تقنية الانتاج ثاني

Production technology
Production and filed measurements

Second year
2019
Prepared by
KIRKUK OIL TRAINING INSTITUTE
1-Herish wishear noory

Ass.chief . Engineer
BAGHDAD OIL TRAINING INSTITUTE
1- Thamir rada hussain

Chief . Engineer
2- Aziz abdul qadir aziz

Chief . Engineer
BASRA OIL TRAINING INSTITUTE
1- Mohammed noory jaze

2- Wafe nema ziebel

3- Ali diya abdul kareem

Ass. Engineer
Production Technology Second Stage
Oil department
Production and field measurement section
Production technology / Second stage 128 hours

4 hours / week
# Chapters Hours pages

Well Performance And Improved Oil
1 16 2-24
Recovery
2 Crude Oil Treatment 16 25-41
Gas Receiving Facilities And
3 16 42-65
Processing
4 Utilities 14 66-89
5 Chemical Treatment And Injection 14 90-107
6 Water Treatment 12 108-139
7 Pigging 6 140-159
8 Start Up And Shut Down Of Plant 8 160-213

Prepare Plant And Equipment For
9 8 213-237
Maintenance
Exams 8
Total 128
1
Chapter 1
Well Performance and Improve Oil Recovery
2
CONTENTS
1.1 OIL RECOVERY .................................................................................................. 4
1.2 ARTIFICIAL LEFT SYSTEMS ............................................................................. 4
1.2.1 Sucker rod pumping ....................................................................................... 5
1.2.2 Gas lift ............................................................................................................ 6
1.2.3 Electrical Submersible Pump ......................................................................... 7
1.3 SECONDARY RECOVERY ............................................................................... 10
1.3.1 Gas Injection ................................................................................................ 10
1.3.2 Water Injection ............................................................................................. 11
1.4 EOR TCHNOLOGY............................................................................................ 16
1.4.1 Thermal EOR ............................................................................................... 16
1.4.2 Miscible Gas EOR ........................................................................................ 16
1.4.3 Chemical EOR ............................................................................................. 17
1.5 INFLOW PERFORMANCE RELATIONSHIP .................................................... 19
3
1.1 OIL RECOVERY
Primary recovery, refers to the recovery of oil and/or gas that is recovered by either
natural flow or artificial lift through a single wellbore. Thus, primary recovery occurs as a
result of the energy initially present in the reservoir at the time of discovery. When the
initial energy has been depleted and the rate of oil recovery declines, oil production can
be increased by the injection of secondary energy into the reservoir. Secondary recovery
is recovery of oil and/or gas that involves the introduction of artificial energy into the
reservoir via one wellbore and production of oil and/or gas from another wellbore.
Conventional means of secondary recovery include the immiscible processes of water
flooding and gas injection. Currently in the US water flooding is the dominant secondary
recovery method in that about half of the oil production is recovered from water flooding
projects. After secondary recovery, a substantial amount of oil may remain, and attempts
to recover oil beyond primary and secondary recovery are referred to as tertiary recovery.
Any method that recovers oil more effectively than plain water flooding or gas injection is
defined as enhanced recovery. The more sophisticated enhance methods may be
initiated as a tertiary process if they follow water flooding or gas injection, or they may be
a secondary process if they follow primary recovery directly. Many of the enhanced
recovery projects are implemented after water-flooding.
1.2 ARTIFICIAL LEFT SYSTEMS

Artificial Lift Systems are part of the primary oil recovery. An artificial lift system is
required when the reservoir has insufficient pressure to boost the well fluid to the
surface. Also, these systems are sometimes used in flowing wells to increase the
naturally occurring flow rate.
After reservoir drive diminishes as a result of oil and gas extraction, artificial lift is used
to maintain oil production. Artificial lift uses some means to increase the flow of fluid
(i.e., crude oil or water with some amount of gas included) to the surface of a
production well.
This is usually achieved by:
1- A mechanical device inside the well, such as a pump

2- Decreasing the weight of the liquid/gas mixture via high pressure gas
3- Improving the lift efficiency of the well via velocity strings
More than 60% of producing oil wells require some type of assisted lift technology to
produce the recoverable oil. Several artificial lift technologies are employed which
include:
1- Sucker Rod Pump
2- Gas Lift
3- Electric Submersible Pump
4
1.2.1 Sucker rod pumping
Sucker rod pumps, beam pumps or rod pump or refers to an artificial lift system that
uses a surface power source to drive a downhole pump assembly.
Figure 1.1 - Sucker Rod Pump
A beam and crank assembly at the surface (often called a "pump jack") creates
reciprocating motion, which is converted to a vertical motion in a sucker-rod string that
connects to the downhole pump assembly. The pump contains a plunger and valve
assembly to impart vertical fluid movement. Due to its long history, sucker rod pumping
is a very popular means of artificial lift. Roughly two-thirds of the producing oil wells
around the world use this type of lift. Structure of a modern sucker rod pumping unit
has drastically changed with its maximum stroke reaching to 240-inches.The plunger
diameter of some bottom- hole pumps (casing-type) runs as high as 5 3/4 -inches.
Today practice sucker rod pumping approaches 13,000 feet and capacities of 5,000
and 6,000 Barrels/Day from shallow to medium depths are handled with ease
5
1.2.2 Gas lift
Gas lift is used in the oil wells that have insufficient reservoir (drive) pressure to
produce the well. The process involves injecting gas through the tubing- casing
annulus. Injected gas aerates the fluid to reduce its density; the formation pressure is
then able to lift the oil column and forces the fluid out of the wellbore.
Gas may be injected continuously or intermittently, depending on the producing

characteristics of the well and the arrangement of the gas-lift equipment.
Gas lift is a form of artificial lift where gas bubbles lift the oil from the well. The amount
of gas to be injected to maximize oil production varies based on well conditions and
geometries. Too much or too little injected gas will result in less than maximum
production. Generally, the optimal amount of injected gas is determined by well tests,
where the rate of injection is varied and liquid production (oil) is measured.
Gas-lift systems that inject gas into the crude are sometimes used in conjunction with
surface operating reciprocating pumps or horizontal centrifugal pumps. However,
these systems become far less efficient in deeper, deviated wells. Gas-lift systems
often increase the degree of component flow constriction caused by scaling and
paraffin crystal accumulation. Additionally, these techniques require an abundant
supply of gas to be stored at the surface.
Gas that is separated and vented is not easily retained for re-injection and the gas that
is re-injected rapidly becomes contaminated with oxygen, carbon monoxide and
hydrogen Sulphide that can corrode production string components. Older gas-lift
systems (sometimes prominent in offshore applications) burdened with high water cut
are being converted more frequently to ESP systems.
6
Figure 1.2 - Gas lift
1.2.3 Electrical Submersible Pump
The Electric Submersible Pump (ESP) is a device which has hermetically sealed motor
close- coupled to the pump body. The whole assembly is submerged in the fluid to be
pumped. The main advantage of this type of pump is that it prevents pump cavitation, a
problem associated with a high elevation difference between pump and the fluid surface.
Submersible pumps push fluid to the surface as opposed to jet pumps having to pull
fluids. Submersibles are more efficient than jet pumps.
The submersible pumps used in ESP installations are multistage centrifugal pumps
operating in a vertical position. Although their constructional and operational features
underwent a continuous evolution over the years, their basic operational principle
remained the same. Produced liquids, after being subjected to great centrifugal forces
caused by the high rotational speed of the impeller, lose their kinetic energy in the
diffuser where a conversion of kinetic to pressure energy takes place. This is the main
7
operational mechanism of radial and mixed flow pumps.

Submersible pumps are used in oil production to provide a relatively efficient form of
"artificial lift", able to operate across a broad range of flow rates and depths. By
decreasing the pressure at the bottom of the well (by lowering bottom hole flowing
pressure, or increasing drawdown), significantly more oil can be produced from the well
when compared with natural Free flow well. The pumps are typically electrically powered
and referred to as Electrical Submersible Pumps (ESP).
ESP systems consist of both surface components (housed in the production facility, for
example an oil platform) and sub-surface components (found in the well hole). Surface
components include the motor controller (often a variable speed controller), surface
cables and transformers. Subsurface components typically include the pump, motor, seal
and cables. A gas separator is sometimes installed
The pump itself is a multi-stage unit with the number of stages being determined by
the operating requirements. Each stage consists of a driven impeller and a diffuser
which directs flow to the next stage of the pump. Pumps come in diameters from 90
mm (3.5 inches) to 254 mm (10 inches) and vary between 1 meter (3 ft) and 8.7 meters
(29 ft) in length. The motor used to drive the pump is typically a three phase, squirrel
cage induction motor, with a nameplate power rating in the range 7.5 kW to 560 kW
(at 60 Hz).
Until recently, ESPs had been highly costly to install due to the requirement of an
electric cable downhole. This cable had to be wrapped around jointed tubing and
connected at each joint. New coiled tubing umbilicals allow for both the piping and
electric cable to be deployed with a single conventional coiled tubing unit.
The ESP system consists of a number of components that turn a staged series of
centrifugal pumps to increase the pressure of the well fluid and push it to the surface.
The energy to turn the pump comes from a high-voltage (3 to 5 kV) alternating-current
source to drive a special motor that can work at high temperatures of up to 300°F
(149°C) and high pressures of up to 5,000 psi, from deep wells of up to 12,000 feet
(3.7 km) deep with high energy requirements of up to about 1000 horsepower (750
kW).
ESPs have dramatically lower efficiencies with significant fractions of gas, greater than
about 10% volume at the pump intake. Given their high rotational speed of up to 4000
rpm (67 Hz) and tight clearances, they are not very tolerant of solid s such as sand.
The pump shaft is connected to the gas separator or the protector by a mechanical
coupling at the bottom of the pump. Well fluids enter the pump through an intake
screen and are lifted by the pump stages.
8
Other parts include the radial bearings (bushings) distributed along the length of the
shaft providing radial support to the pump shaft turning at high rotational speeds. An
optional thrust bearing takes up part of the axial forces arising in the pump but most of
those forces are absorbed by the protector’s thrust bearing.
Figure 1.3 - ESP
Found in operating environments all over the world, ESPs are very versatile. As a rule,
ESPs have lower efficiencies with significant fractions of gas, typically greater than
about 10% volume at the pump intake.
Given their high rotational speed of up to 4000-rpm and tight clearances, they are also
only moderately tolerant of solids like sand. If solid-laden production flows are
expected, special running procedures and pump placement techniques are usually
employed.
When very large amounts of free gas are present, downhole gas separators and/or
gas compressors may be required in lieu of a standard pump intake.
9
Figure 1.4 - ESP system
1.3 SECONDARY RECOVERY
Pressure maintenance is a secondary recovery process that is implemented early during

the primary producing phase before reservoir energy has been depleted. Pressure
maintenance projects, which can be accomplished by the injection of either gas or water,
will almost always recover more oil reserves than are recoverable by primary producing
mechanisms. For example, the return of gas to the formation early in the primary
producing history of a field will permit higher rates of oil production.
1.3.1 Gas Injection
Historically, both natural gas and air have been used in gas injection projects, and in
some cases nitrogen and flue gases have been injected. Many of the early gas injection
projects used air to immiscible crude oil from reservoirs. The injection of hydrocarbon gas
may results in either a miscible or immiscible process depending on the composition of
the injected gas and crude oil displaced, reservoir pressure and reservoir temperature.
Hydrocarbon miscible injection is considered as an enhanced recovery process.
10
Although the ultimate oil recovered from immiscible gas injection project will normally be
lower than for water flooding, gas injection may be the only alternative for secondary
recovery under certain circumstances. If permeability is very low, the rate of water
injection may be so low that gas injection is preferred. In reservoir with swelling clays, gas
injection is preferable. In steeply-dipping reservoirs, gas that is injected up dip can very
efficiently displace crude oil by a gravity drainage mechanism; this technique is very
effective in low-permeability formations such as fractured shales. In thick formations with
little dip, injected gas (because of its lower density) will tend to override and result in
vertical segregation if the vertical permeability is more than about 200 md. In thin
formations especially if primary oil production has been by solution-gas drive, gas may
be injected into a number of wells in the reservoir on a well pattern bases; this dispersed
gas injection operation attempts to bank the oil in a frontal displacement mechanism. In
addition to the external gas injection into reservoirs with dip as just described (which may
be into a primary or secondary gas cap), a variation called attic oil recovery involves
injection of gas into a lower structure position. If there is sufficient vertical permeability,
the injected gas will migrate upward to create a secondary gas cap that can displace the
oil downward where it is recovered in wells that are already drilled.
1.3.2 Water Injection
Water injection processes may be designed to:

1. Dispose of produced formation water,
2. Conduct a pressure maintenance project to maintain reservoir pressure when
expansion of an aquifer or gas cap is insufficient to maintain pressure
3. Implement a water drive or water flood of oil after primary recovery.
As mentioned before, water flooding is the dominant secondary recovery process which
accounts for about 50% of current oil production in U.S. operations
Spacing of Wells and Well Patterns
One section (one square mile or 5280 ft by 5280 ft) is 640 acres. If wells are drilled evenly
such that each well is theoretically assigned to drain 40 acres, the 16 wells per section
would be as spaced as in Figure 5.1. Each 40 acres (¼ mile by ¼ mile or 1,320ft by
1,320ft) would contain 40 x 43,560 or 1,742,400 ft 2. The 10-acres region in Figure 1.9
would measure 660ft by 660ft and would contain 435,600 2 ft. Similarly, a 20-acres region
would contain 871,200 ft2 and would measure [20 x871200]2 or 933.4ft by 933.4ft.
In many parts of the United States, 40-acres spacing or less is common for oil wells, and
160-acres spacing is common for gas wells. Because drilling costs increased
considerably with depth, deeper wells may be on larger spacing.
11
Figure 1.5 - wells spaces

Injection Well Placement
Wells may be spaced evenly or unevenly from each other based on surface topology,
lease boundaries, regulations, or other factors. Many older fields were developed on
irregular spacing. In more recent times, more uniform drilling patterns and well spacing
have been used.
In most cases when an injection project is started, primary recovery has been
implemented and producing wells will already be in place. For some projects, a number
of existing wells will be converted from producers to injectors, and in other cases, new
injection wells will be drilled. In either event, the injection wells placement must be
compatible with the existing wells and should:
1. Take advantage of known reservoir non-uniformities (fractures, directional
permeability, regional permeabilities, dip, etc.),
2. Provide sufficient fluid injection rate to yield the desired production rate,
3. Maximize recovery with a minimum of production of the injected fluid
4. In most cases, require a minimum of new wells.
12
Two general types of well locations are common:
1. Peripheral or Central flooding where the injectors are grouped together,

2. Pattern flooding where certain pattern of injectors are repeated throughout the field.
The relative location of injectors and producers depends on the geology and type of
reservoir, the volume of reservoir swept, and the time limitations that affect economics.
When possible, the injection scheme should take advantage of gravity, i.e., dipping or
inclined reservoirs, gas caps, or underlying aquifers.
1. Peripheral or Central Flooding
In peripheral flooding, the injectors are located around the periphery so that the flood
progresses toward the center as shown in Figure 1.6 When the first row of producers
flood out, they are converted to injectors. This type of flood can result in maximum oil
recovery with a minimum of produced water injected, and less water injected is required
for a given amount of production, but a peripheral flood usually takes longer than a pattern
flood. In general, adequate permeability is required to permit movement of fluids at an
acceptable rate with the available well spacing. Central flooding is the opposite case in
which injectors are located in the center of the field, and the flood progresses outward
13
Figure 1.6 - central or peripheral flood
A form of peripheral flooding is an end-to-end flood such as that shown in Figure 1.10
This type of injection could include the injection of gas into a gas cap or the injection of
water into an aquifer.
The choice of peripheral or repeating pattern flood is usually made on the basis of:
1- Formation permeability,
2- Formation dip
3- Area and dimensions of the reservoir, and
4- The initial production response that is acceptable.
14
2. Pattern Flooding
In pattern flooding, the injectors are distributed among the producers in some repeating
fashion. Examples of the common repeating patterns are shown in Figure 1.7. Pattern
flooding is very common, and the selection of the type of pattern will depend on
circumstances in a given field. If existing wells were drilled on square patterns, 5-spots
and 9-spots are common, and both yield similar oil recovery and water-oil ratio
performance. If the injected fluid is more mobile than the displacing fluid (which is often
the case, especially when oil viscosity is high), a pattern having more producers than
injectors may be desired to balance the injection and production rates. In cases where
the injected fluid is less mobile or when the formation permeability is low, a pattern having
more injectors than producers may be desired.
Figure 1.7 - pattern flood
15
1.4 EOR TCHNOLOGY
EOR methods are classified by the main mechanism of oil displacement. There are really
just three basic mechanisms for recovering oil from rock other than by water alone. The
methods are grouped according to those which rely on (a) A reduction of oil viscosity, (b)
The extraction of the oil with a solvent, and (c) The alteration of capillary and viscous
forces between the oil, injected fluid, and the rock surface.
EOR methods are therefore classified into the following three categories:
 Thermal methods (injection of heat);
 Miscible gas injection methods (injection of a solvent);
 Chemical methods (injection of chemicals/surfactants).
1.4.1 Thermal EOR
Thermal EOR methods are generally applicable to heavy, viscous crudes, and involve the
introduction of thermal energy or heat into the reservoir to raise the temperature of the oil
and reduce its viscosity. Steam (or hot water) injection and in-situ combustion are the
popular thermal recovery methods.
Three common methods involving steam injection are cyclic steam stimulation (huff and
puff), steam flooding and steam assisted gravity drainage (SAGD). In-situ combustion
involves the injection of air, where the oil is ignited, generates heat internally and also
produces combustion gases, which enhance recovery.
Steam injection has been most popular in heavy oil sand reservoirs.
The future of thermal methods is perhaps the brightest for the more difficult heavy oil and
tar sands resources. This technology is ripe for being applied in other parts of the world.
Air injection, if tamed and understood, may also have applications in light oil reservoirs
as the injectant supply is plentiful. Steam flooding too has been tested successfully in
light oil reservoirs that satisfy certain criteria (depth < 3,000 ft, oil saturation-porosity
product > 0.1).
1.4.2 Miscible Gas EOR
Gas injection, especially CO2, is another popular EOR method (see fig below), and is
applicable to light oil reservoirs, in both carbonates and sandstones. Its popularity is
expected to increase for two reasons: increased oil recovery through miscibility and
disposal of a greenhouse gas.
Their success has partially been due to the availability of low-cost natural CO2 from
nearby fields and reservoirs. Many other CO2-EOR projects are on the drawing board as
a result of environmental reasons (sequestration). Hydrocarbon gas is also an excellent
solvent for light oil reservoirs, if available.
16
In places where it cannot be monetizing (no local market), it can be injected into an oil
reservoir for EOR. Other gases, such as nitrogen and acid or sour gases, have, or will be
injected, although to a lesser extent than CO2 and hydrocarbon gases. The current
challenges in gas injection as an EOR method are gravity segregation, and most
importantly, availability of a low-cost gas source.
Figure 1.8 – Example of Tertiary Recovery – CO2 injection.

The future of gas injection lies primarily with CO2. There is a concerted effort around the
world to reduce carbon capture costs. Once this becomes feasible, injection of CO 2 may
become widespread in light oil reservoirs. Hydrocarbon gas injection has limited potential
except where there is no market for it.
1.4.3 Chemical EOR
In chemical EOR or chemical flooding, the primary goal is to recover more oil by either
one or a combination of the following processes:
 Mobility control by adding polymers to reduce the mobility of the injected water,
 Interfacial tension (IFT) reduction by using surfactants, and/or alkalis.
In down-hole conditions, water is almost always less viscous than oil. Ideally, however, in
addition to maintaining reservoir pressure, injected water should be able to push the oil,
like a piston. Yet because it flows more easily than the oil, the water flood often fails to
fulfil this function, escaping through the paths of least resistance that it finds in the
reservoir
17
In theory, the solution is as simple as the problem itself: simply reduce the mobility of the
water by increasing its viscosity and making its properties as close as possible to those
of the target oil. This can be achieved by adding polymer to the water.
Provided the polymer is water-soluble, it can “uncoil” in the water to raise its viscosity.
The “piston effect” thus becomes much more efficient, potentially increasing the recovery
factor by 5 to 15%.
Figure 1.9 – Example of Tertiary Recovery - Chemical EOR.

