance between gender and part-time employment. A chi-
squared test was used and while it was shown that a greater proportion of females than males are working, this
difference was not significant (p=0.39).

Next the relationship between gender and hours worked was examined and Chart 2 below indicates the
breakdown of hours worked according to gender. It can be seen that the most common number of hours worked
for both genders was between 16 and 20 hours per week with 39% of males and 30% of females regularly
working this number of hours per week. However it can be seen from Chart 3 that a significant number of
female students (25%) worked 21-25 hours per week and 14% of male students worked 26-30 hours per week.
Nevertheless, the data does not indicate if there is any statistical significance between gender and hours worked
(p=0.606).
 Chart 2
Hours worked per week by gender
40

35
Percentage of Respondents

30

25
Male
20
Female
15

10

0
<5 6 to 10 11 to 15 16 to 20 21 to 25 26 to 30 >31
Hours Worked Per Week By Gender

The relationship between nationality and P/T work was also explored due to the diverse student
population. In Chart 3 below, students are aggregated in groups according to geographical areas and depending
on their presence in the cohort. For instance, Polish students appear on a group of their own because of their
large numbers. It is evident that the large majority of Eastern European (92%) and Polish students (88%) were
involved in part-time employment, followed by UK students (67.8%). The chi-squared test showed that Eastern
European and Polish students were more likely to work than other student groups (p=0.001). Both male and
female Eastern European students also worked on average longer hours than other student groups (21-25 hours
per week).

It should be noted that overseas students are subject to legislation that restricts the amount of hours
they are allowed to work per week (not more than 21), which would affect their employment possibilities. It is
interesting to note that rest of Europe (50%) and rest of the world students (56%) are much less likely than other
groups to become involved in part-time employment. Indeed, even more surprising is the notion that according
to this data, Indian students are more likely not to have a part-time job. However this might be explained by the
fact that the Indian students in this cohort entered directly into third year of the four year Hospitality course, so
they had only been in a new university and a new country for a few weeks and subsequently might not have
found part-time employment at the time of data collection. Nevertheless 44% were already working part-time
and it is suggested that more students from this group will seek part-time opportunities in the following weeks.

Chart 3
Part-time Work by Nationality
100

90

80
Percentage of Respondents

70

60

50

40

30

20

10

0
UK Eastern Europe Poland Restof Europe India Rest of World

P/T Job Yes P/T Job No

Students were finally asked to suggest how the University could become more involved with their part-
time employment. Chart 4 below shows their responses and while it can bee seen that 9% of respondents felt
that the university should not be further involved, a significant portion of this cohort (42%) wished to see the
University get more directly involved with their part-time employment by building a direct link with the
employers and mediating with them on behalf of the students. A point that was clearly articulated by one
female, UK student (19 years) who suggested that the university should:

“help students find suitable employment which pays well and doesn’t detract from studies”.
 It is worth mentioning at this point that the School already has strong links with the hospitality and
tourism industry through the supervised work experience placement offered in the 2nd year of the degree. The
link between supervised work experience and part-time employment was clearly made by students who
participated in this research stating that they continued to work with their placement employers. This fact
demonstrates the value and importance of placement in terms of gaining skills and experience and in linking
employers with suitably qualified employees. Indeed, when considering how the university might become more
involved in the part-time employment process one student felt that

“It could be done in a similar way as the supervised work experience I did in year 2” (UK male,
21years).

A significant number (40%) of students suggested that the university might become indirectly involved
in part-time employment through providing greater flexibility in course delivery and assessment. A male Polish
student (24 years) suggested that:

“I don’t expect [the] university to be involved, but [a] more condensed timetable would be most
appreciated”.

Other comments indicated a desire for a greater understanding from academic staff, which would help
them manage their work study balance. Typical of these were:

“When we speak to them they have little time for when we say we have to work. But [we] can’t
afford university if not working. While we know university is the most important we can’t just
write off working as we need money for rent, etc. They should be more understanding” (female,
rest of Europe, 20 years).

These findings also support Watts and Pickering (2000) findings that working part time is a necessity
for students rather than just a matter of choice.

Chart 4
Student ideas regarding how the university might become more involved in the part-time employment
process

45

40
Percentage of Respondents

35

30

25

20

15

10

0
Closer links w ith industry Flexible tim etables PT em ploym ent advice Mediation No involvem ent

CONCLUSION

Concentrating on gender and nationality, this study aimed to analyse part-time working amongst a
cohort of students studying hospitality management at a university in Scotland. The extent of part-time
employment amongst full-time students identified in this study is in accordance with findings from other
Scottish and overseas universities. Similarly to Barron’s study (2006) of hospitality and tourism students at an
Australian university, 83% of the respondents were in employment or were actively seeking employment, the
majority in the hospitality and tourism industry. This research has found a polarisation in length of tenure of
part-time employment with the majority of students either just commencing employment or, demonstrating
commitment to an employer, at least in terms of length of time employed. This research also found that similar
level of employment between genders, but significant differences based on nationality with home students and
those from Poland and other Eastern European countries more likely to become involved in part-time
employment.
 This research also found that students who took part in this study were keen that the university become
more involved in their part-time employment. Indeed it might be suggested that as a means of responding to the
increased emphasis placed on developing students’ employability skills, the skills gained through part-time
employment might be acknowledged. These findings suggest that there is a need to formally recognise the part-
time experiences of the students and, consequently, that universities address any apprehension in becoming
involved in students’ part-time work.

Based on this study, it is possible to make several recommendations as to how this might happen.
Firstly, it is contended that as an extension of the supervised work experience element of the degree, the
university provides information on part-time opportunities and essentially acts as a broker, agency or
intermediary between the student and the part-time employment provider. Secondly, this research would suggest
that students demand more understanding from the university regarding their need to be involved in part-time
employment. This understanding might manifest itself in several ways; through merely encouraging a more
sympathetic attitude to the demands of part-time employment by lecturers and tutors, to the provision of a more
flexible education experience. The concept of increased flexibility brings with it associated implications in terms
of curriculum design and delivery along with student assessment. The growing number of students and the
significant number of hours that students work, will create pressures for universities to make their courses more
flexible. Universities might adopt flexible approaches to the number of subjects studied, the mode of delivery,
the provision of subjects out with office hours and choice regarding methods of assessment. Finally it is
contended that as a minimum, universities should provide more guidance to their students regarding part-time
employment. This might take the form of general guidelines for appropriate hours, types of work, expected
remuneration and conditions and information regarding appropriate employment legislation and could be
provided with the rest of university information.

Part-time employment would appear to increasingly be an essential element of the overall student
experience. Given the increasing costs of becoming involved in higher education and the potential benefits of
part-time employment, universities might more fully recognise and support their students in achieving their
educational and career goals. It is the aim of the researchers to continue this study as a means of more fully
recognising the relationship between the student, the university and the part-time employer. It is hoped that
universities are willing to recognise their responsibility to students and industry and positively respond to the
realities of contemporary student life.

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