Considerable research and pilot testing was done in the 1980s and a string of projects
were implemented during that time. Consequently, none of those projects were
successful, at least economically. The only place where chemical EOR has been
successful, especially polymer, is in China over the last decade. Based on the success in
China and the recent increase in oil price, a renewed vigour has come into chemical EOR
and several field trials and pilots are ongoing, and/or on the drawing board.
Surfactant injection has not produced any successes and remains challenging, especially
in a high salinity, high temperature environment. Alkalis, although cheap, bring along a
string of operational headaches (scaling, emulsions, plugging, etc.). Nearly all of the
polymer floods have been implemented in sandstones, and carbonates remain a major
challenge.
Chemical EOR faces significant challenges, especially in light oil reservoirs. One of the
reasons is the availability, or lack of, compatible chemicals in high temperature and high
salinity environments.
18
1.5 INFLOW PERFORMANCE RELATIONSHIP
The difference between the reservoir pressure and the BHP of a well is the driving force
for inflow into the wellbore. Resistance to well inflow depends on reservoir rock properties,
fluid properties, details of the completion of the well, and sometimes the late effects of
drilling and workover activities. In combination, these factors determine the inflow
performance of the well. Because all fluids entering the wellbore have to pass through the
narrow area around the wellbore, the highest flow rates in the reservoir occur just there
and any increased resistance to flow has a large effect on the well performance. Because
inflow performance plays such an important role, it should be regularly measured through
production testing, i.e. by flowing the well through a test separator and determining the
gas, oil, and water flow rates as function of wellbore pressure. The pressure should
preferably be measured at the bottom hole with either a permanent downhole gauge
(PDG) or a dedicated wire line tool. This regular testing will give an indication when a well
is producing less than expected due to impairment, i.e. blockage of the pores in the near
wellbore area. Remedial measures, such as hydraulic fracturing of the formation through
pumping of high-pressure liquids, or stimulation with acids, can then be taken.
The IPR curve is a graphical presentation of the relation between the flowing bottom-hole
pressure and liquid production rate. A typical IPR curve is shown in figure 1.10.
Figure 1.10 - IPR for single-phase liquid well
19
The magnitude of the slope of the IPR curve is called the ‘‘productivity index’’ (PI or J),
−qo
J= ………………………….………………. (1.1)
Pe −Pwf
Where (J) is the productivity index
qo = inflow rate, bpd s.c.
pe or pr = reservoir pressure, psi
pwf = flowing bottom-hole pressure, psi
For radial transient flow around a vertical well as shown on figure 1.11
0.007082 K h (Pe −Pwf )
𝑞𝑜 = r …………………………………(1.2)
Bo μo ln e
rw
−qo −0.007082 K h
J= = r ………………………………(1.3)
Pe −Pwf Bo μo ln e
rw
Where
k = reservoir permeability, md
h = reservoir thickness, ft
pe or pr = reservoir pressure, psi
pwf = flowing bottom-hole pressure, psi
Bo = oil formation volume factor, bbl/stb
µo = oil viscosity, cp
re = well’s drainage radius, ft
rw = wellbore radius, ft
The reservoir inflow model represented by equations above were derived on the basis of
the assumption of single-phase liquid flow and there is no formation damage (skin factor
= 0). This assumption is valid for undersaturated oil reservoirs, or reservoir portions where
the pressure is above the bubble-point pressure. For two phase flow the productivity index
will not be constant and the IPR carve will be as shown in the figure 1.12
Figure 1.11 - radial flow in the reservoir
20
Figure 1.12 - IPR for two-phase flow
Several important features of the straight line IPR can be seen in figure 1.10
1- The well flow rate define the x axis and the independent variable, wellbore flowing
pressure, defines the y axis
2- When the wellbore flowing pressure equals reservoir pressure (Pe ),the flow rate will
be zero and no flow enters the wellbore due to the absence of any pressure drawdown
3- Maximum rate of flow, qmax , or absolute open flow ,corresponds to wellbore flowing
pressure equal to zero,
4- The slope of the straight line equals the reciprocal of the productivity index (slope =
1/J)
21
Example Problem 1.1 Calculate the productivity index for oil well by using the following
table?
Sol. q ( bpd ) P ( psi )
q2 − q1 120 650
J=
pwf2 − pwf1 200 400
200−120
J= = -0.32 bpd/psi
400−650
Example Problem 1.2 - Construct IPR of a vertical well in an oil reservoir when the wells
distribution are as in the figure below. The following data are given:
Pay zone thickness: h = 53 ft

Effective horizontal permeability k = 8.2 md
Reservoir pressure: pe or pr = 5651 psia
Fluid formation volume factor:, Bo = 1.1
Fluid viscosity: µo= 1.7 cp
Drainage area: A = 640 acres
(re = 2980 ft)
Wellbore radius: rw = 0.328 ft
Sol.
√43560 ∗ 𝐴
re =
2
√43560 ∗ 640
re =
2
Re = 2980 ft
−0.007082 K h
J= r
Bo μo ln r e
w
−0.007082 ∗ 8.2 ∗ 53
J=
2980
1.1 ∗ 1.7 ln(0.328)
J = - 0.1806 bpd/psi
22
−q o
J=
Pe −Pwf
−q o
−0.1806 =
5651 − 0
q o = 1020.5 𝑏𝑝𝑑
When Pwf = Pe, qo = 0
Figure 1.4 - IPR

Example Problem 1.3 - from The following data, calculate
1- The productivity index ( J )
2- Flowing bottom-hole pressure ( pwf ) when ( qo = 600 bpd )
Pay zone thickness: h = 30 ft

Effective horizontal permeability k = 50 md
Reservoir pressure: pe = 3000 psia
Fluid formation volume factor:, Bo = 1.18
Fluid viscosity: µo= 4 cp
Reservoir radius re = 250 ft
Wellbore radius: rw = 3 in
23
Sol.
rw= 3/12 = 0.25 ft
−0.007082 K h
J= r
Bo μo ln r e
w
−0.007082 ∗ 50 ∗ 30
J=
250
1.18 ∗ 4 ∗ ln( )
0.25
J = - 0.326 bpd/psi
−q o
J=
Pe −Pwf
−600
−0.326 =
3000 − 𝑝𝑤𝑓
Pwf = 1159.5 bpd
Problems
1- Oil well with ( 40 acres ) drainage area with a maximum flow rate ( Qmax = 375 bpd )
,from the data in the table below, calculate the following
1- Pay zone thickness ( h )
2- The radius ( r ) when the reservoir pressure ( P = 900 psi )
Pe (psi ) K ( md ) μ (cp) rw (ft) Boi
1250 47 3 0.4166 1.25
2- The flow rate for an oil well (175 bpd) when the BHP ( 500 psi ) and the reservoir
pressure Pe ( 1000 psi ),from the data in the table below calculate
1- The productivity index
2- reservoir radius
k ( md ) μ (cp) h (ft) Boi rw (ft)
60 3 25 1.25 0.292
24
Chapter 2
Crude Oil Treatment
25
CONTENTS
2.1 INTRODUCTION ..................................................................................................... 27
2.2 CRUDE OIL DEHYDRATION ................................................................................. 27
2.2.1 Why Demulsification is Important? .................................................................. 29
2.2.2 Sources of Agitation ........................................................................................ 30
2.2.3 Emulsion Stability ............................................................................................ 31
2.2.4 Principles of Emulsion Breaking...................................................................... 32
2.2.5 Emulsion Destabilization ................................................................................. 32
2.2.6 Selection of Demulsifier .................................................................................. 34
2.2.7 Chemelectric Treaters..................................................................................... 34
2.2.8 Dehydrator Vessel .......................................................................................... 35
2.2.9 Desalter Vessel ............................................................................................... 36
2.3 CRUDE OIL STABILIZATION ................................................................................ 39
26
2.1 INTRODUCTION
Crude product after Separation requires further treatment to remove salt, residual water,
light ends and sour gas before it can meet export specifications. This further treatment is
carried out in two stages; first in a dehydration and desalting unit where brine is removed
by a process involving electrostatic coalescence and a second stripping process where
the crude is stabilised and sweetened by a stripping process.
Before produced crude oil can be sent to a refinery, it must meet a specification for water,
salt and solids. Although these may vary slightly, all crude oil sales require the removal
of almost all water and solids. A very small content, such as 0.2% of ‘basic sediment and
water’ (BS&W) contamination of crude oil can still result in corrosion of the inside walls
and buildup of deposits that could cause erosion. The removal of water by treatment of
emulsions and reduction of the salt content of crude oil are very important parts of
production operations.
Crude oil specifications:
 basic sediment and water’ (BS&W) 0.2%

 Salt at SBM (max) 25 PTB ( pound thousand barrel )
 H2S limit 20 ppm ( part per million )
2.2 CRUDE OIL DEHYDRATION
What is an Emulsion?
An emulsion can be defined as a mixture of two immiscible liquids that do not separate
quickly or easily due to the presence of emulsifying agents
Figure 2.1 – emulsion
27
Three conditions are necessary for the formation of a stable emulsion (an emulsion that
will not break down or separate into water and oil without treatment).
1. The liquids must be immiscible i.e. do not mix
2. There must be an emulsifying agent present i.e. something that helps water and oil
to mix intimately
3. There must be sufficient agitation to disperse one liquid phase (as droplets) into the
other
Two containers contain crude oil and water. Container B has been agitated (shaken)
strongly
Figure 2.2 – form of emulsion

In an emulsion, one of the liquids is dispersed throughout the other in the form of small
droplets called the dispersed or internal phase. The liquid surrounding the droplets is
called the continuous or external phase.. It is not always obvious from field samples if an
emulsion is a w/o or o/w type. This can only be established by adding either water or
kerosene to the sample and whichever fluid mixes with and dilutes the emulsion is the
continuous phase.
TERM DESCRIPTION
 Dispersed or internal phase  Liquid forming small drops
 Continuous or external phase  Liquid in which small drops are
 Water in oil (W/O – ‘normal emulsion)  Water is the internal phase, oil is the
suspended
 Oil in water (O/W – ‘reverse  Oil is thephase
external internal phase,
e.g. waterCrude
Produced is the
emulsion) external phase e.g. water effluent
28
Figure 2.3 – water in crude oil emulsion
Emulsifying Agents (Emulsifiers)

These are materials that help emulsions to form. They can be found in most oilfields and
include:
 Electrically charged organic materials such as oil-soluble, organic acids, sand,
asphalt
 Fine solids, such as iron, zinc, aluminum sulphate, calcium carbonate, silica, iron
sulphide and clay
They form a tough skin around the water droplets which prevents them joining together
to form larger droplets. Most of the emulsifying agents or emulsifiers are present in the
reservoir and produced with the well fluids
2.2.1 Why Demulsification is Important?
Crude oil is produced from reservoirs in association with natural formation water or a
mixture of formation water and injection water. This crude mixture is mainly produced in
the form of an oil/water emulsion.. Failure to separate the oil/water mixture efficiently can
result in a number of problems, including:
1. Overloading surface separation equipment. Increased cost of pumping crude that

contains significant water.
2. Significant flow line or tubing pressure resulting from high viscosity emulsions.
3. Increased vessel heating costs.
4. Corrosion in export lines, including subsea pipelines, export` pipelines and storage
tanks.
5. Thick sludge in stock tank bottoms, which is difficult to remove
6. Refinery can only accept oil of low basic sediment, water and salt content. Typical
maximum acceptable salt content at a refinery is 25 Ib salt per thousand barrels’ crude.
7. Level indication and control problems
29
2.2.2 Sources of Agitation
Emulsions are usually formed in crude oil due to the forceful mixing (i.e. agitation) of the
crude oil and water in the presence of an emulsifying agent. The amount of mixing that
occurs in the reservoir is relatively minor and even in the production tubular string there
may not be enough turbulence to form a stable emulsion. However, the basic cause of
the formation of emulsions is forceful mixing in turbulent conditions.
Sources of agitation can be found at many locations in the production and processing of
the well fluids as shown in Figure. These areas include:
1. In the bottom of the well - where agitation is caused by turbulent flow near to the
entrance to the production tubing (well bore)
2. In the production tubing - equipment installed in the tubing can produce turbulent flow,
which will cause severe agitation of the liquids
3. At the wellhead - restrictions in valves and chokes cause further agitation
4. In surface production process vessels/equipment - the well stream encounters more
agitation
Figure 2.4 – source of agitation
30
2.2.3 Emulsion Stability
A stable emulsion is difficult to break i.e. separate into its water and oil components.
Factors that affect the stability of an emulsion are:
1. Viscosity of liquids
2. Specific gravity or liquid density
3. Age of the emulsion, how long has it been formed
4. Droplet size in the emulsion
5. Presence of emulsifying agent or emulsifier
1- Viscosity
Oil with a high viscosity retains much larger droplets of water than an oil of lower viscosity;
the large water droplets cannot escape so easily. Crude oils with a high viscosity require
a longer settling time plus heat to separate the water from the emulsion. Heating crude
oil lowers its viscosity and causes it to flow more freely.
2- Specific Gravity
Emulsified oils with large differences in oil and water specific gravities (SG), i.e. weight of
oil compared to weight of water, separate faster during settling than emulsions with similar
oil and water SGs.
Heavy oils with a high SG (low API gravity) that is close to water SG tend to retain water
droplets in suspension longer than lighter oils. Heating the oil reduces its density and
releases water droplets.
3- Age of Emulsions
If an emulsion is not treated quickly and removed from the tank, some water will separate
and settle out by gravity and coalescence. This is not a complete separation and a small
percentage of water remains in the oil even after an extended period of settling time. This
small percentage of water increases the stability of the emulsion and makes it more
difficult to break.
4- Droplet Size
An emulsion in which the water droplets are extremely small is known as a tight emulsion,
which is very difficult to break.
Droplet size is an important factor in emulsion treatment. To break an emulsion, the small
droplets must collide with other small droplets to coalesce and form larger droplets, which
fall through the oil phase and settle.
31
2.2.4 Principles of Emulsion Breaking
Although crude oil emulsion treating processes vary, the three principals involved in
treating an emulsion are the same.
1. Break the skin surrounding the water droplets

2. Encourage coalescence
3. Allow efficient water separation and settling during and after coalescence
To break the surrounding skins, the effect of the emulsifier must be neutralized. The
methods used to do this are:
1. The injection of demulsifier chemicals
2. Heating
3. Applying an electrostatic force
2.2.5 Emulsion Destabilization
The destabilization processes can be improved in a number of ways, for example:
1. Increase temperature
2. Electrical methods
3. Increase residence time
4. Chemical treatment
1- Increased Temperature
Increasing the temperature will reduce the density and viscosity of emulsions. Low oil
viscosity in a water-in-oil emulsion causes the water droplets to move faster, increasing
the collision factor and coalescence. This speeds up the settling action
2- Electrical Methods
The electrical field causes positive and negative poles to form on the water droplets, which
are further destabilized by becoming elongated. A high voltage A.C is applied, which
excites the water particles and brings them closer together, accelerates the coalescence
of the small droplets to give free water.
32
Figure 2.5 - positive and negative poles to form on the water droplets
3- Increasing Residence Time
Increased residence time is an important destabilizing option, which helps emulsion

destabilization by other treatment methods.
4- Chemical Treatment – Demulsifiers
demulsifiers are blends of organic compounds with surface-active characteristics.

Demulsifier chemicals are injected into the well fluids to de-polarize or neutralize the
emulsifying agent; which weakens and breaks the skin so that the water droplets can
collide and coalesce.
Demulsifiers are injected at an early stage in the process to allow the maximum amount
of time for the emulsion break-up to occur.
Demulsifiers are mainly oil dispersible (not soluble in oil), so it is very important that they
are fully dispersed into the crude oil stream.
Note: Injecting too much chemical can cause the emulsion to become unbreakable. So,
it is important that the correct rate of injection is maintained
33
2.2.6 Selection of Demulsifier
Factors influencing performance and selection:
1. Viscosity of crude
2. Residence time
3. Desired final oil/water quality
4. Position of injection points , etc……..
The selection of the best demulsifier to use is made by "bottle tests". Lab technicians
conduct a series of tests using a range of demulsifier bases. It is very important that
testing is only done on fresh samples of emulsion, as old samples of oxidized oils can
give wrong results.
Several tests are necessary before the most suitable combination of demulsifier bases is
found. Once the lab technician has completed the tests, it is normal to conduct a small-
scale field test for a period of several days in a test separator.
2.2.7 Chemelectric Treaters
These treaters are the most widely used dehydrators to treat emulsions available in
various sizes, and are normally arranged horizontally. The hot wet oil then enters the
electrical coalescing section.
A high voltage AC. field is applied, which excites the water particles and brings them
closer together, which accelerates the coalescence of the small droplets to give free
water.
The placement of electrodes and selection of voltage is adjustable, according to the
requirements. Some chemelectric treaters do not have heating sections if the inlet
temperature of the oil emulsion is sufficient for the electrostatic dehydration of the
emulsion to proceed
34
Figure 2.6 - Chemelectric Treaters
2.2.8 Dehydrator Vessel
The Dehydrators are operated liquid packed with the operating pressure above the liquid
bubble point.
The primary objective of the dehydrator is to remove emulsionated water from Crude oil;
however salts present in the formation water are also removed by the dehydration.
The crude/water emulsions are resolved by the action of a high voltage electrostatic field
inside the process vessel. The electrostatic field action coalesces the dispersed water
phase and gravity causes the enlarged water droplets to fall and collect in the bottom of
the vessel. The water, which contains the various impurities removed from the crude, is
continuously discharged through the effluent system. Dehydrated crude oil flows from the
top of the vessel to the following Desalting Stage.
The purpose of the electrostatic dehydrator is to provide efficient separation of entrained
water in the crude oil thereby reducing the water content of the outlet oil to an acceptable
level. The separation process is possible due to the density difference between the oil
and water. Since the water is heavier than oil, with sufficient retention time, the water will
settle to the bottom of the desalter.
35
The oil/water emulsion enters the desalter through a distributor located above the bottom
of the vessel after leaving the distributor, the emulsion flows upward through an electric
field generated by a high voltage electrode plates located just above the vessel centreline.
The electric field is to increase the rate of coalescence for small water droplets found in
the oil. As the size of the droplets increases, the settling rate for the droplets greatly
increases. The dehydrated oil exits from the top of the vessel through a collector pipe.
The water level is maintained by an interface control which operates a water discharge
valve. The oil and entrained water flow upward, and are uniformly distributed to utilize the
full cross-sectional coalescing area. As the oil and entrained water come into contact with
the electrical field in the grid area, final coalescing of the water takes place. The water
falls back into the water phase and the clean oil continues to rise to the top of the vessel,
where it is collected and is discharged through the clean oil outlet valve
2.2.9 Desalter Vessel
The Desalters are operated liquid packed with the operating pressure above the liquid
bubble point.
The purpose of the desalter is to remove salt and water from crude oil. Salts in crude oils
are generally contained in residual water that is suspended in the oil phase. The chemical
composition of these salts varies, but the salts most commonly found in crude oil are
sodium, calcium and magnesium chlorides. All crude oils contain, as mechanical
suspensions, such impurities as silt, iron oxide, quartz sand and sometimes crystalline
salt.
All desalters require the addition of substantial quantities of wash water to the crude oil
charge stream just upstream from the mix valve. When the crude charge Pump is located
on the crude unit site, then the ability to inject a small amount of Wash water into the
crude pump suction may be useful. This may allow a Reduction in the mixing valve
pressure drop, since good mixing will be obtained in the crude charge pump. The wash
water required will be variable depending on the salt content of the crude, the operating
conditions and the quality of the wash water available.
The crude/water mixtures are resolved by introduction into a high voltage electrostatic
field inside the process vessel. The electrostatic field action coalesces the dispersed
water phase and gravity causes the enlarged water droplets to fall and collect in the
bottom of the vessel. The water, which contains the various impurities removed from the
crude, is continuously discharged to the effluent system. Clean dehydrated/desalted
crude oil flows from the top of the vessel.
Typically, demulsifying chemical will be needed. Demulsifier chemical injection points
should be provided upstream of the crude charge pump and upstream of the heat
36
exchanger train in order to provide the maximum time for contacting prior to introduction
into the desalter. The final injection scheme and dosage should be optimized after the
plant start-up.
The principle of the desalting operation is that wash water before and/or after pre-heating
is mixed with the crude oil under controlled conditions to dissolve and/or wet the
impurities. The water/crude mixture is then resolved by coalescence in a high voltage
electrical field and subsequently separated in the desalter or process vessel.
Figure 2.7 – dehydrator/desalter vessel
37
Figure 2.8 – dehydrator and desalter plant
38
2.3 CRUDE OIL STABILIZATION

Crude Oil Stabilization is a process of removing any dissolved gases that belong to the
light or the intermediate hydrocarbon groups (C1, C2, C3, etc.) with hydrogen sulfide (if
present in the crude) without losing the more valuable components.
So that the stable crude oil mean it’s become free of H2S and water and meets the
shipping specification for light ends
The main advantages of stabilization are:
1. Liquids can be stored and transported more profitably and safely

2. Minimize gas losses from light crude oil when stored.
Stability of crude oil is determined by measuring TVP (True Vapour Pressure) or RVP
(Reid Vapour Pressure). These are standard indicator of volatility or how quickly a fuel
evaporates, and is a key quality control factor, in particular when considering the crude
oil storage and transportation. (If the product is too volatile, it will evaporate in warm
weather despite venting control. Volatile fractions also ignite easily, incurring a safety risk
and more stringent safety regulations.)
Crude oil is considered to be “Sweet” if the dangerous acidic gases are removed from it.
On the other hand, it is classified as “Sour” if it contains more than 0.5% Sulphur.
Hydrogen Sulphide (H2S) gas is a poison hazard because 0.1% in air is toxically fatal in
30 min. Additional processing is mandatory-via this operation-in order to release any
residual associated gases along with H2S present in the crude.
The crude oil discharged from the last stage of separation in a gas-oil separation plant
(GOSP) has a vapour pressure equal to the total pressure in the last stage.
Stabilization mechanism is based on removing the more volatile components by:
1. Flashing using stage separation

2. Stripping operations
As stated earlier, the two major specifications set for stabilized oil are as follows:
1. True Vapour Pressure (TVP) / The Reid Vapour Pressure (RVP)

2. Hydrogen Sulphide content
Following table shows boiling point, vapour density and vapour pressure for various
components of the crude.
39
Some Properties of various components of Crude Oil
By stabilizing we are removing light hydrocarbon up to Butane. This will result in more
stable crude oil which is safe for storage and transportation. Also it is clear from the above
table that except Methane all volatile gases are having higher vapour density than air
which results in setting down of gases in case of leak and it is difficult to disperse them,
which can create fire hazard.
The stabilized crude is stored in the large storage tanks from where it is pumped to oil
depot or to ship loading.
The stabilizer column can be a “packed tower”, packed with a specific design of packing
material or tray design using bubble cap, valve or sieve trays. Tray towers are a more
commonly used design; in general, it is built with up to 40 trays in some units. The
reboilers supply the required heat for stripping of light ends from the crude.
40
Figure 2.9 - Typical Trayed Stabilizer
41
Chapter 3
Gas Receiving Facilities and Processing
42
CONTENTS
3.1 INTRODUCTION ..................................................................................................... 44
3.2 SLUG CATCHER .................................................................................................... 45

3.2.1 What is Slugs? ................................................................................................ 45
3.2.2 Definition of Slug Catcher ............................................................................... 46
3.3 NATURAL GAS (N.G.) DEHYDRATION ................................................................ 48

3.3.1 Definition of Dehydration ................................................................................. 48
3.3.2 Reasons for N.G. Dehydration ........................................................................ 48
3.2.3 N.G. Dehydration Processes .......................................................................... 48
3.2.4 N.G. Dehydration by Liquid-Desiccant (Absorption Processes) ...................... 49
3.2.6 Main Operating Variables and Limits .............................................................. 52
3.2.7 N.G. Dehydration by Solid-Desiccant (Adsorption Process) ........................... 53
3.3 NATURAL GAS (N.G.) SWEETENING .................................................................. 57

3.3.1 N.G. Sweetening by Liquid-Desiccant (Absorption Process) .......................... 57
3.3.2 Principles of Gas Sweetening with Amine Solution ......................................... 58
3.3.4 Amine sweetening process ............................................................................. 58
3.4 GAS COMPRESSION ............................................................................................. 60

3.4.1 Type of compressors ...................................................................................... 62
3.5 SULPHUR RECOVERY .......................................................................................... 65
43
3.1 INTRODUCTION
Natural gas is a naturally occurring hydrocarbon. It consists of a mixture of hydrocarbon
gases which are made up of hydrogen and carbon. The simplest hydrocarbon is
“Methane” which contains one carbon atom and four hydrogen atoms (CH 4). Higher
hydrocarbons are formed by increasing number of carbon atoms and accordingly number
of hydrogen atoms. Natural gas has been used commercially as a fuel since it was early
produced. It formed naturally in sedimentary rocks as free gas or as associated gas with
oil.
Natural gas is a mixture of hydrocarbon gases along with some impurities that are the
result of decomposed organic material. The impurities found also include water vapor and
heavier hydrocarbons. When raw natural gas is withdrawn from the underground
reservoirs to supply energy demands, these impurities are considered objectionable and
are usually removed by various processing schemes. The hydrocarbon gases normally
found in natural gas are methane, ethane, propane, butanes, pentanes, and small
amounts of hexanes, heptanes, octaves, and the heavier gases.
Impurities are usually found in natural gas and must be removed because they cause
difficulties in handling and processing. Such components as hydrogen sulphide, carbon
dioxide, mercaptans, water vapor, noncombustible gases (such as nitrogen and helium),
pentanes, and the heavier hydrocarbons are generally considered as impurities since the
processed natural gas is usually burned as fuel and these compounds may cause
extremely unreliable and hazardous combustion conditions for the consumer. Removal
of hydrogen sulfide, which is very poisonous, carbon dioxide, and water vapor eliminates
the problems of toxicity, corrosion, and hydrate formation in transmission and distribution
systems. Market value of some of these impurities may make it attractive for the producer
to remove and market them separately, thereby making the processing of the natural gas
more economical.
When natural gas comes out of the ground, it is typically at high pressure, hot, and carries
some amount of liquid.
As the natural gas moves along the pipeline to the gas plant, whether offshore or onshore,
it will cool off and lose pressure. Both of these physical changes cause the liquids in the
gas to fall out.
Most of this liquid is very desirable, light hydrocarbon liquid called NGLs (natural gas
liquids). Both the gas and liquid are very valuable for a variety of applications. The natural
gas will ultimately be used to generate electricity or heat. The NGLs can be converted
into butane, kerosene, jet fuel, anti-freeze and dozens of other products.
44
3.2 SLUG CATCHER

3.2.1 What is Slugs?
Pipelines that transport both gas and liquids together, known as two phase flow, can
operate in a flow regime known as slugging flow or slug flow. Under the influence of
gravity liquids will tend to settle on the bottom of the pipeline, while the gases occupy the
top section of the pipeline. Under certain operating conditions gas and liquid are not
evenly distributed throughout the pipeline, but travel as large plugs with mostly liquids or
mostly gases through the pipeline. These large plugs are called Slugs.
Slugs exiting the pipeline can overload the gas/liquid handling capacity of the plant at the
pipeline outlet, as they are often produced at a much larger rate than the equipment is
designed for.
Whether a slug is able to reach the outlet of the pipeline depends on the rate at which
liquids are added to the slug at the front (i.e. in the direction of flow) and the rate at which
liquids leave the slug at the back.
Figure 3.1 - Multiphase Flow Regimes

1. Bubble flow: bubbles dispersed in liquid with vapor and liquid velocities are
approximately equal.
2. Plug flow: plugs of liquid flow followed by plugs of gas. The bubbles coalesce, and
alternating plugs of Vapor and liquid flow along the top of the pipe with liquid
remaining the continuous phase along the bottom.
3. Stratified flow: liquid and gas flow in stratified layers. The fraction occupied by each
phase remains constant.
45
4. Wavy flow: gas flows in top of pipe section, liquid in lower section and the resulting
friction at the interface forms liquid waves.
5. Slug flow: slugs of gas bubbles flowing through the liquid. It is formed when the
liquid waves grow large enough to bridge the entire pipe diameter and the stratified
flow pattern breaks down.
6. Annular flow: liquid flows in continuous annular ring on pipe wall, gas flows through
center of pipe
7. Spray flow: gas and liquid dispersed. When the vapor velocity in annular flow
becomes high enough, all of the liquid film is torn away from the wall and is carried by
the vapor as entrained droplets.
3.2.2 Definition of Slug Catcher
Liquid can be produced in the pipeline during the transportation of NG.

These occasionally very large volumes of liquids encountered must be handled and
stored as they emerge from the pipeline. For this reason, a liquid-receiving facility known
as a slug catcher is connected to a two phase pipeline.
The initial gas−liquid separation occurs in a slug catcher. Slug catchers are critical
because downstream gas processing units rely on a continuous gas stream free of liquids,
even when surges of liquid enter the plant.
Slug catcher designed as a series of manifolds and pipes that accept slug volume and
allows the liquid to drop to the bottom for temporary storage while the gas moves through
the top of the slug catcher manifold out to the gas plant for further processing. The key is
to do this safely, efficiently, taking up the least amount of space, and at the lowest cost.
A multi-phase flow pipeline is intended for transporting the gas and liquid phases
simultaneously from a production field to a processing unit. A gas plant slug catcher may
be situated at the end of the pipeline to separate the phases and to provide temporary
storage for the liquid received.
A Slug catcher is the name of a unit in the gas refinery or petroleum industry in which
slugs at the outlet of pipelines are collected or caught. A slug catcher is a natural gas and
oil separator.
The slug catcher is the first step in the conversion process. The gas plant will process
gas and liquid separately; therefore, there must be high-efficiency separation.
Slug catchers are designed in different forms:
1. A vessel type slug catcher is essentially a conventional vessel. This type is simple in
design and maintenance. Vessel type slug catcher is simply gas−liquid separator that
combine slug catching with liquid storage. They are usually employed where operating
pressures are relatively low.
46
Figure 3.2 - Vessel type slug catcher

2. A finger type slug catcher consists of several long pieces of pipe ('fingers'), which
together form the buffer volume. The advantage of this type of slug catcher is that pipe
segments are simpler to design for high pressures, which are often encountered in
pipeline systems, than a large vessel. A disadvantage is that its footprint can become
excessively large.
Figure 3.3 - finger type slug catcher
47
3.3 NATURAL GAS (N.G.) DEHYDRATION
Production of crude oil and natural gas is usually associated with the production of water.
During the early life of the petroleum fields, water-free production of oil and gas is normally
experienced. However, water will eventually be produced later.
The produced water may be:
 Water that exists within the petroleum reservoir
 A result of water flooding operations
3.3.1 Definition of Dehydration
The term Dehydration means removal of water.

The term Dew Point means the temperature at which natural gas at any specified
pressure is saturated with water vapor.
Saturated means that the gas contains in vapor form all the water possible at the specified
pressure and temperature.
3.3.2 Reasons for N.G. Dehydration
1. Preventing hydrate formation: Condensation of water along the production line creates
the conditions for possible hydrate formation
2. Avoiding corrosion problems: Corrosion often occurs when liquid water is present
along with acidic gases
3. Meeting downstream processing requirements: In most commercial hydrocarbon
processes, the presence of water may cause side reactions, foaming, or catalyst
deactivation
4. Prevent: - Slugging (two phase flow) and erosion
- Increase specific volume and decrease in the heating value of gas
3.2.3 N.G. Dehydration Processes
The overall objective of dehydration is to remove a sufficient amount of water from the
natural gas so that the specification for maximum allowable water content in the treated
gas is met.
Natural gas can be dehydrate to pipeline specifications by several processes including:
1. Liquid Desiccants (Absorption – e.g. by Glycols)
2. Solid Desiccants (Adsorption – e.g. by Alumina, Silica Gel, Molecular Sieves)
Following each of the above two methods there is a Regeneration process to regenerate
the desiccant this process also known as (Desorption).
48
Parameters affecting these processes are: Absorption Desorption

Pressure
Temperature
Contact Area
3.2.4 N.G. Dehydration by Liquid-Desiccant (Absorption Processes)
Process Description
By far, the most common process for dehydrating natural gas is contact the gas with a
hygroscopic liquid such as one of the glycols.
This is an Absorption Process, where the water vapor in the gas stream becomes
dissolved in a relatively pure glycol liquid solvent stream.
Glycol dehydration is relatively inexpensive, as the water can be easily "boiled" out of the
glycol by the addition of heat.
This step is called "Regeneration" or "Reconcentration" (called also Desorption) and
enables the glycol to be recovered for reuse in absorbing additional water with minimal
loss of glycol.
The desiccant used in the liquid-type dehydrator is usually a solution of one of the glycols,
Diethylene Glycol (DEG) or Triethylene Glycol (TEG),. The method of operation is the
same, TEG is a more recent development in the field than DEG. TEG has gained almost
universal acceptance as the most cost-effective choice because:
1. TEG is more easily regenerated

2. TEG has a higher decomposition temperature of 404 ◦F while DEG is 328◦F
3. Vaporization losses are lower than DEG
The following definitions apply to the process description
Wet gas is gas containing water vapor prior to contacting glycol in the absorber.
Dry gas is gas leaving the absorber after contacting glycol.
Desiccant is a drying or dehydrating medium; here, the desiccant is a Triethylene
Glycol-Water (TEG) solution.
49
Lean Solution is a glycol-water solution whose glycol concentration ranges from 95 to

99 percent by weight. A lean solution can be the solution passing from the reboiler via the
pump to the contactor, a re-concentrated solution, or TEG supplied in sealed drums.
Rich solution is a water-rich solution whose glycol content is less than 95 percent by
weight or glycol solution that has contacted wet gas in the contactor.
Natural gas at line temperature and pressure enters near the bottom of the absorber and
rises through the column where it is intimately contacted by a lean glycol solution flowing
downward across bubble trays. Here the gas gives up its water vapor to the glycol.
Leaving the top tray, the gas passes through mist-extractor elements,
The lean glycol solution enters at the top of the absorber and flows through it where the
glycol contacted with the ascending gas; this action dehydrates the gas and dilutes the
glycol at the same time. The dilute solution (rich glycol) collects in the base of the absorber
from which point it is discharged to the regeneration column
through still column where its heated by the hot water vapor that leaves the reboiler and
continue to the flash separator to remove the remain amount of gas that leave with rich
glycol then the rich glycol goes through filters than enter the heat exchange to increase
its temperature by exchange heat with the lean glycol that leave the reboiler .
after that the rich glycol enter the reboiler where it reaches maximum temperature, and
The regenerated glycol solution accumulates in the reboiler than goes through the heat
exchange to the surge tank and pumped again to the absorber tower
50
Figure 3.4 - Glycol Absorber Tower with Scrubber Section
51
Figure 3.5 - PFD Dehydration by Glycol

3.2.6 Main Operating Variables and Limits
1. Temperature: The higher the gas temperature, the more water it will contain in vapor
form.
If the temperature of the wet natural gas is around 140 oF or above, the natural gas
does not want to give up the water vapor to the glycol. On the other hand, if the natural
gas temperature is 40oF or below, the glycol becomes viscous and does not want to
pick up the water vapor. Therefore, dehydration will take place at temperatures
between 50 to 130oF. The best results are obtained between 80 and 110oF
52
The temperature of the lean glycol entering the top tray of the contactor should be 10
to 15oF above the temperature of the gas to be treated. If the glycol temperature is too
much higher than the gas temperature, the glycol will tend to foam and be carried out
of the contactor tower with the gas.
Conversely, if the glycol temperature is much lower than the gas temperature, liquid
hydrocarbons, condensate, will tend to form and fall to the bottom of the contactor
tower, causing problems in the glycol regeneration system.
2. Pressure: At constant temperature, the lower the pressure, the higher the water
content of the inlet gas. Other than affecting the water content of the inlet gas stream,
pressure has very little effect on the mechanics of glycol dehydration.
3. Glycol circulation flow rate: Determining the proper glycol circulation rate is not an
easy task due to several limitations and considerations involved. There are many
factors that must be considered, but, for simplicity, over a normal pressure range up
to 1200 psi, about 3 to 5 gallons of glycol must be circulated for every pound of water
removed at a 55oF dew point depression.
4. Glycol concentration: Since the main objective of natural gas dehydration is
maximum dew point depression, relatively high glycol concentrations must be used.
The usual practice is to introduce, at the top of the glycol contacting tower, a solution
of regenerated glycol with a concentration ranging from 97 to 99%, and to remove the
solution from the base of the contactor tower at a glycol concentration of 80 to 90%.
3.2.7 N.G. Dehydration by Solid-Desiccant (Adsorption Process)
Where the highest possible dew-point depression is required, the solid or dry-desiccant
dehydration system is the most effective type. It is not uncommon to process gas through
these systems with a resultant residual water vapor in the outlet gas of less than ½ lb per
MMscf. In the average system, this might correspond to a dew point of -40 ºF.
Dehydrators of this type are manufactured as packaged units ranging in capacity from 3
to 500 MMscf/D with design pressures of from 300 to 2,500 psig. Solid-desiccant units
find their greatest application in gas transmission line systems.
Adsorption is purely a surface phenomenon. Physical adsorption involves the formation
of physical bonds such as van der Waals type interaction between the surface of a solid
desiccant and the water vapor in the gas.
The water forms an extremely thin film that is held to the desiccant surface by forces of
attraction, but there is no chemical reaction. The desiccant is a granular drying or
dehydrating medium with an extremely large effective surface area per unit weight
because of a multitude of microscopic pores and capillary openings. A typical solid
desiccant can have an interfacial area as high as 4 millions square feet per 1 lb.
The essential components of a solid-desiccant dehydrator installation are-
53
1. An inlet-gas stream separator, usually a filter separator;

2. Two or more adsorption towers (adsorbers or contactors) filled with a granular
gas-drying material;
3. A high-temperature heater to provide hot regeneration gas for drying the desiccant in
the towers;
4. A regeneration-gas cooler for condensing water from the hot regeneration gas;
5. A regeneration-gas separator to remove water from the regeneration-gas stream;
6. Piping, manifolds, switching valves, and controls to direct and control the flow of gases
according to process requirements.
The following terms apply to the technology of solid-desiccant dehydrations:
Wet gas is gas containing water vapor prior to flowing through the adsorber towers.
Dry gas is gas that has been dehydrated by flowing through the adsorber towers.
Regeneration gas is wet gas that has been heated in the regeneration-gas heater to
temperatures of 400 F to 460 F. This gas is passed through a saturated adsorber tower
to dry the tower and remove the previously adsorbed water.
Desiccant is a solid, granulated drying or dehydrating medium that has an extremely large
effective surface area per unit weight because of a multitude of microscopic pores and
capillary openings.
Adsorbent Solids
All solids adsorb water to some extent, but their efficiency varies primarily with the nature
of the material, its internal connected porosity, and its effective surface area. Adsorbents
are specific in nature, and not all adsorbents are equally effective. Different molecules will
be attracted to adsorbents at different rates. Because of this, adsorbents are capable of
separating materials preferentially, in either gaseous or liquid phases. This is
accomplished by passing the stream to be treated through the tower packed with
adsorbent. The degree of adsorption is a function of operating temperature and pressure;
adsorption, up to a point, increases with pressure increase and decreases with a
temperature increase. A bed may be regenerated by either decreasing its pressure or by
increasing its temperature. For practical reasons, dehydration towers are regenerated by
increasing the bed temperature by passing a stream of very hot gas through the bed. The
hot natural gas not only supplies heat but also acts as a carrier to remove the water vapor
from the bed. After the bed is heated to a predetermined temperature, it is cooled by the
flow of unheated gas and thus made ready for another adsorption cycle.
In most dehydration systems, one of the following desiccants is used:
Silica gel (SiO2)
54
 Mostly used where a high concentration of water (>1 mol%) vapor is present
in the feed, and low levels of water in the dehydrated gas are not needed
Activated alumina (Al2O3)
 Very polar, strongly attracts water and acid gases
 Used for moderate levels of water in the feed when low levels of water in
the product are not required.
 High mechanical strength
Molecular sieves
 Zeolite 4A is the most commonly used
 Allow to achieve very low water concentrations, suitable for cryogenic
processes
Process Description
Figure 3.6 is a flow diagram of a two-tower solid-desiccant dehydration unit. The

wet-inlet-gas stream first passes through an efficient inlet separator where free liquids,
entrained mist, and solid particles are removed. This is a very important part of the system
since free liquids may damage or destroy the desiccant bed and solids may plug it. If the
plant happens to be downstream of an amine unit or a compressor station, a filter-type
inlet separator should be used. At any given time, one of the towers will be on stream in
the adsorbing or drying cycle and the other tower will be in the process of being
regenerated and cooled. Several automatically operated switching valves and a controller
route the inlet gas and regeneration gas to the proper tower at the proper time. Typically,
a tower will be on the adsorb cycle for from 4 to 12 hrs. with 8 hrs. being the most common
time cycle. The tower being regenerated would be heated for about 6 hrs. and cooled
during the remaining 2 hrs. Large volume systems may have three towers (see Figure
3.8). At any given time, one tower would be in the adsorption cycle, one tower would be
in the heating cycle, and the remaining tower would be in the cooling cycle.
As the wet inlet gas flows downward through the tower on the adsorption cycle, all of the
absorbable gas components are adsorbed at different rates. The water vapor is
immediately adsorbed in the top layers of the bed. Dry hydrocarbon gas components
(ethane, propane, butane, etc.) passing on down through the bed are also adsorbed, with
the heavier components displacing the lighter components as the cycle proceeds. As the
upper layers of desiccant become saturated with water, the lower layers begin to see wet
gas and begin adsorbing the water vapor, displacing the previously adsorbed
hydrocarbon components. For each component in the inlet-gas stream, there will be a
section of bed depth, from top to bottom, where the desiccant is saturated with that
component and where the desiccant is just starting to see that component. The depth of
bed from saturation to initial adsorption is known as the mass transfer zone.
55
Production Technology
P
F
Valve
56
Second Stage
Figure 3.6 - Flow Diagram of a Two -Tower Solid-Desiccant Dehydration Unit

3.3 NATURAL GAS (N.G.) SWEETENING

Natural gas well streams often contain hydrogen sulfide (H2S) and carbon dioxide (CO2).
These two gases are called Acid gases because in the presence of water, they form acids
or acidic solutions.
The terms sour crude and sour gas mean that the crude oil or gas contains H 2S in
amounts above the acceptable industry limits. The terms sweet crude and sweet gas
mean oil or gas that has been sweetened by treating and become free of H 2S
Hydrogen sulfide H2S, is a colorless highly toxic, flammable gas and in the presence of
water it forms a weak, corrosive acid.
It is readily detectable at low concentrations by its “rotten egg” odor. Unfortunately, at
toxic levels, it is odorless because it deadens nerve endings in the nose in a matter of
seconds.
Carbon dioxide is nonflammable and, consequently, large quantities are undesirable in a
fuel. Like H2S, it forms a weak, corrosive acid in the presence of water. The principal
hazard of CO2, is exposure to elevated concentrations 10% (volume).
For CO2, if the quantities are large, it is sometimes used as an injection fluid in EOR
(Enhanced Oil Recovery) projects.
Why H2S Should Be Removed?
1. H2S is Toxic and very Poisonous

2. Extremely Corrosive in presence of water
3. Cause Catalyst Poisoning
N.G. Sweetening Processes
Similar to N.G. dehydration, Sweetening can be achieved by:
 Liquid Desiccants (Absorption – e.g. by Amine Solution)

 Solid Desiccants (Adsorption – e.g. by Molecular Sieves)
3.3.1 N.G. Sweetening by Liquid-Desiccant (Absorption Process)
The usual process for the removal of (H2S) stream from the H/C streams in the
Sweetening unit; Where H2S is removed by counter current washing with amine
(Absorption), the H2S being removed for sulphur recovery by heating the amine solution
in a separate vessel thus regenerating the amine for recycle to the washing stage
57
3.3.2 Principles of Gas Sweetening with Amine Solution
The gas sweetening with amine solution is based on the chemical reaction of weak
alkaline with weak acid. The amine solution is alkaline and H 2S is acidic. The reactions
involved are very complex, but the following summarises the basic processes.
The reaction in the absorber is at a constant pressure and at a temperature range
between 80 °F to 120 °F. It is a reversible reaction.
The H2S is removed by a chemical reaction that is reversible and dependent on the
temperature change. The CO2 is physically absorbed.
3.3.4 Amine sweetening process
1. sour gas enters the contactor tower and rises through the descending amine solution
2. purified gas flows from the top of the tower
3. the amine solution carrying absorbed acid gases, heaves the tower from the heat
exchanger or optional flash tank
4. rich amine is heated in the heat exchanger by the hot regeneration lean amine
5. rich amine is further heated in the regeneration still Colum by heat supplied from the
reboiler
6. hot regenerated lean amine is cooled by the heat exchanger then by aerial cooler and
circulated to the contactor tower completing the cycle
58
Figure 3.7 - N.G. Sweetening Process
59
3.4 GAS COMPRESSION

The gas left over after the removal of all the impurities is almost 99.9% pure Methane. In
the gaseous form it can be transported to the customers through the pipelines or it can
be liquefied and transported through the special containers. Liquid form of the Methane
is called as Liquefied Natural Gas (LNG).
Sweetened and dehydrated gas is finally compressed by a compressor to the required
pressure for downstream facilities such as LNG plant or gas distribution network.
Multistage centrifugal compressors are normally used for this. Gas is compressed from
15-20 barg to 80-100 barg pressure. Compressor can be motor driven (fixed or variable
speed) or turbine driven. Antisurge control is provided for the compressor protection.
A typical three-stage compression system consists of the following equipment for each
stage as shown in the Figure 3.8
 Suction Scrubbers
 Compressors
 Gas Coolers
Why the gas is compressed?
1. To move gases from place to place and to overcome friction in pipes & fittings
2. To reduce the volume of vessels and equipment handling large amount of gas
3. To liquefying the gas
4. To increase the pressure of the gas to a level required in some chemical reactions
5. To provide a source of energy, for example compressed air to drive air driven tools or
motors, or for use by instruments.
60
Production Technology
61
Figure 3.8 - gas compression process
Second Stage
3.4.1 Type of compressors
1. Reciprocating Compressor
The reciprocating compressor (Figure 3.9) normally consists of the following elements:
 The compressing elements, consisting of cylinders, heads, pistons, inlet, and
discharge valves.
 A system of connecting rods, piston rods, crossheads, and a crankshaft and flywheel
for transmitting the power developed by the driving unit to the cylinder piston.
 A self-contained lubricating system for bearings, gears, and cylinder walls, including a
reservoir or sump for the lubricating oil, and a pump, or other means of delivering oil to
the various parts. On some compressors, a separate force-fed lubricator is installed to
supply oil to the compressor cylinders.
 A regulation or control system designed to maintain the pressure in the discharge line
and air receiver (storage tank) within a predetermined range of pressure.
 An unloading system, which operates in conjunction with the regulator, to reduce or

eliminate the load put on the prime mover when starting the unit.
A section of a typical reciprocating single-stage single-acting compressor cylinder is

shown in Figure 3.2. Inlet and discharge valves are located in the clearance space and
connected through ports in the cylinder head to the inlet and discharge connections.
During the suction stroke the compressor piston starts its downward stroke and the gas
under pressure in the clearance space rapidly expands until the pressure falls below that
on the opposite side of the inlet valve (A and B).
This difference in pressure causes the inlet valve to open into the cylinder until the piston
reaches the bottom of its stroke (C).
During the compression stroke the piston starts upward, compression begins and at point
(D) has reached the same pressure as the compressor intake. The spring-loaded inlet
valve then closes.
As the piston continues upward, gas is compressed until the pressure in the cylinder
becomes great enough to open the discharge valve against the pressure of the valve
springs and the pressure of the discharge line (E).
From this point, to the end of the stroke (E and A), the gas compressed within the cylinder
is discharged at practically constant pressure.
62
Figure 3.9 - Reciprocating Compressor

2. Centrifugal Compressor
The flow in a centrifugal compressor enters the impeller in an axial direction and exits in
a radial direction.
In a typical centrifugal compressor (Figure 3.7), the fluid is forced through the impeller by
rapidly rotating impeller blades.
The velocity of the fluid is converted to pressure, partially in the impeller and partially in
the stationary diffusers. Most of the velocity leaving the impeller is converted into pressure
energy in the diffuser.
Centrifugal compressors in general are used for higher pressure ratios and lower flow
rates compared to lower stage pressure ratios and higher flow rates in axial compressors.
The pressure ratio in a single-stage centrifugal compressor varies depending on the
industry and application. In the petrochemical industry, the single stage pressure ratio is
about 1.2:1.
In the petrochemical industry, the centrifugal compressors consist mainly of casings with
multiple stages. In many instances, multiple casings are also used and, to minimize the
work of compression, intercoolers between these stages are used.
Each casing can have up to 9 stages. In some cases, intercoolers are also used between
single stages of compressor to reduce the power required for compression.
These
In many instances, intercoolers are used between casings or single
stages to reduce the power required for compression.
compressors are usually driven by gas turbines, steam turbines and electric motors.
63
Speed-increasing gears may be used in conjunction with these drivers to obtain the high
speeds at which many of these units operate. Most of the gas plant units run between
9,000–15,000 rpm.
Figure 3.10 centrifugal compressor
64
3.5 SULPHUR RECOVERY

The conversion of H2S to plain sulfur use a basic two-step, split-stream process.
1. Combustion. Part of the H2S stream is burned in a furnace, producing SO2,
water, and sulfur. The sulfur is formed because the air (O2) admitted to the
furnace is limited to one third the amount needed to make all SO 2.
2. Reaction. The remainder of the H2S is mixed with the combustion products and
passed over a catalyst.
The H2S reacts with the SO2 to form sulfur.
The sulfur drops out of the reaction vessel in the molten (melted) form.
Figure 3.11 – Sulphur Recovery Unit
65
Chapter 4
Utilities
66
CONTENTS
4.1 INTRODUCTION ..................................................................................................... 68
4.2 INSTRUMENT AND UTILITY AIR .......................................................................... 69
4.3 INERT GAS SYSTEM – NITROGEN ...................................................................... 71
4.4 DRAIN SYSTEMS ................................................................................................... 72
4.4.1 Purpose and Function of Drain Systems ........................................................... 72
4.4.2 Drain system design guidelines ........................................................................ 72
4.4.3 Additional Drain Systems .................................................................................. 73
4.6 VENT SYSTEM ....................................................................................................... 75
4.7 FILTERS & STRAINERS ........................................................................................ 78
4.7.1 The purpose of using filters and strainers ......................................................... 78
4.7.2 Operation of filters & strainers ........................................................................... 80
4.7.3 Differential pressure monitoring & filter efficiency .............................................. 84
4.7.4 Injection Water Filtration ................................................................................... 85
4.8 POWR GENERATION ............................................................................................ 86
4.9 FUEL GAS SYSTEM .............................................................................................. 89
67
4.1 INTRODUCTION
The main utilities system in the plants are
 Water Systems
 HVAC
 Flaring Systems
 Chemical Systems
 Water Injection System
 Fire Fighting System
 Instrument and Utility Air
 Inert Gas System – Nitrogen
 Drainage & venting System
 Filtering
 Power Generation
 Steam Generation
 Emergency Power Generatio
 Fule gas system
The Water Systems,HVAC,Flaring Systems,Chemical Systems,Water Injection

Systemm,and Fire Fighting System have been explained in (production technology)
/first year , chapter 7(Overview of Utilities Systems).
In this chapter, the following systems will be explained in details :
 Instrument and Utility Air :
 Inert Gas System – Nitrogen
 Drain Systems
 Vent System
 Filtering
 Power Generation
 Steam Generation
 Emergency Power Generation
 Fule gas system
68
4.2 INSTRUMENT AND UTILITY AIR
Most of the processing facilities require a source of compressed air to supply variety of
services. These services are generally divided into two categories; plant air and
instrument air, each with its own special design requirements. Large installations or those
handling highly toxic materials such as hydrogen sulfide may also require a breathing air
system.
Plant air is normally used during maintenance operations to drive pneumatic tools, hoists,
spray guns, etc. Other process applications include pneumatic conveying of solid
materials and air driven pumps.
Instrument air is used primarily as a medium to transfer control signals and as the motive
power to actuate control valves and on/off valves.
Instrument air is vital to the proper operation of the plant and a secure supply is, therefore,
required. The equipment in the instrument air system, particularly the air compressor,
must be properly specified and proper consideration must be given for the provision of
installed spare equipment for improved reliability.
The loss of instrument air usually results in a complete shutdown of the plant. Therefore,
in an integrated plant and instrument air systems, instrumentation is provided to shutdown
the plant air supply to protect the Instrument air supply. An air receiver is included to
provide the surge required to allow a safe shutdown to occur.
Many of the passages through which instrument air flows are small and can be easily
blocked if the air is not clean. It is therefore essential to ensure not only that the supply
piping is clean at all times, but that the air is suitably conditioned to remove dust, oil, water
which could damage controls and instrumentation.
Most of the processing facilities require a source of compressed air to supply variety of
services. These services are generally divided into two categories; plant air and
instrument air, each with its own special design requirements. Large installations or those
handling highly toxic materials such as hydrogen sulfide may also require a breathing air
system.
Plant air is normally used during maintenance operations to drive pneumatic tools, hoists,
spray guns, etc. Other process applications include pneumatic conveying of solid
materials and air driven pumps.
Instrument air is used primarily as a medium to transfer control signals and as the motive
power to actuate control valves and on/off valves.
69
Instrument air is vital to the proper operation of the plant and a secure supply is, therefore,
required. The equipment in the instrument air system, particularly the air compressor,
must be properly specified and proper consideration must be given for the provision of
installed spare equipment for improved reliability.
The loss of instrument air usually results in a complete shutdown of the plant. Therefore,
in an integrated plant and instrument air systems, instrumentation is provided to shutdown
the plant air supply to protect the Instrument air supply. An air receiver is included to
provide the surge required to allow a safe shutdown to occur.
Many of the passages through which instrument air flows are small and can be easily
blocked if the air is not clean. It is therefore essential to ensure not only that the supply
piping is clean at all times, but that the air is suitably conditioned to remove dust, oil, water
which could damage controls and instrumentation.
 Air Compressor
Screw type compressors (see figure 4.1) are most commonly used for the Plant
air/Instrument air system. Rotary screw compressors can be designed as having either a
dry rotor or oil injection rotor. The basic compressor is a two rotor positive displacement
unit in which air is compressed between two intermeshing rotors and the walls of their
housing chamber.
Figure 4.1 - Screw type compressor
70
The rotors are positioned relative to one another by timing gears and revolve at high speed
of typically 10,000 rev/min, with no mechanical contact between them.
The rotors are not identical in shape; e.g. the male rotor with 'four lobes' would operate
with a female rotor having "six flutes". The male rotor (the driven rotor) revolves at 1.5
times the speed of the female and in the opposite direction. The effect of this is that air is
progressively trapped between the meshing rotors at the inlet end and is smoothly
compressed during its passage towards the outlet end.
The screw compressor is less efficient than the traditional well-known reciprocating
compressor but it also has a number of advantages:
• It can accept limited amounts of free water without sustaining damage.

• It delivers pulsation free compressed air.
• Installation is compact and does not require heavy foundations.
• There are less mechanical parts, such as pistons and valves, which will require
periodic replacement.
Throughput is controlled by an automatically operated inlet valve which controls the airflow
as required. Compressed air leaves the package at a discharge pressure of approximately
9 to 10 barg and with a temperature of approximately 35 - 45⁰C joining the air from the
other package in a common header. The air is saturated with water and needs to be dried
to meet the required dew point specification.
4.3 INERT GAS SYSTEM – NITROGEN

The atmospheric air contains approximately 78% nitrogen, 21% oxygen and 1% other
gases, such as argon, carbon dioxide and water vapours etc. Nitrogen is an inert gas
which does not support combustion. Nitrogen is used, especially in the Hydrocarbon
Industry, for purging equipment prior to the introduction of Hydrocarbon gas or liquid.
Purging sweeps out undesirables such as flammable or toxic gasses in the particular
process, e.g. hydrocarbon gases, oxygen, etc. It is also used on the plants for drying out
of equipment prior to initial start-up.
Nitrogen is obtained from the atmosphere after removing the oxygen and other
components. There are various methods used for producing nitrogen depending on the
quantity of nitrogen required and the desired purity.
Nitrogen is commonly used in industry as a purge medium. This means that by injecting
nitrogen into a system it will displace other things such as oxygen or flammable gases.
The systems may be opened for maintenance or cleaning and the nitrogen will be replaced
by the atmospheric air. This is normally held to be the safest way.
71
Nitrogen may also be used as a blanket, normally within a holding tank; it displaces the
ullage space. This is the gap between liquid and the top of the tank that would allow
flammable or toxic vapours to form if it is not held in a nitrogen atmosphere.
Also nitrogen may be used as a gas seal in rotating equipment such as compressors. By
injecting higher pressure nitrogen and allowing it to flow between two seal faces this does
not allow process gas to leak past this gas barrier.
The two most factors affecting a membrane separator are feed pressure and temperature.
Pressure being the most direct i.e. the higher the feed pressures the higher the discharge
rate though care must be taken or a loss of purity or quality would happen if the separator
is not given time to perform the task.
Temperature is critical, by placing an air heater between the filter and membrane we can
warm the air up. This improves the permeability or ability of oxygen to pass through the
membrane leaving argon and nitrogen to pass on.
The quality of the nitrogen is of prime importance. If the membrane separator lost
efficiency the first contaminate to appear with the nitrogen would be oxygen. As the target
is to produce an inert gas the presence of oxygen that would support ignition would be
unacceptable. To ensure that this will not happen, oxygen sensors are fitted to the
discharge line of the membrane separator.
4.4 DRAIN SYSTEMS
4.4.1 Purpose and Function of Drain Systems
The purpose of the drain system is to collect all drainage streams to an appropriate
disposal system in such a way as to protect personnel, equipment, and to avoid
environmental pollution.
Drain systems provide the means of safely removing residual process and wash- down
fluids from vessels, pipes, flooring and instruments, resulting either from operational
activities or from preparation prior to carrying out maintenance work. The fluids are
collected and transported to a recovery system or are disposed of in a safe and
environmentally acceptable manner. A fundamental safety consideration is that a drain
system must not provide a route for migration of flammable liquids or vapours from one
hazardous area to another, or to non-hazardous areas.
4.4.2 Drain system design guidelines
Each processing plant generates some gaseous and liquid waste material. The waste
generated in the plant must be collected and disposed-off as per the norms set up by the
local authorities. Following are the guidelines for the design of the drain system:
• Drain should be segregated to avoid any reaction between the streams.
72
• Each production facility should be provided with minimum three separate drainage
systems, i.e. a closed drains system and two open drains systems, one for
hazardous and one for non-hazardous areas.
• Where possible the drainage collection and disposal system should operate under
gravity.
• All drain lines should be adequately sloped to the drain vessel to avoid
accumulation of liquid.
• Drain lines should not have any pockets except where seals are specified.
• Drains from the high pressure process system to the drain header should be
opened only after depressurization is carried out.
• The drain valves should be kept car sealed closed.
• Material of construction for the drain drum and the drain lines should be compatible
with the service.
• Drain drum should be catholically protected for corrosion protection.
• Drain header rodding/decoking facility should be provided wherever required.
• Local drains should be provided on a case-to-case basis. These valves should be
opened only after the necessary isolation is applied.
All these points should be considered at an early design stage during the project
development phase.
4.4.3 Additional Drain Systems
In addition to these systems, there are some more independent drain systems utilized for
the safe and environmentally friendly removal of waste or chemicals from the Oil & Gas
plant.
Typically, they are as follows:

1. Glycol Drain System
2. Amine Drain System
3. Chemical Drain System
4. Laboratory Drain System
5. Instrument Air Drain System
1. Glycol Drain System
Tri Ethylene Glycol is generally used in the Gas dehydration unit for the dehydration of
the gas. Glycol drain is segregated from other drains in order to recover the costly Glycol.
The Glycol (TEG) drained from equipment or pipe work after depressurization for
73
maintenance or repair flows through a sealed collection system header to the TEG Sump
Vessel. Liquid collected in the TEG Sump Vessel is returned to the TEG regenerator using
a sump tank transfer pump. Vapors from the sump vessel are sent to the LP Flare
Figure 4.2 - Glycol close drain drum & the TEG package
2. Amine Drain System
Amine solvent is generally used in the Gas Sweetening unit for removal of acid gases.
Amine drain is segregated from other drains in order to recover the costly Amine solvent.
Amine drain system is similar to Glycol drain system. Amine drained from equipment or
pipe work after depressurization for maintenance or repair flows through a sealed
collection system header to the Amine Sump Vessel. Liquid collected in the Amine Sump
Vessel is returned to the Amine regenerator using a sump tank transfer pump. Vapors
from the sump vessel are sent to the LP Flare.
3. Chemical Drain System
Chemicals drained from the tanks, pumps and strainers are routed to a separate
underground tank and vacuumed out for the disposal as per the company safety norms.
4. Laboratory Drain System
Laboratory drains are used for the disposal of hydrocarbon samples, chemicals and
solvents. The normal disposal route would be to an open hazardous area drain via a water
sealed drain pipe into. Since the laboratory itself is a non- hazardous area, the drains are
not hard-piped to avoid the possibility of back- flow of flammable vapors. Only
hydrocarbon and water samples can be disposed of into the laboratory drain system. All
74
other fluids should be collected in drums for removal from the laboratory. If the only
convenient drain is an open non-hazardous drain, then all fluids including hydrocarbons
should be collected in drums for the disposal.
5. Instrument Air System Drain
Water removed from the Plant/Instrument air system is drained to a Soak-Away Pit. Water
drained from various drain points from the Instrument air skid is routed to a soak away
pit. Some part of this water percolates in to the ground and some part is evaporated in to
the atmosphere. The water collected in the pit slowly soaks into the ground.
4.6 VENT SYSTEM

Relief systems are provided for onshore and offshore hydrocarbon processing plants in
order to ensure the safe operation of the facilities. The design of these systems takes into
account two distinct groups of causes of hydrocarbon release:
1- Hydrocarbon flaring caused by abnormal operating modes, relief valve operations,

equipment start-up, equipment malfunction and process upset conditions
2- Hydrocarbon flaring caused by deliberate, automatic controlled blow down
(Depressurizing) of equipment to prevent their destruction in the event of a fire.
One or more of the following systems are required:
a) High Pressure (HP) Relief

b) Low Pressure (LP) Relief
c) Low Temperature Relief – for sources (usually high pressure) which when
depressurized create low temperatures which may imply more exotic materials of
construction than carbon steel.
d) Acid gas flare in cases of high CO2 and H2S containing streams.
e) Atmospheric Vent for very low pressure, usually intermittent sources, say up to 0.07
brag e.g. tank ‘breathing’. These emissions must be discharged at a safe location so
as to disperse gases to safe concentration at ground/operator level. This would
include vents from equipment instrument bridles etc., especially if containing H 2S.
f) Maintenance vents for ensuring equipment is at atmospheric pressure.
The following types of vents are normally provided
1. Goose Neck Vent
The purpose of such type of vent is to provide the breathing facility for the tank. This is
normally provided for the non-hazardous systems like water & steam condensate tanks.
When the tank is getting filled up, the air/vapours are vented out to atmosphere to avoid
tank getting pressurized. Also when the tank contents are pumped out, air will come in
through the goose neck to avoid vacuum formation in the tank. Thus the goose neck vent
maintains the tank at atmospheric pressure. Bird screen is also provided to avoid any bird
or insect getting inside the tank.(See figure 4.3)
75
Figure 4.3 - Goose Neck Vent and Bird screen
2. Local Vent to Safe Location
When the tank or equipment breathes out some hazardous substances in small quantity,
this type of vent is provided. For example, acid tank vent, caustic tanks vent, Hypochlorite
generation system vent, nitrogen vent etc. This type of vent is similar to Goose neck
except that the length of the vent pipe is more. The vent pipe height is such that when the
vented gas/vapor comes to operating level, it gets sufficiently diluted to the safe limit.
Vent to Safe
Location
Acid
Supply
LI
Acid Acid Pump
Tank
Figure 4.4 - Local Vent to Safe Location
76
3. Flame Arresters
Flame arresters are commonly installed on the vent outlet of tanks containing liquids with
flashpoints below 210C, generally where pressure-vacuum vent valves are not in use.
Their prime function is to prevent the unrestricted propagation of flame through flammable
gas or vapour mixtures, and secondly to absorb heat from unburnt gas Flame arresters
are designed for each specific application, and due to the likelihood of progressive
blockage a rigorous inspection and maintenance schedule should be in place.
Figure 4.5 - Flame Arrestor

4. Double Block and Bleed
Double block and bleed type arrangement is normally provided for the isolation of the
equipment. In this type, there are two block valves for isolation and in between these two
valves, a bleed/vent valve is provided. The function of this type of bleed or vent is to
ensure that none of these block valves are passing. ( See figure 4.6 )
In case of fired heater or boiler, the fuel gas supply header is provided with double block
valves and a bleed arrangement. All these valves are part of Emergency Shutdown
system. These block valves are TSO valves operated by instrument air. When the Fired
Heater trips, these block valves get closed and the vent valve gets opened. This is done
to ensure that the fuel gas should not enter the fired heater. The vent valve outlet line is
extended to a safe location.
Vent
Burners
Figure 4.6 - Double block and bleed
77
4.7 FILTERS & STRAINERS

4.7.1 The purpose of using filters and strainers
The general purpose of filters and strainers is to remove solid particles from piping
systems that carry fluids. Solid particles may enter a piping system in the fluid that is being
carried, or they may be formed within the system as the insides of pipe walls corrode.
Pipes that carry water are particularly susceptible to corrosion. As the inside walls of the
pipes corrode, some corrosion products break off and are carried along by the fluid.
In general, solid contaminants cause two major problems, excessive wear and equipment
malfunctions. A buildup of solid particles can block pipes so that fluid cannot flow through
them. Solid particles can erode the walls of pipes and piping connections, creating thin
spots that might break open under pressure and cause leakage. In a high-pressure line,
solid particles can block valves so that they cannot close tightly and they can wear away
closely machined valve parts. The solution to these problems is to install filters and/or
strainers into piping systems to trap solid particles before they can cause damage.
Strainers and filters are similar components that accomplish the same basic function i.e.
to remove solid contaminants from the fluid passing through a piping system. Strainers
typically contain screens (Figure 4.7) made of metal or wire mesh, but other materials may
be used. Filters typically use a cloth or heavy paper element (Figure 4.8) to trap
contaminants, but the element may be made of other materials.
The terms "filter" and "strainer" are often used interchangeably, because the differences
between the two types of components are not always clear. A few typical differences can
be noted, but it should be remembered that there are exceptions.
Figure 4.7 - Typical Strainer and Screen
78
Figure 4.8 - Typical Paper Filter Element

The material used by a filter or strainer to remove solid particles from a fluid is called a
medium. There are two basic types of medium, surface mediums and depth mediums.
Strainers typically use surface mediums and filters typically use depth mediums. Figure
(4.9) represents a surface medium and shows how particles are collected on a single
surface. The openings in a surface medium are all approximately the same size and are
set in an orderly arrangement. As fluid passes through the openings, particles that are
larger than an opening are trapped on the surface.
Figure 4.9 - Surface Medium

Figure 4.10 represents a depth medium, with several surfaces in layers to trap
particles. The openings in a depth medium are not all the same size. Each layer has
progressively smaller openings to trap progressively smaller particles.
79
Figure 4.10 - Depth Medium

In most cases, filters use depth mediums and filter elements can remove smaller
particles than strainers can. However, some strainers use depth mediums and can
remove very small particles.
Although strainers typically have metal screens and filter elements are typically cloth
or paper, some filters may have metal screens. In some cases, filters use sand as a
filtering medium.
4.7.2 Operation of filters & strainers
1- Y Strainer
Figure 4.11 shows a cross-sectional view of a typical y-type strainer commonly found
in pump suctions. This prevents debris from damaging pump impellers and other
downstream equipment.
Figure 4.11 - Typical Strainer

80
During normal operation, fluid enters through the inlet, passes through the strainer screen
and is discharged through the outlet. Solid particles are trapped inside the strainer screen.
The blow down outlet can be used to clean out the strainer. In some cases, it may be
plugged and not used, but if it is connected to piping and a valve, the strainer can be
blown down and thus cleaned of trapped particles. Use of the blow down outlet is usually
controlled by the blow down valve.
The y-type strainer shown in the figure has a screen made from a metal cartridge with
holes drilled in it. It is a surface-type medium. Other y-type strainers may have strainer
screens made of wire mesh screen - also a surface- type medium. The term mesh refers
to the number of openings in each square inch of the screen. A 100-mesh screen, for
example, has 100 openings per square inch, while a 50-mesh screen has only 50
openings per square inch. Therefore, a 100-mesh screen filters out smaller particles than
a 50-mesh screen.
2- Cone Strainer
Figure 4.12 represents a cone strainer installed in a pipe. Most strainers and filters are
visible as separate components in plant systems, but cone strainers are enclosed inside
piping systems. As shown in the figure, a spool piece is provided in the pipe to allow the
cone strainer to be removed. These are typically used during the commissioning of new
plant to remove the debris of construction.
Figure 4.12 - Cone Strainer

3- Element Filter
Figure 4.13 and 4.14 is a cross-sectional view of a typical cartridge-type filter; such as
might be found in a car's oil system. During normal operation, fluid enters through the
inlet, passes across the top of the filter element, and then moves through the filter
element. The filtered fluid is discharged through the outlet, and solid particles are
trapped in the filter element. There is no blow down outlet or similar provision for
cleaning the filter. Element filters are usually replaced instead of cleaned. In this
situation, it is important that used elements are disposed of properly because of
environmental and safety concerns. The same can be said for liquids that are drained
from the system to facilitate filter renewal.
81
Figure 4.13 - Typical Cartridge Filter
Figure 4.14 - Typical Cartridge Filter

The filter removes the particles by passing the fluid through the porous barriers. All
filters change the direction of the fluid as it passes through it.
4- Duplex Filter
In the filtering systems discussed thus far, the filter or strainer has been a single
component, called a simplex filter, or a simplex strainer. If the screen or element in a
simplex unit has to be cleaned or replaced, the system that contains it must be shut down
until the simplex unit has been replaced. To avoid this situation, a duplex filter (Figures
4.15 & 4.16) can be used. A duplex filter is two screens or elements arranged so that flow
can be directed through one or the other. Either of the two screens or elements can be
cleaned or replaced while the system is operating.
82
This is done when the pressure drop across the online element reaches a certain limit
specified by the manufacturer. Depending on the design, the offline filter is first filled and
pressurized. It is then checked for leaks before the inlet and outlet valves are fully opened.
The used element is then slowly isolated ensuring that the pressure-drop of the new
online element is within limits. The used element is then depressurized and drained ready
for cleaning/replacing by maintenance department.
Figure 4.15 - Typical Lever - Type with Basket A in use and Basket B on
Standby
Figure 4.16 - Typical Lever - Type Strainer with Basket B in use and
Basket A isolated
83
5- Backwash Filters
Many different types of backwash filters are available, but they all operate on the same
basic principle: flow through the filter element can be reversed to dislodge trapped
particles and flush them from the filter. Backwash filters are commonly found in water
treatment systems, as shown in Figure 4.17
Figure 4.17- Backwash Filter Backwash Filter

4.7.3 Differential pressure monitoring & filter efficiency
When a filter element is new, fluid passes through it easily, and the pressure at the filter
inlet is approximately equal to the pressure at the filter outlet. However, as fluid passes
through the filter, the solid particles that are trapped build up on the surfaces of the filter
medium and not as much fluid can pass through.
When this happens, the pressure at the filter outlet decreases. The difference between
the inlet pressure and the outlet pressure is called the differential pressure. Differential
pressure is usually called DP, or delta P (ΔP) for short. In many cases, the DP can be
read directly from a DP gauge installed in a filtering system.
An alternative is to have separate pressure gauges at the filter inlet and outlet. The DP in
this case is found by comparing the readings of the two gauges. For example, for a filter
under positive pressure, the outlet pressure would be subtracted from the inlet pressure
and the difference is the DP.
The rise in DP as a filter operates is an indication that the filter is operating effectively by
trapping contaminants. If the DP does not rise, the filter could be defective and
contaminants might be passing through along with the fluid instead of being trapped in
the filter medium. When the DP reading reaches a particular value specified by the
manufacturer, the filter is close to being blocked. At this point, it should be cleaned or
replaced.
84
4.7.4 Injection Water Filtration
Coarse Filtration is used to remove the larger solids that may enter the water injection
feed.
Pressure filters have many of the characteristics of the rapid gravity type used for potable
water filtering but are enclosed in steel pressure vessels and are normally used where
hydraulic conditions in the system make their adoption desirable. They can be installed,
for instance, at any point in a pressure pipeline without unduly interfering with the
hydraulic gradient, and often eliminate the need for double pumping.
The mixed media filter is a refinement of the rapid gravity sand type. Instead of a bed of
sand supported on gravel with particles of somewhat similar density but greater size,
various layers consisting of media of different densities are used. As a result, a very
coarse upper layer of lightweight material (anthracite or pumice) can provide increased
void space to store the impurities removed from the incoming water. (See figure 4.18)
This type of filter lends itself to the use of air scouring before a back wash cycle.
Compressed air is injected into the filter for a short period to fluidise the bed; during this
phase the layers of different media (of different density) are agitated and mixed. The
backwash is then started and the aeration continues for a short period. This ensures that
the maximum amount of debris is removed from the filter media during each wash cycle.
Following backwash, the media settles out into layers according to density (sand, garnet,
and anthracite).
Figure 4.18 - Multi Media Filter Skid

85
The use of filter aid chemicals is essential with this type of filter. Normally a coagulant is
injected first into the filter feed well upstream of the polyelectrolyte. The hydroxide floc is
then captured by the polyelectrolyte before it hits the filter media. Failure to use coagulant
generally results in poor filter performance as the filtered debris is not removed properly
if just polyelectrolyte is used. This eventually results in a problem called “mud balling”
where large balls of debris are formed within the filter drastically reducing the efficiency.
4.8 POWR GENERATION

1- Steam Generation
Boilers are devices where usually water is heated to produce saturated or superheated
steam. Typical boilers for steam generation are fire-tube types where saturated steam is
produced
Steam is preferably generated in multiple steam generators instead of one or two large-
capacity boilers. Boilers generally have a total installed capacity no less than 133% of
normal requirements. All steam boilers are considered to be operating at partial load to
supply normal plant requirements. Multiple boiler units have more flexibility to match
demand with supply of steam in the plant due to variations in throughput or shutdown of
any processing unit. (See figure 4.19 and 4.20)
Figure 4.19 - Boiler Steam Generator
86
Figure 4.20 - Boiler for Steam Generation

Steam Generation boilers may be fuelled with:
 Coal
 Gas
 Diesel
 Fuel Oil
Most systems are dual fuel or capable of working with either gas or liquid fuels.
2- Gas Turbine Power Generation
Gas turbines are used as prime movers where large scale power plants are not practical,
for example desert locations where water is a premium or where construction critical route
for the project makes more economical to select a system that requires a lower installation
effort, since most gas turbine packages are quite portable.
Gas turbine power is usually used in packages under 30 MW where scale of steam is not
economical; also they are selected when efficiency is not a critical decision issue in the
project.
Gas turbine plants use the dynamic pressure from flowing gases to directly operate the
turbine so they are considered internal combustion machines. In some cases, gas
turbines operate in the Brayton cycle.
Gas turbines usually operate on an open cycle. Fresh air at ambient conditions is drawn
into the compressor, where its temperature and pressure are raised. The high-pressure
air proceeds into the combustion chamber, where the fuel is burned at constant pressure.
The resulting high-temperature gases then enter the turbine, where they expand to
87
atmospheric pressure through a row of nozzle vanes. This expansion causes the turbine
blade to spin, which then turns a shaft that can be used for power generation or as a
prime mover for a gas compressor. (See figure 4.21).
Exhaust
Load
Generator or
Compressor
Gearbox
Compressor Turbine
Combustion Chamber
Fuel Supply
Figure 4.21 - Gas Turbine Power Single Shaft

3- Emergency power generation
Emergency generation is normally required on essential equipment that will keep
minimum safe operation of the plant in case of shut down, incident or emergency.
Emergency power is required for equipment and services that require power in case of a
partial or general shut down.
The equipment that requires power is usually essential for:
a) Emergency equipment such as firefighting, lighting, lifesaving equipment and
communications
b) Essential equipment that require working during shut down or major emergency
such as Distributed Control System (DCS), Emergency Shut Down System (ESD),
Uninterrupted Power System (UPS), air system for instrumentation and flare system
88
4.9 FUEL GAS SYSTEM

Fuel Gas Sources
Fuel Gas can be generated and supplied from a number of plant sources.
 Methane
 Product Ethane
 Excess / Off-Spec Ethane
 Vaporised NGL
 Propane
Fuel Gas Supply

The Fuel Gas system provides a reliable continuous supply of gas to: -
 HP Boilers
 Furnaces and Heaters
 Gas Turbines
 HP Flare
 Pilot Gas system
 Plant Purge Gas system
Figure 4.22 - Example of Fuel Gas System
89
Chapter Five
Chemical Treatment and Injection
90
CONTENTS
5.1 INTRODUCTION ..................................................................................................... 92
5.2 CHEMICAL INJECTION SYSTEMS ....................................................................... 93
5.3 THE CHEMICALS INJECTED ................................................................................ 94
5.4 CHEMICALS AND TYPICAL INJECTION POINTS.............................................. 100
5.5 CHEMICAL INJECTION EQUIPMENTS ............................................................... 101
5.5 CALCULATION OF INJECTION RATE FROM PPM ........................................... 101
5.6 PUMPS USED FOR INJECTION .......................................................................... 102
5.7 CHEMICAL INJECTION SKID .............................................................................. 104
5.8 ROUTINE CHECKS .............................................................................................. 105
5.9 SAFETY PRECAUTIONS ..................................................................................... 106
91
5.1 INTRODUTION
The injection of various chemicals to protect equipment and assist in hydrocarbon

production and processing is widely used within the industry.
The types of chemical additives and their individual reactions can change very quickly;
reference should always be made to the Material Data Safety Sheets. These are provided
by the manufacturers and should be readily available from the safety. (See Figure 5.1).
Figure. 5.1 - chemical systems injection
92
5.2 CHEMICAL INJECTION SYSTEMS

Three chemical injection systems are used in the production system areas. The chemical
injection systems used are:
 Demulsifier injection system.
 Scale inhibitor injection system.
 Corrosion inhibitor injection system.
Figure 5.2 - chemical injection system

Chemicals are injected into many different parts of the production process flow. Figure
(5.2) show three chemical injection systems in a production plant. The chemical storage
tank, the dosing pumps and the operating controls for each system are all fitted into a
single unit. We call this a skid and the chemical injection equipment is said to be skid
mounted.
During normal operation one or more pumps are running and the others are on standby.
93
5.3 THE CHEMICALS INJECTED

1. Corrosion Inhibitor
The corrosion inhibitor injection panel is installed ( as shown in Fig. 5.3) in the wellhead
area to dispense the correct amount of corrosion to each flow line.
Figure 5.3 - The corrosion inhibitor injection panel

The pipes and vessels of a production plant are made of steel. These pipes and vessels
can corrode when their steel walls are gradually eaten away by chemical action. The
chemicals that react with the steel are oxygen (O2) hydrogen sulphide (H2S) and carbon
dioxide (CO2) as well as the salt in the crude oil. When steel pipes and vessels corrode,
their walls become thinner and weaker. These weaker walls are unsafe and may leak or
break. Corrosion inhibitor is a chemical that prevents corrosion in steel pipes and vessels
by building a protective coating on their inside surfaces.
Corrosion inhibitor is injected either to the wellhead or the water outlets from the
separators into the desalter wash water system.
The dosing rate of corrosion inhibitor is decided by the production chemical engineering
department.
2. Anti-foam
The chemical injection system feeds anti-foam to the separators (as shown Fig. 5.4) to
prevent problems caused by foaming. Foaming is caused by:
1. Impurities in the well fluid stream
2. Gas stream temperature, pressure drop, flow velocity, and hydrocarbon properties
3. Inadequate anti-foam addition.
94
Figure 5.4 - injection system feeds anti -foam to the separators

Foam is formed exactly the same way it can be seen on the propeller of a boat. There the
water forms the skin around air making a bubble. In a hydrocarbon system the foam is a
skin of crude oil around natural gas or as part of the oil water emulsion.
Foam inside a separator occupies vessel volume giving a false level indication that result
in loss of level control. As a result, crude oil and water separation is slowed down thereby
increasing the retention time required for complete separation. Foaming also causes
carryover of water into the oil phase and liquids into the gas phase reduces capacity of
the coalescer’s and demisters and blocks process gas and liquid outlets. All of these
contribute to decreasing the separator production rate.
Defoamer prevents foam generation by either making a skin type liquid covering of the oil
which prevents liquid from rising from it but not the gas or by reducing the strength of the
foam skin that quickly breaks down any existing foam. The chemical injection system
includes a defoamer(anti foam) inhibitor tank to store the defoamer and two defoamer
inhibitor pumps. One defoamer inhibitor pump feeds defoamer to both low-pressure
separators and one high-pressure separator. The other defoamer inhibitor pump feeds
defamer to the other high-pressure separator and the test separator.
A single calibration column allows measuring the flow rate of defoamer discharged by
each pump. Cross-connection piping allows the column to be used to measure the
defoamer flow from each pump’s two sides. A pressure safety valve on each discharge
line prevents excess pressure from damaging the pump and discharge piping. When the
95
pressure safety valve relieves it recycles defoamer to the pump suction header. A
pulsation dampener located on each pump discharge line ensures a constant flow of
defoamer to the respective separators.
3. Demulsifier
Wet crude oil coming into the production plants contains different amounts of water and
salts. Large droplets of water are heavy and quickly sink to the bottom of separators.
However, small droplets of water mixed up with the crude oil make an emulsion. An oil
film surrounds these water droplets, keeping them separate. The oil film can be removed
chemically using a demulsifier.
Demulsifier is a chemical that breaks down the oil film around the water droplets in the
crude.
Demulsifier is injected into the production header upstream of the production separators
and into the test header upstream of the test separators (look Fig. (5.5)) . After the
demulsifier breaks down the oil film round the water, the water droplets join together to
make bigger droplets, which sink to the bottom of the separators.
The chemical dosing rate depends on the water cut (content) and the type of demulsifier
used.
The dosing rate is normally decided by the production chemical engineering department.
Sometimes the normal demulsifier system is not enough. When the crude oil coming from
the separators is 'off specification' other injection points may also be used. If this is
necessary demulsifier can be injected at other places in the production plant process.
Figure 5.5 - Demulsifier and Defoamer injection to separator
96
4. Flocculent
Even though demulsifier is secondary assisting the produced water as and when the
quality of the produced water decreases due to oil contaminant. To assist the system and
lower the load flocculent may be injected to the produced water outlet of the separator.
Flocculent makes the oil molecules more attractive to each other and therefore they join
making larger molecules. The larger the molecule the easier for it to separate naturally by
gravity such as in a settlement tank or within the hydro cyclone system
5. Scale Inhibitor
Crude oil and formation water contain many impurities. Some of these are very small
particles of different types of minerals. These minerals can build up inside a pipe or vessel
and cause a condition known as 'scaling'. Scale (a mass of insoluble salts) is a name
given to a coating, like a skin which can build up inside pipes and vessels and cause them
to become clogged. Scale build-up can block pipes and damage equipment.
Once scale builds up in the pipes and equipment, it is very difficult to remove. Scale
inhibitor is a chemical that is used to prevent this. It is injected into crude oil production
headers, into wash water systems and back-up wash water systems to prevent scale
buildup. (See Fig. 5.6)
Figure 5.6 - Scale build-up inside the pipes

6. Paraffin Inhibitors
Paraffin - waxy substance found in crude oil, caused by a temperature vs. crude gravity
and composition phenomenon
Problem in separators if accumulated, special attention should be given to coalescing
plates in the liquid section and demister mesh in the gas section Paraffin inhibitor required
in the facility and in pipeline transportation where cooling will occur – Injection points Inlet
to HP and Test Separators, inlet to oil pipeline
7. Chlorine Solution Injection System
Another important injection system is the chlorine Injection system. Fouling,
contamination and bacteria flocculation can be prevented in potable water and firewater
systems by the addition of a solution of chlorine.
Chlorine solution is injected upstream of potable water tanks, firewater pump caissons,
firewater jockey pump caisson and open drain caissons.
97
Chlorine solution is the most widely used inorganic biocide for treating waste water before
it is disposed of.
Chemicals used to control bacteria are extremely dangerous to handle and proper training
of persons charged with their handling is required. The required personal protective
equipment must be used when handling these chemicals or when maintaining chemical
injection equipment
8. Methanol
Methanol is a liquid desiccant used to prevent formation of hydrates
Injection only required when glycol unit is offline as it can cause operational problems in
the glycolunit
Injection will not be continuous, and only used when necessary
Hydrates are a common problem in pipelines and measures must be taken during design
to avoid formation – resemble dirty ice, consisting of a water lattice with light hydrocarbons
embedded.
Can cause flow lines, chokes, valves and instrumentation to plug.
High pressure drops and cold temperatures are particularly good conditions for hydrate
formation
9. Oxygen Scavengers
Oxygen Scavenger is continuously injected into the feed water stream in order to reduce
the amount of O2 remaining downstream the de aeration treatment of feed water.
Removes oxygen to prevent corrosion of mild steel pipes, valves and well completions
10. Pipeline – Drag Reducing Agent (DRA)
The purpose of the chemical injection system is to inject drag reducing agent into the
Pipeline
Drag reducing agents are additives in pipelines that reduce turbulence in a pipe. Usually
used in petroleum pipelines, they increase the pipeline capacity by reducing turbulence
and therefore allowing the oil to flow more efficiently. (See Fig. 5.7 & 5.8)
Figure 5.7 - injection drag reducing agent into the Pipeline
98
Figure 5.8 - chemical injection system is to inject drag reducing agent into the Pipeline
The storage tank (1) , as shown in Fig.( Fig. (5.8) stores the drag reducing agent (DRA).
The storage tank is a horizontal vessel with low pressure working pressure.
Recirculating pump (2) circulates DRA in the storage tank. The recirculating pump is a
screw spindle type pump for use in viscous fluids.
Feed pump (3) feeds the high pressure injection pump during chemical injection. The feed
pump is a positive displacement lobe type booster pump to control the volume of DRA
supplied to the high-pressure injection pump.
High-pressure injection pump (4) injects drag reducing agent DRA into the main oil export
pipeline
99
5.4 CHEMICALS AND TYPICAL INJECTION POINTS

Chemicals for Crude Oil Streams and Typical Injection Points ( as shown in Fig. 5.9 &
5.10)
Figure 5.9 - Chemicals for Crude Oil Streams and Typical Injection Points
Figure 5.10 - Chemical for Water Injection Streams and Typical Injection Points
100
5.5 CHEMICAL INJECTION EQUIPMENTS

1- Chemical Tank
A tank is a container, used for containing or storing chemicals.
Most chemicals used in process treatment have aggressive properties, hence
polypropylene plastic tanks are preferred over stainless and alloy steel tanks.
Polypropylene plastic tanks are compatible with alkaline solutions, mineral oils, amines
and acids including HCl.
Tanks may require heating and a nitrogen blanket to act as a safeguard against
flammability hazards
Pressure relief valves are fitted to avoid overpressure mainly with exposure to fire as the
main cause.
All storage tanks shall be clearly labeled with the name of its contents, and products
stored within shall not be intermixed. Storage tanks should be provided with vents.
Container tanks can be many shapes, but large tanks tend to be cylindrical
Figure 5.11 - Chemical Tank

Level Measuring Devices
The level/volume of chemical in the tank can be measured using a hydrostatic tank gauge
or an ultrasonic transmitter
5.5 CALCULATION OF INJECTION RATE FROM PPM

Chemical Injection rate is based on the amount of the fluid flowing in the pipeline.
Example:
Demulsifier is injected into upstream production and test separators based on the water
flowing to production and test separator.
This rate of Chemical is expressed in Litters per day is proportional to the water flow
(Barrels per day).
101
If the water flow changes, we have to make suitable changes in chemical injection
proportionally.
This is generally expressed in ppm as the rate of chemical is small (parts of Chemical per
million parts of water)
To calculate the injection rate you can use the following equation
flow rate ( BBL / day ) ∗ dosage ( ppm )
injection rate (L/Hr) =
151000
Case study: Calculation of Injection Rate from ppm
Required chemical injection is 15 ppm
Liquid flow rate is 10000 bpd. (Barrels per day) Water cut 50%
Calculate chemical injection rate Lit /hr.
5.6 PUMPS USED FOR INJECTION

Most chemical injection applications use a positive displacement type pump because they
offer the advantage of being able to deliver the most precise and repeatable volume of
liquid per given time.
The positive displacement type pump usually causes less agitation of the fluids because
of its lower speed, higher efficiency and design characteristics. The pumps should be kept
in good repair, so that a minimum amount of leakage or slippage will occur. Pumps are
spared for continuous or frequent duty and sometimes come with multiple heads for
multiple injection points.
Types of positive displacement pumps which are used for chemical injection:
 Piston reciprocating pumps
 Plunger reciprocating pumps
 Diaphragm reciprocating pumps
 Pulsation Damper
Figure 5.12 - Reciprocating pump (piston type)

102
Figure 5.13 - Reciprocating pump (Diaphragm type)
Figure 5.14 - Pulsation Damper

When using piston or diaphragm pumps pulsations occur in the piping system.
Pulsations generate noise and vibrations and can damage measuring instruments,
fittings, etc.
103
The pulsation dampener is a pressurized chamber partly filled with gas contained in a
bag, or bladder, when the pump completes its discharge stroke and starts on its suction
stroke, no liquid is being discharged to the discharge pipeline.
The compressed gas now forces the liquid out of the pulsation dampener and into the
discharge pipeline. In this way, the pressure in the discharge pipeline remains the same
during the suction stroke of the pump.
5.7 CHEMICAL INJECTION SKID
Figure 5.15 - Chemical injection skid

Major parts and function of the chemical injection skid (See Fig. 5.15)
 Chemical tank
 Suction strainer
 Tank Gauge (level controller/transmitter)
 Pulsation damper
 Relief valve (PSV)
 Pump
 Motive power (electricity o motor)
 Suction/discharge
 Vents /drains
 Tank mixer
 Pump lubrication system
104
 Rate adjusting knob /controller

 Calibration gauge
 Material Safety Data Sheet(MSDS)
 Pump start/ stops witch
 Pressure gauge
 Chemical safety–equipment
5.8 ROUTINE CHECKS

Routine checks
 Type of chemical injected.
 The level of chemical storage tank.
 The injection pump noise, vibration …etc)
 The discharge pressure
 Check the area for leaks.
 Monitor the chemical injection rate and adjust as necessary.
The necessary safety precautions to be taken during receiving and unloading chemicals
are:
 Check the cargo manifest and ensure the correct type and quantities of chemical
drums are delivered.
 Ensure all eyewash stations, safety showers etc. are operable.
 Ensure the area is tidy and free of debris etc.
 Ensure personnel not involved in offloading are clear of the area.
 Use one signalman only to control drum offloading and handling.
 Ensure chemicals are stored tidily in the designated area.
Effect of over and under dosage of chemicals

Over dosage
 Chemicals are costly and over dosage will result in a big financial loss.
 The chemical may not perform effectively when used at the incorrect rate.
Under dosage
 The chemical will not perform effectively when used at a lower rate.
 The equipment will be seriously affected by e.g. Scale deposits, corrosion etc.
 The product will not be on specification and expensive customer penalties applied.
105
5.9 SAFETY PRECAUTIONS

Demulsifiers, scale inhibitors, corrosion inhibitors, chlorine solution and most chemicals
used in process treatment can injure you if they are allowed to touch your skin, eyes, or
clothing. For this reason, there are special safety rules for handling these chemicals.
When chemical storage tanks are being filled you must follow these safety rules and
precautions.
 Read Material Safety Data Sheets for the chemical being handled
 Wear chemical handling safety clothing as follows:
 Elbow-length rubber gloves.
 A rubber apron.
 A face shield.
 Rubber boots.
Make sure that maintenance personnel working on chemical systems wear the same
safety clothing as you do.
Make sure that the safety shower and eyewash station near the chemical handling area
is working properly.
Clean up all chemical spills immediately
Figure 5.16 - Wear chemical handling safety clothing

106
Material Safety Data sheet

In all distribution incidents involving chemicals the first requirement of the emergency
services is for rapid access to accurate information concerning the chemical involved and
the actual and potential hazards posed by the chemical when contained or accidentally
released.
As a minimum requirement any responsible distributor or manufacturer of chemicals
should have an effective system for providing this information to the emergency services.
Material Safety Data Sheets (MSDS) are in widespread use throughout the chemical
industry and whilst the information contained within the MSDS is specifically prepared to
provide guidance to the use of the chemical. The documents usually contain sufficient
information to respond effectively to a distribution incident.
The MSDS provides answers to the following:
 What is the product and what should be known immediately in an emergency?
 What should be done if a hazardous situation occurs?
 How can hazardous situations be prevented from occurring?
 Is there any other useful information about this product?
107
Chapter 6
Water Treatment
108
CONTENTS
6.1 INTRODUCTION .............................................................................................. 110
6.1.1 Water Properties ........................................................................................ 111
6.1.2 Water Contamination ................................................................................. 112
6.2 PRODUCED WATER TREATMENT SYSTEM ................................................ 114
6.2.1 CPI /TPI separator in oil water treatment ................................................... 115
6.2.2 - Induced Gas Floatation (IGF) .................................................................. 118
6.2.3 Nutshell Filters ........................................................................................... 119
6.3 WATER TREATMENT FOR BOILER FEED ................................................... 120
6.3.1 Deaerators ................................................................................................. 120
6.3.2 Oxygen Scavengers ................................................................................... 122
6.3.3 De-Mineralised & De-Ionised Water ........................................................... 122
6.4 OIL SKIMMER ................................................................................................. 122
6.4.1 Principle of Operation................................................................................. 122
6.4.2 Oil kimming Devices................................................................................... 123
6.5 PRODUCED WATER DISPOSAL METHODS ................................................ 128
6.5.1 Overboard Disposal ................................................................................... 128
6.5.2 Evaporation Pits ......................................................................................... 129
6.5.3 Prouced Water Reinjection ........................................................................ 130
6.5.4 Desalination ............................................................................................... 130
6.5.7 Reverse Osmosis ....................................................................................... 132
6.6 EQUIPMENT’S OF WATER DISPOSAL SYSTEM .......................................... 132
109
6.1 INTRODUCTION
Production of crude oil and natural gas is usually associated with the production of water.
During the early life of the petroleum fields, water-free production of oil and gas is normally
experienced. However, water will eventually be produced later.
The produced water may be water that exists within the petroleum reservoir as bottom
water. Alternatively, water may be produced as a result of water-flooding operations,
where water is injected into the reservoir to enhance the recovery.
Water production presents serious operating, economic, and environmental problems.
Production of water with the crude oil or natural gas reduces the productivity of the well
due to the increased pressure losses throughout the production system.
This may either result in reduced production or necessitate the installation of costly
artificial lifting systems to maintain the desired production levels. Production of water also
results in serious corrosion problems, which add to the cost of the operation. It requires
the use of three- phase separators, emulsion treatment, and desalting systems, which
further add to the cost of the operation.
In most situations, the produced water has no value and should be disposed of. In other
situations, the produced water may be used for water flooding or reservoir pressure
maintenance. The produced water, collected from the separation, emulsion treatment,
and desalting systems, contains hydrocarbon concentrations that are too high for
environmentally safe disposal
The presence of the hydrocarbon droplets in the water makes it difficult to inject the water
into disposal wells or into water-injection wells for enhanced recovery operations.
This is because the hydrocarbon droplets cause severe plugging of the formation. In all
cases, the produced water must be treated to lower its hydrocarbon content to acceptable
limits.
Figure 6.1 - Produced water Production stream
110
6.1.1 Water Properties
1- Water analysis
The analysis of the oil field waters must determine the ions and the physical properties
which are important to prevent plugging and corrosion problems in water operation. The
list of ions and properties to be determined by analysis is summarized as shown in table
below
2- Suspended solids
Calcium: The calcium ion is a major constituent of oil field waters, calcium ion combines
with carbonate and sulphate ions and precipitates to form adherent scales and solids
Magnesium: Magnesium ion combines with carbonate ion give scaling and plugging.
Problems as Mg CO3
Sodium: Sodium is a major constituent in oil field waters but does not normally cause any
problem only the precipitation of NaCl for extremely salty brine
Iron: The natural ion content of formation waters normally is quite low and its presence is
usually indicative of corrosion.
Barium: Barium is of importance primarily because of its ability to combine with sulphate
which is extremely insoluble, even small quantities can cause severe problems
Carbonate: Carbonate (CO3) and bicarbonate (HCO3) are important because they can
form insoluble scales.
Sulphate: The sulphate ion is a problem because of its ability to react with calcium, barium
and strontium to form insoluble scale. It also serves as “food substance” for sulphate
reducing bacteria (SRB).
Chloride: Chloride ion is nearly always the major anion in produced brines and is usually
present as a major constituent in fresh water. The major source of chloride ion is NaCl so
the chloride ion concentration is used as a measure of water salinity. The primary problem
associated with chloride ion is that the corrosively of the water increases as it gets saltier
(conductivity).
High chloride concentrations make corrosion more likely salt deposition can also be a
problem.
111
3- Dissolved gas
Dissolved oxygen: Increase the corrosively of the water, consequently increase the
corrosion rate, form insoluble iron oxides which can contribute to plugging
Dissolved carbon dioxide: Increase the water corrosively and formation of calcium
carbonates scaling.
Dissolved hydrogen sulphide: Increase water corrosively, produce iron sulphate which
can cause formation Plugging.
4- Oil content
Oil in water can cause decreased injectivity in several ways: It can cause “emulsion
blocks” in the formation.
It is excellent glue for certain solids such as iron sulphide thereby increasing the plugging
efficiency
5- Water PH
Figure (6.2) PH
The pH is extremely important for several reasons:
Acidic water increases the corrosion and decrease scaling tendency Most oil field waters
have a pH between 4 and 7.as shown in Figure (6.1) .
Sea water has a pH rather constant around 8.0 to 8.1
Both H2S and CO2 are “acid” gases as they tend to lower the pH of water when they
dissolve in water.
6.1.2 Water Contamination
1- Mineral scale accumulation

Mineral scales deposition occurs from Produced water with changes (P&T) or mineral
composition variation (oversaturation of salts).
Mineral scales deposition can be avoided or minimized by appropriate Injection of
chemical (anti scale) in the production facilities or into the formation
112
Figure 6.3 - Mineral scale accumulation

Solids of various origins can deposit and accumulate inside production equipment such
as scales, corrosion products, solids carry over from the formation, as shown in Fig. (6.3)
and Fig. (6.4).
Figure 6.4 - Mineral scale accumulation

2- Bacteria
Bacteria are a large domain of microorganisms, a few micrometers in length, bacteria
have a wide range of shapes, ranging from spheres to rods and spirals, a few species of
bacteria have a long up to half a millimeter and are visible to eye.see Fig. (6.5)
Bacteria are present and growing in soil, water, and organic matter.
113
Bacteria grow rapidly, forming a bio-film on water pipe work if left untreated; these films
can range from a few micrometers in thickness to up to half a meter in depth.
Figure 6.5 - Bacteria

Sulphur-reducing bacteria: is an organism that lives in oxygen-deficient environments. It
breaks down sulphur compounds present in water, producing hydrogen sulphide gas in
the process.
Aerobic bacteria: is an organism that can survive and grow in an oxygenated environment
Anaerobic bacteria: is an organism that does not require oxygen for growth and may even
die if oxygen is present.
Facultative bacteria (FB): is an organism which can develop with or without oxygen
Bacterial introduction into an injection well can occur during drilling and completion
/stimulation / work over operations, as well as during long term injection operations.
Anaerobic bacteria, sulfate reducing bacteria (SRB), generally tend to be the most
problematic in oil field, but, in some injection operations, if sufficient dissolved oxygen is
present in the injection fluids, aerobic bacteria activity may also be an issue
6.2 PRODUCED WATER TREATMENT SYSTEM

In normal operating condition, the produced water separated by the wet train and the
collected drains are routed to the produced water treatment plant. The oily water enters
in a basin where water can be separated from oil by means of a Corrugated Plate
Interceptor (CPI) or Parallel Plate Interceptor (PPI) or other methods. The oil recovered
is pumped directly to the flow tanks and the de-oiled water is pumped to formation
disposal wells. (See Fig. 6.6)
114
Figure 6.6 - Typical Produced Water Flow Diagram

In case the CPI is out of service or in maintenance, the produced water can be diverted
to evaporation pond located close to the ground flare area.
The water outflow from the production plants generally contains oil, dissolved gas and
solid particles.
6.2.1 CPI /TPI separator in oil water treatment
A CPI (Corrugated plate interceptor) or TPI (Tilted plate interceptor) separators are
predominantly used in separation of free oil from effluent water or suspended solids for
oily water treatment in an Oily Water System (OWS).
The basic principle of difference in gravity between the phases (liquid – liquid or solid –
liquid) is employed in an OWS in separation of the two phases. This phenomenon is
defined as “Gravity Separation”.
It is therefore apparent that the phase with high density will settle and with lower density
float to the surface of fluid. In an OWS, the effectiveness of this technique is subjected to
various factors such as difference in the density, viscosity, factors of the medium,
temperature, turbulence, and also the nature of impurity etc.
In Oily water treatment, tilted (placed in predetermined angles) plate packs are used in
CPI/ TPI separators to improve the size and economy of the separator system. As
corrugated plate pack are predominantly used, the tilted plate pack type separators are
115
widely known as corrugated plate interceptor or simply as CPI separators. However, a

TPI (Tilted plate interceptor) may use a corrugated type plate pack or simply plain parallel
plate pack. Hence, TPI separator is a generic terminology used in such type of separators.
The separator when used in separation of liquid – liquid phases (predominantly removal
of free oil in oily water treatment) are called a TPI (Tilted plate interceptor) or a CPI
separator. Any separation of suspended solids in oily water treatment by use of CPI
(Corrugated plate interceptor)/ TPI (Tilted plate interceptor) separator is incidental due to
difference in gravity between the effluent’s liquid phase and the solid phase. ( See Fig.
6.7 )
Highly efficient oil removal systems are required to recover maximum quantity of
hydrocarbons for oily water treatment as well as to make effluent amicable for further
treatment & also to meet the pollution control requirements.
OILY
SKIMMER
Figure 6.7 - Typical CPI Separator

The CPI vessel is divided to 4 main sections:
 Inlet Oily Water;
 Flow Straightening and Settling Zones;
 Plate Pack and Coalescence Sections;
 Outlet Settling.
The produced water enters the CPI through the inlet nozzle through a momentum
breaker. The flow then passes through full height perforated plates to provide laminar
plug flow into the separation area. ( See Fig. 6.8)
116
There will be a settling zone followed by the plate packs. Each plate pack section will
have 2 sets of tilted corrugated plates with gap between. This will ensure maximum
efficiency and settling. There will be a further settling area after the plate packs before the
outlet.
As water passes through the pack, oil droplets stick to its surface, accumulate,
agglomerate, coalesce and as larger droplets eventually float out to the liquid surface.
The solids will impact upon the plates and fall to the bottom where they are collected and
removed.
The design of the plate packs is an essential part of this separation system. They will be
designed with the consideration of the high efficiency removal requirement, while
ensuring that the plates are not too close that will result in blockage. After the plate pack,
there is the settling zone. Most of the larger solids will have settled out by this stage, so
its primary function is to ensure that the coalesced oil droplets have sufficient time to rise
to the top of the vessel before passing into the outlet. The outlet will be covered with a
specially designed tilted diverter plate to avoid any short-circuiting within this final settling
zone and any suspended solids carry over.
Since the water is coming from a lower pressure source therefore there will be no gas
break out. This separator operates flooded and will not require any level control on the
water side. The flow control through the vessel will be performed by the control valves
downstream of the IGF.
Figure 6.8 - Typical CPI Separator Operation Principle

This CPI is treating produced water with relatively low oil content. It will take a long time
to build up an oil layer that is thick enough to be measured and controlled; a clean
interface will not be established. The oil droplets being treated are the residual fine
emulsion after a very long settling period upstream, and although coalescence occurs in
117
the separator, a significant degree of re-entrainment will occur if the separator is allowed
to build up an oil layer. Provision is therefore made to concentrate and remove the
separated oil without any risk of re-entrainment.
Coalesced oil will migrate by gravity to an oil dome, or collection pot, located at the top
and towards the end of the vessel. An oily layer will build up in the dome, which is then
removed by level control.
As the oil quantities are relatively low, the oil will be skimmed from the dome on an on/off
basis on level. If required this can be adjusted to continuous flow, or timed skimming
during commissioning or operation. Skimmed oil from the dome is sent to off spec Crude
Oil Tank.
CPI is designed to handle a high level of suspended solids to provide a stable flow with
low levels of solids and oil, to the IGF (Induced Gas Flotation ) .
6.2.2 - Induced Gas Floatation (IGF)
Induced gas flotation is a process which introduces small bubbles of gas, or air, into an
oily water stream to accelerate the separation of the oil droplets from the water phase.
The small bubbles adhere to the small oil droplets, decrease the overall specific gravity
of the oil droplets and result in a rapid rise of the oil droplets to the surface of the water.
The oil droplets and gas bubbles accumulate on the surface in the form of an oily froth
which is skimmed from the water surface, either by mechanical skimmers, or by an
overflow type weir.
Several types of gasses can be used for gas flotation, including air, natural gas, nitrogen
or carbon dioxide. The free oil in water content of the effluent will vary depending on the
operating conditions. Generally, it may be expected to run between 1 and 10% of the inlet
oil concentration under normal operating conditions.
Figure 6.9 - Typical Induced Air Flotation Unit.
118
6.2.3 Nutshell Filters
The Nutshell Filters receive produced water from the upstream Induced Gas Flotation
Unit. The Nutshell Filters are designed to remove 95% in particles in inlet water that are
greater than 5 microns. The package comprises 2 units operating in parallel, which are
down-flow, nutshell media filters, supported on a coarse garnet bed.
The fluid enters the filter vessel and flow into the inlet distribution header located in the
upper dished end. The flow is distributed evenly onto the media and flow through the
media at a low flux rate. The filtration duty is provided by granular walnut shell filter media.
This is specifically designed to remove the solid impurities in the water and the majority
of the remaining oil. The removed solids will fill the bed as the filtration run that causes its
porosity to diminish. Pressure drop across the media increase steadily as the media get
fouled by the filtered particles.
The filter media is supported by coarse garnet. The functions of this support bed are:
 To provide an open distribution flow area for water to flow to the outlet laterals.
 To prevent the finer media from collapsing through to the base of the vessel.
 To provide a distribution of the gas scour and backwash to prevent channelling.
The outlet collection laterals made from SS316 are located at the lower dished end. The
outlet collection laterals also act as the feed and initial distributors for the backwash gas
and water.
Figure 6.10 - Example of Nutshell Filter Operation.
119
6.3 WATER TREATMENT FOR BOILER FEED

Boiler feed treatment comprises:
 Boiler water conditioning
 Deaerator, to remove non condensable gases
 Oxygen scavenging
In a normally operating power plant, the steam is condensed and sent to a deaerator to
remove non condensable gases.
Low pressure steam is added to the deaerator to help remove the non-condensable gases
such as oxygen and carbon dioxide to levels less than 7 ppb.
All steam plants have leaks of steam hence make up water is necessary to maintain the
water levels in the system. Water is normally demineralized and deionized to eliminate
minerals that can cause scale and hot spots in the boiler reducing its useful life. Hot spots
are created when scale accumulates in the risers and heat transfer is reduced in that spot
increasing the temperature of the metal which may lead to material failure.
Boiler water conditioning is required to avoid:
 Scale and sludge formation that decrease heat transfer capacity and promote hot
spots and potential boiler pipe failure
 Boiler corrosion by removing oxygen and carbon dioxide.
6.3.1 Deaerators
Usually deaerators are located after the circulation pumps in a steam power plant.
There are two main types of deaerator:
1-Trayed Deaerator: Low pressure steam is injected to the drum and trays for non-
condensable extraction. (See Fig. 6.11)
120
Figure 6.11 - Trayed Deaerator

2- Spray Deaerator. Low pressure steam is injected to the drum and baffles separate
each section.
Figure 6.12 - Spray Deaerator
121
6.3.2 Oxygen Scavengers
Oxygen may cause corrosion to the boiler tubes, so oxygen scavenging chemicals are
added to the deaerated boiler feed water to remove any last traces of oxygen that were
not removed by the deaerator.
The most commonly used oxygen scavenger is sodium sulphite (Na 2 SO3). It is very
effective and rapidly reacts with traces of oxygen to form sodium sulphate (Na 2SO4) which
is non-scaling. Another widely used oxygen scavenger is hydrazine. (N2 H4).
6.3.3 De-Mineralised & De-Ionised Water
De-Mineralised water refers to water with a low level of minerals for process use.
De-Ionised Water refers to water with an ultra-low level of mineral ions suitable for boiler
feed water
Figure 6.13 - De-Mineralised & De-Ionised Water
6.4 OIL SKIMMER

An oil skimmer is a machine that separates a liquid from particles floating on it or from
another liquid. A common application is removing oil floating on water.
6.4.1 Principle of Operation
Oil and water by their nature are immiscible (describes two or more liquids that will not
mix together to form a single homogeneous substance).
This fact, along with the difference in density that exists between oil and water, leads to
the oil, lower density, rising to the top of the tank. The oil separates
The oil will form a layer above the water surface that can be separated from the water by
skimming action.
According to Stoke’s Law, this defines the terminal rise velocity of a given size of oil
droplet
122
6.4.2 Oil skimming Devices
1. Weir Skimmers
Figure 6.14 - Self-adjusting weir skimmer

2. Slotted Pipe Skimmer
Figure 6.15 - Slotted pipe skimmers
123
Figure 6.16 - slotted pipe

3. Drum Skimmer & Disc Skim
Drum skimmer is suitable for oils of medium viscosity.
Figure 6.17 - Drum Skimmer & Disc Skim
124
4. Floating Brush Skimmer
Figure 6.18 - Floating Brush Skimmer

5. Rope Skimmer
Figure 6.19 - Rope Skimmer

6. API Separator
This is the most common way of separating oil and water by the using gravity acting on
the density difference between the two liquids.
Time is also required for this process to work effectively. Each unit is designed to retain
the liquid mixture within it until separation has been accomplished. This time is known as
the residence time or retention time.
However, the time available on an offshore production facility is very limited and residence
times are extremely short. The API require relatively long residence times, there are very
few of them found offshore.
The API separator basically a very large tank or pond which permits a long residence time
for the oil to separate from the water. Figures (6.20) & (6.21) are illustrations of a typical
API separator.
125
Figure 6.20 - API separator.

The produced water enters the unit on the left hand side. As it enters the chamber it hits
a small stilling plate. The stilling plate distributes the incoming liquids evenly over the
width of the separator and reduces turbulence and mixing.
Underneath the stilling plate is a sludge / debris trap which will catch small solids as they
sink. The sludge outlet is normally designed so that it can easily be freed if it should
become blocked.
Figure 6.21 - a typical API separator.
126
The water flows:

 from the stilling plate
 above and below an intermediate baffle (water with oil in it will rise above the
baffle - water with no oil in it will fall under the baffle)
 under the final baffle
 over the outlet weir
 out of the separator via the water outlet.
The level in the skimmer is controlled by adjusting the height of the outlet weir.
The oil flows:
 from the stilling plate
 above the intermediate baffle
 to the surface where it forms a layer of oil on top of the water
 into an adjustable oil skimmer
 out of the oil skimmer via the oil outlet
The adjustable oil skimmer is normally set at between 4 to 8 mm above the level of the
water.
API Separators require careful adjustment of the skimmer to remove as much of the oil
as possible, but without removing any water. Slight changes in flow will raise or lower the
height of water falling over the weir and, if the oil / water interface is disturbed, water could
slop over with the oil.
API Separators are not suitable for offshore applications due to the movement of the
installation structure. More efficient means of oil and water separation are necessary.
Facilities are needed which are designed to reduce the residence time required for
efficient oil/water separation to take place.
This reduction in residence time is important. For a given flow rate of fluid, the residence
time can only be extended by increasing the volume of the separator. Offshore, where
space is at a premium, this is extremely difficult.
One way of reducing the required residence time is to include some form of coalescing
device in the water cleaning unit.
Coalescing devices provide a solid surface which can be contacted by small oil droplets.
An accumulation of these oil droplets creates a thick oil film which becomes a source of
large drops. Eventually enlarged drops of oil break loose from the solid surface. These
large drops separate from the water phase much faster than the original small droplets.
127
7. Plate Pack skimmer.
Figure 6.22 - Plate Pack skimmer
6.5 PRODUCED WATER DISPOSAL METHODS

 Overboard Disposal
 Evaporation Pits
 Produced Water Reinjection
 Desalination
 Reverse osmosis
6.5.1 Overboard Disposal
The produced water is routed overboard into the sea via the oily water treatment facilities,
as shown in Figure (6.23)
128
Figure 6.23 - Overboard Disposal
6.5.2 Evaporation Pits
The produced water is routed from an appropriate treatment facility to evaporation pit, will
be more efficient if a large shallow area is used.
Figure 6.24 - Evaporation Pits

129
6.5.3 Produced Water Reinjection
Produced water reinjection: Water routed into an aquifer. See Fig.(6.25 &6.26).
Figure 6.25 - Produced water reinjection
Figure 6.26 - Produced water reinjection
6.5.4 Desalination
Desalination is a separation process used to reduce the dissolved salt content of saline
water to a usable level
130
Figure 6.26 - Desalination distillation

Oldest method of desalination uses heating, evaporation and condensation to remove
salt from water,as shown in Fig. (6.26).
Electro dialysis is used to transport salt from one solution, the dilute, to another solution
(concentrate) by applying an electric current. This is done in an electro dialysis cell
providing all necessary elements for this process. The concentrate and dilate are
separated by the membranes into the two different process streams (concentrate and
dilute) ,as shown in Fig. (6.27).
Figure 6.27 - Electro dialysis

131
6.5.7 Reverse Osmosis
Reverse Osmosis is process by which particles as 0.1 nanometre’s can be removed from
a solution, used to purify water and remove salts and other impurities in order to improve
the color, taste or properties of the fluid, as shown in Fig(6.28).
Figure 6.28 - Reverse Osmosis
6.6 EQUIPMENT’S OF WATER DISPOSAL SYSTEM

 API separator
 API Skimmer
 Watch tank
 Gas flotation unit
 Hydrocyclone
 Sump caisson
 Slop tank
 Electrostatic Coalescer
API separator and Gas flotation unit are explained in this chapter.
1- API SKIMMER
The API skimmer generally consists of a basin divided into communicating compartments
in which the oily water flows slowly. As shown in Fig.(6.29) & Fig.(6.30).
132
Figure 6.29 - API skimmer
Figure 6.30 - API skimmer

The compartments are generally used:
The first one has the liquid inlet and separation by gravity of any solid particles.
The second one has the separation of the water from the oil, obtained by acting on the
different density of the hydrocarbon, liquid and water.
This section generally contains lamellar layers which facilitate the contact of the oil
droplets dispersed in the water and their rising upwards.
The third compartment collects the oil-free water.
While pumps recycle the oil to the production plants, the water is sent, usually by gravity,
to the discharge network.
The degree of efficiency of the API skimmers depends on the characteristics of the
incoming water (oil content and temperature of the water) and the type of plant used.
Normally these plants are able to guarantee outgoing water with an oil content of 20-40
ppm, starting from water with oil content of 1,000 – 10,000 ppm.
133
2- Watch Tank
Figure 6.31 - Watch tank

This system enables the emulsion to liberate the free water that is associated with the
crude oil.
Watch tank operate under Atmospheric Pressure
The maximum operating temperature is 85 °C to avoid losses of light components
3- Hydrocyclone
Hydrocyclone: Is a static device that applies centrifugal force to a liquid mixture so as to
promote the separation of heavy and light components.
The generation of centrifugal forces in the hydrocyclone moves the dense phase
(formation water) outwards to the wall of the liner while the lighter phase (oil) migrates to
a central stream under centripetal force
The dense phase (water) leaves at one end of the liner while the lighter phase leaves in
the opposite direction via an orifice. This counter current is obtained by applying a DP
between the water outlet and the oil outlet
Figure 6.32 - Principle of centrifugal force

134
Principle of centrifugal force: See Fig.(6.32)& Fig.(6.33).

By application the centrifugal force to liquid:
Heavy particles tend to segregate to the outer edge.
Light particles tend to segregate to the Centre of the column
Figure 6.33 - Principle of centrifugal force
135
How the Hydrocyclone operates

Inlet pressure forces the oil contaminated produced water to enter the unit and spin
through it.
Centrifugal force causes lighter oil to separate from denser water. Inner, tight, upward
moving vortex consists of the lighter oil.
Outer, downward moving vortex throws the dense water to the outside
.
Figure 6.34 - how the hydrocyclone operates
Incoming produced water stream enters the top cylindrical feed chamber tangentially at
a velocity up to 5 meters per second conical section.
Vortex slowly sinks into the conical section.
Denser water thrown to the outer wall, leaving the lighter oil in the centre Bottom exist of
the unit is restricted.
Inner vortex flows up and out via a central vortex finder outlet in the top of the unit.
Produced water in the primary section vortex reaches bottom apex of conical section
virtually free from the lighter oil frictionwater is discharged through an adjustable orifice
or nozzle that can be set to control pressure and water discharge rate.
136
Figure 6.35 - Hydrocyclone in the produced water process

4- Sump Caisson
Caissons are a type of settling tank which pass treated produced water to the sea while
separating out any remaining oil. as shown in Fig. (6.36) .
Figure 6.36 - Sump Caisson

Caissons is a vertical pipe that is open at both the top and bottom.
Caisson is long enough so that its bottom open end is well below the wave action zone
and the top open end is above maximum wave height.
Oily produced water to be discharged into the sea flow into the caisson Oil droplets in
water coalesce and rise to the surface within the caisson.
The floating oil layer is removed at intervals by a pump started and stopped by level
control.
137
Cleaned water passes into the sea through the open bottom as more produced water
enters.
5- Slop Oil Tank
Figure 6.37 - Slop Oil Tank

Provide a final settling facility on onshore processing facilities prior to the disposal of the
produced water.
Allow long settling or residence time for the dispersed oil to float to the surface and the
oil is pump back into oil processing facilities.
6- Electrostatic Coalescer
Principle of applying electrostatic field, as shown in Fig. (6.38) & (6.39).
Figure 6.38 - Electrostatic Coalescer
138
Figure 6.39 - Principle of applying electrostatic field

When an electrostatic field is applied the water molecules become electrically polarized
which forces the water molecules to attract each other’s more readily increasing droplets
size, and then coalesce to form droplets large enough to force the water droplets to the
lower part of the separator, as shown in Fig. (6.40)
Figure 6.40 - Electro static Coalescer in the process plant
139
Chapter 7
Pigging
140
CONTENTS
7.1 INTRODUCTION .............................................................................................. 142
7.2 BENEFITS OF PIGGING ................................................................................. 142
7.3 EQUIPMENT USED IN PIGGING OPERATION .............................................. 143
7.4 USES &TYPES OF PIG ................................................................................... 143
7.5 PIG LAUNCHERS & RECEIVERS .................................................................. 150
7.6 PIGGING OPERATION .................................................................................... 154
7.7 SAFETY CONSIDERATIONS .......................................................................... 159
141
7.1 INTRODUCTION
The original cleaning devices were made from straw wrapped in wires used for cleaning
pipes. They made a squealing noise while traveling through the pipe, sounding like a pig
squealing, which gave the name ‘pig’. 'PIG' is an acronym derived from the initial letters
of the term 'Pipeline Inspection Gauge' or 'Pipeline Inspection Gadget'.
This is accomplished by inserting the device into a 'launcher' - a funnel shaped
Ysectioninthepipeline.Thelauncheristhenclosedandthepressureoftheproduct in the
pipeline is used to push it along down the pipe until it reaches the receiving trap - the
'catcher'.
If the pipeline contains globe valves, butterfly valves or check valves, the pipeline cannot
be cleaned by pigging. Ball valves cause no problems because the diameter of the ball is
always the same as that of the pipe. Pipeline cleaning by pig has been used for many
years to clean larger diameter pipelines in the oil industry, as shown in Fig.(7.1) . Today,
however, the use of smaller diameter pigging systems is now increasing in many
continuous and batch process plants as plant operators search for increased efficiencies.
Figure 7.1 - 1 Km of Wax removed from 20 Km pipeline in Norway

The first Pigging operation apparently took place around 1870 in Titusville, Pennsylvania
USA, somewhat ambiguous but is largely credited to a Colonel Drake.
7.2 BENEFITS OF PIGGING
1. To clean the pipeline from point of origin up to the customer end.

2. To remove the scale, sludge, accumulated sediments from the inner surface of the
pipeline.
3. Periodical check of the pipe line for thickness measurement.
4. To fully remove the material from the pipe line to hand over for maintenance purposes.
142
5. Pigging is done for oil pipelines at regular intervals to remove wax, scale, sediment
and water from the lines to prevent plugging or corrosion
6. Periodically Pigging is done for Gas pipelines to remove sediment, scale, salts and
water from the line to prevent internal corrosion.
7. Pigs are also used to coat pipeline internals with inhibitors and biocides for the
prevention of corrosion
7.3 EQUIPMENT USED IN PIGGING OPERATION
There are several equipment’s such as Pig Launcher, Pig Receivers, Barred Tees, Pig
Signalers and Pig Trackers etc. used for carrying out pigging operation. As shown in
Figure (7.2).
Various types of pigs are used. Pigs are constructed of various materials. They vary in
solid consistency from soft rubber balls or bullets, to hard cups of inert plastics with steel
mandrels to hold the cups together, the latter being referred to as super pigs.
Figure 7.2 - Equipment used in pigging operation
7.4 USES &TYPES OF PIG

“PIG” – ‘Pipeline Inspection Gauge’ or ‘Pipeline Inspection Gadget’ in the pipeline industry
is a tool that is sent down a pipeline and propelled by the pressure of the product or by
air/water pressure through the pipeline itself. As shown in Fig.(7.3).
143
Figure 7.3 - Pigs

There are four main uses of the pigs:
1. Internal cleaning of pipelines
2. Physical separation between different liquids being transported in pipelines
3. Inspection of the condition of pipeline walls (also known as an Inline Inspection
(ILI)Tool)
4. Capturing and recording geometric information relating to pipelines (e.g. size
position).
Pipeline pigs are devices that are inserted into and travel throughout the length of a
pipeline driven by the product flow. They were originally developed to remove deposits
which could obstruct or retard flow through a pipeline. Today pigs are used during all
phases in the life of a pipeline for different reasons.
Pigs used today can be divided into three categories:
1. Utility Pigs: They are used to perform functions such as cleaning, separating or
dewatering.
2. In Line Inspection (ILI) Tools/Pigs: They provide information on the condition of the
line, as well as extent and location of any problems.
3. Gel Pigs: They are used in conjunction with conventional pigs to optimize pipeline
dewatering, cleaning and drying tasks.
1- Utility Pig
Utility pipeline pigs can be divided into two groups based upon their fundamental purpose:
 Cleaning Pigs: These are used to remove solid or semi-solid deposits or debris
from the pipeline.
144
 Sealing Pigs: These are used to provide a good seal in order to either sweep liquids
from the line, or provide an interface between two dissimilar products within the
pipeline.
Within these two groups, a further subdivision can be made to differentiate among
the various types or forms of pigs:
 Solid cast pigs, which are molded in one piece, usually from polyurethane
Figure 7.4 - Solid cast pigs

 Spherical pigs or spheres, which are of either a solid composition or inflated to
their optimum diameter with glycol and/or water, see Fig.(7.5).
Figure 7.5 - Spherical pigs

 Foam pigs, which are molded from the polyurethane foam with various
configurations of solid polyurethane strips and/or abrasive materials permanently
bonded to them, , see Fig.(7.6).
Figure 7.6 - Foam pigs
145
 Mandrel pigs, which have a central body tube, or mandrel, and various
components which can be assembled onto the mandrel to configure a pig for a
specific duty, see Fig.(7.7).
Figure 7.7 - Mandrel pigs

Dewatering of gas pipeline is done by using series of pigs as shown below. Fresh water
is introduced between the pigs for separation. Finally, the last pig is driven by compressed
air to displace all the water. , see Fig.(7.8).
Figure 7.8 - Dewatering of gas pipeline

2- Inline Inspection (ILI) Tools / Smart Pig
A geometry/caliper pig is a configuration pig designed to record conditions, such as dents,
wrinkles, ovality, bend radius and angle, and occasionally indications of significant
internal corrosion by making measurements of the inside surface of the pipe, , see
Fig.(7.9).
Figure 7.9 - Inline Inspection (ILI)

In Line Inspection (ILI) Tool provides information on the condition of the pipe and/or its
contents. With few exceptions, the in Line Inspection Tool itself is simply the tool which
gathers the data, which is then analyzed by the engineers and technicians to determine
and report on the condition of the line.
146
Although the two most common requirements are for geometry/diameter measurement
and for metal-loss/corrosion devices, the information which can be provided by these
intelligent pigs covers a much wider range of inspection and troubleshooting needs which
include:
 Diameter / geometry measurements
 Curvature monitoring
 Pipeline profile
 Temperature / pressure recording
 Bend measurement
 Metal-loss / corrosion detection
 Photographic inspection
 Crack detection
 Wax deposition measurement
 Leak detection
 Product sampling
 Mapping
3- Gel Pig
Figure 7.9 - Gel Pig

As a liquid, although highly viscous, the gel can be pumped through any line which will
accept liquids. Gel pigs can be used alone (in liquid lines), in place of batching pigs or
in conjunction with various types of conventional pigs. When used with conventional pigs,
gelled pigs can improve overall performance while almost eliminating the risk of sticking
a pig. Gel pigs do not wear out in service like conventional pigs. They can, however, be
susceptible to dilution and gas cutting. Care must be taken, therefore, when designing a
pig train that incorporates gel pigs to minimize fluid bypass of the pigs and to place a
conventional pig at the back of the train when displacing with the gas.
147
PLUGS
A plug is a specialist pig that can be used to isolate a section of pipeline at pressure while
some remedial work is undertaken. see Fig.(7.10).
Figure 7.10 - Plugs

The plugs can withstand pressures up to 200 bars typically. The plug works by gripping
into the line and then having a separate sealing system. Lower pressure techniques
include High Friction pigs, which provide a barrier for depressurized systems.
The type of pig to be used and its optimum configuration for a particular task in a particular
pipeline should be determined based upon several criteria, which include the following:
1-The purpose of the pig run
2-The line contents
3-Characteristics of the pipeline
Generally, for cleaning pigs, the cleaning force applied is the mechanical force between
the pipe inner wall and the cleaning pig itself. This force is determined by the pig travel
speed as well as by the hardness and shape of the cleaning edge: The faster the pig, the
higher the cleaning impact on the deposits but at the same time only the surface of debris
is scratched away. Therefore, several, sometimes quite many, pig runs are required to
clean a pipeline.
All Pigs (scrappers) – regardless of style – are 1% to 5% oversize (i.e. larger than the
internal pipe diameter). Because without oversize, it cannot do the job intended and a
large amount of bypass will occur.
Another kind of pig is a soft, bullet shaped polyurethane foam plug that is forced through
pipelines to separate products to reduce mixing.
148
Figure 7.11 - Soft Bullet Shaped Pigs

There are several types of pigs for cleaning. Some have tungsten studs or abrasive wire
mesh on the outside to cut rust, scale, or paraffin wax deposits off the inside of the pipe.
Others are plain plastic covered polyurethane.
Figure 7.12 - Cleaning Pigs

Inline inspection pigs use various methods for inspecting a pipeline. A sizing pig uses one
(or more) notched round metal plates that are used as gauges. The notches allow different
parts of the plate to bend when a bore restriction is encountered. More complex systems
exist for inspecting various aspects of the pipeline. Intelligent pigs, also called smart pigs,
are used to inspect the pipeline with sensor sand record the data for later analysis. These
pigs use technologies such as MFL and ultrasonic to inspect the pipeline. Intelligent pigs
may also use calipers to measure the inside geometry of the pipeline.
149
Figure 7.13 - Smart Pig

In 1961, the first intelligent pig was run by Shell Development. It demonstrated that a self-
contained electronic instrument could traverse a pipe line while measuring and recording
wall thickness. The instrument used electromagnetic fields to sense wall integrity. In 1964
Tuboscope ran the first commercial instrument. It used Magnetic Flux Leakage (MFL)
technology to inspect the bottom portion of the pipeline. The system used a black box
similar to those used on aircraft to record the information, basically a highly customized
analog tape recorder. As the capacity and reliability of solid-state memory improved, most
recording media moved away from tape to solid state.
7.5 PIG LAUNCHERS & RECEIVERS

Pig Launchers and Receivers facilitate Pigging of process pipelines. A Launcher is
located at the upstream end of the pipeline to launch the Pig or Pipeline Inspection Gauge,
into the pipeline. A Receiver is located at the downstream end of the pipeline to remove
the Pig from the pipeline.
Barred Tees are used in a pipeline Launcher/Receiver system and at any branch in the
pipeline to ensure safe passage of the Pig. Custom fitted bar sections are welded to the
branch of the Tee. These bars ensure that the Pig passes in the main pipeline and not in
the branch. Bar spacing is designed to prevent damage to the functional elements of the
Pig.
150
Figure 7.14 - pig launchers & receivers

A schematic shown below gives details of well head flow line and a pig launcher.
Swab Valve
SSV
Choke Valve
Upper master
Valve
Lower master Valve
PT TT
FT
Flowlineto
RGMS
To Drain Pit PIG Launcher Barred Tee
Figure 7.15 - Wellhead Flowline and Pig Launcher schematic

Pig launchers/receivers are essentially pressure vessels used for launching/receiving of
a pig or a pig tool into the pipeline for cleaning or inspection purpose. After being launched
into the pipeline, the pig tool is pushed through the pipeline by a driving fluid. The pipeline
is cleaned along the way by brushing action from the pig.
151
On the other end the pig tool is received by a pig receiver. Pig receiver is also a vessel
used for receiving the pig tool. Pig launchers and receivers are designed to meet the
specific requirements of the pipeline.
Pig traps can be of horizontal, vertical or inclined type. For ease of operation, horizontal
pig traps are preferred. When space constraints become critical, vertical or inclined pig
traps are installed instead of horizontal.
The schematic shown here (Fig.7.16) is for a horizontal pig launcher. A horizontal pig
receiver would be almost identical to this schematic, except for the position and size of
certain nozzles such as drain, kicker line and Pressure Safety Valve nozzle.
Figure 7.16 - a horizontal pig launcher

For any pig trap, horizontal or vertical or inclined pig launcher/receiver, basic structure is
similar and consists of following:
 Major barrel which is larger than the pipeline size
 Minor barrel which matches with the pipeline size
 A reducer barrel connecting the major and minor barrels
 A quick opening door on the major barrel end of the pig trap
 Full bore ball valve on the minor barrel end of the pig trap
 Following nozzles – kicker line, relieving line (PSV), pressure gauges on minor and
major barrels, pig signaler on the minor barrel, purge connection, vent and drains
As a safety measure, quick opening door should be mechanically interlocked with
isolation valves on kicker line and main line, so that the door cannot be opened when pig
152
trap is still connected to these pressurized lines. This safety precaution can also be
accomplished by interlocking the door with vent or depressurizing line, so that the door
can be opened only when the pig trap is fully depressurized
A pig launcher is a device which uses a pressurized container to shoot a cleaning device
("pig") through the pipeline to perform a variety of functions including cleaning, monitoring
and maintaining of the pipe.
Pig launchers are installed whenever pipeline specifications call for routine cleaning or
monitoring of the interior pipe surface.
A pig receiver is a device that "catches" the cleaning device ("pig") after it has passed
through the pipeline. Figure 7.17.
Figure 7.17 - Pig Receiver
Figure 7.18 - Barred Tee

Barred tees, as shown in Fig.(7.18) are pipe fittings with two outlets to the connection to
the main line. Barred tees can either be extruded or fabricated and are used to connect
two pieces of pipe or fittings. Barred tees are installed in pipelines that are to be pigged.
The branch connection is provided with bars so that pig will not travel into the side branch.
153
It is a tee with several metal plates (called bars) that are welded at the branch opening of
the tee. The plates have the flat sides along a plane that is parallel to branch. This is to
allow the passage of the liquid into the branch but not the pig. The pig travels along the
run to the receiver.
These tees are used as branch fittings, on a piggable pipeline section. Even in a piggable
section, if the branch size is below 30% of the main line size, ordinary tees can be used.
7.6 PIGGING OPERATION

Pigging operation refers to maintenance practice for pipelines using ‘pipeline pigs’, for
cleaning or inspection of pipeline without stopping operation of the pipeline. Pipeline pigs
are capsule shaped objects which travel through the pipeline, cleaning the inner walls of
the pipeline by brushing action. Pigging usually means inspection and cleaning of the
pipeline. The pig is inserted into a pig launcher, which is essentially a vessel used to for
launching the pig into a pipeline by creating a pressure differential.
The following hazards and risks are typically linked to pigging operations:
 Exposure to high pressure hydrocarbon gas or condensate
 Physical exertion required to operate manual process valves or handling of the pig
 Potential loss of containment of hydrocarbons through leaking flanges or opened
valves
 Risk of igniting released hydrocarbon gas or condensate.
Precautions to be taken during pigging operations:
 Wear standard Personal Protective Equipment(PPE)
 All personnel should minimize their exposure to the open launcher barrel
 Never assume that a launcher barrel is depressurized, as pressure can
accumulate overtime
 Never attempt to open the barrel unless it is certain that it is at atmospheric
pressure
 Always check that the launcher barrel is completely depressurized before draining
to the drain/vent K.O.vessel
 Use a trolley to assist on the insertion or removal of the pig where possible
 Follow manual handling requirement to avoid injuries.
Preparation for pigging

The preparation steps are based on the equipment being already shutdown and
depressurized. For pig launcher, see figure (7.19) below for references to numbered
valves, pressure gauges and pig signals.
154
Figure 7.19 - Preparation for pigging

Pig Launcher
Complete the following before attempting to launch a pig:
 Check that the manual launcher valves V8 and V9 are closed.
 Check that vent valve V7 and globe valve V6, between the launcher valves V8 and
V9, are closed.
 Check that globe valve V1 and vent valves V2 and V5 on the launcher are closed.
 Check that integral double block valves V3 and globe valve V4 are closed.
 Check that drain valves V12, V13 and V14 on the launcher are closed.
 Check that the electro-magnetic pig signals ZI1 and ZI2 are installed and working
correctly with serviceable batteries.
 Request the personnel at the receiving end of the pipeline to confirm that the pig
signals are installed and working correctly with serviceable batteries.
 Inform the personnel at the other end of the pipeline that a pig is about to be
launched.
155
For pig receiver, see figure (7.20) below for references to numbered valves,
pressure gauges and pig signals. Complete the following to prepare for receiving
a pig:
 Check that drain valves V14, V15, V16 and V17 on the receiver are closed.
 Check that vent valves V1, V2, V3, V4 and V5 on the receiver are closed.
 Check that drain valves V9 and V10 between the receiver valves V11 and V12 are
closed.
 Check that globe valve V6 and double block valves V7 and V8 are closed.
 Check that valve V13 on the bypass line is opened.
 Check that the receiver valves V11 and V12 are closed.
 Check that the electro-magnetic pig signals ZI1 and ZI2 are installed and working
correctly with serviceable batteries.
Figure 7.20 - Pig Receiver

Typical procedure for pigging
Prior to launching a pig from launcher, complete the following valve line-up procedures at
pig receiving end of the pipeline to divert the production through pig receiver barrel via its
“kicker line”:
 Open the globe valve V6 and double block valves V7 and V8 in the receiver “kicker
line”.
156
 Open the receiver valves V11 andV12.

 Close the valve V13 on the bypass line.
Steps to be followed at pig launcher end
Complete the following steps to load and launch a pig from pig launcher. Refer above
figure for all references to numbered valves, pressure gauges and pig signals.
 Open the globe valve V1 and vent valves V2 and V5 on the launcher. Check that
pressure gauges PG1 and PG2 on the launcher barrel are indicating zero
pressure.
 Open the vent valve V7 and globe valve V6, between the launcher valves V8 and
V9. Check that pressure gauge PG3 between the launcher valves is also indicating
zero pressure.
 Confirm that the launcher is fully depressurized by opening a small vent valve on
the body of the launcher to atmosphere. Check that there is no sound of escaping
gas.
 Open the launcher door.
 Place the pig into the launcher barrel and push it as far forward as possible.
 Close the launcher door.
 Close the globe valve V1 and vent isolation valves V2 and V5 on the launcher.
 Close the vent valve V7 and globe valveV6.
 Pressurize the launcher barrel by opening integral double block valves V3 and
gradually opening globe valve V4 in the “kicker line”. Once the launcher is at the
same pressure as the export pipeline, close the valves V3 andV4.
 Open the launcher valves V8 and V9 at the downstream of the launcher.
 Open integral double block valves V3 and globe valve V4 in the launcher “kicker
line”.
 Close the launcher bypass valves V10 and V11. This will launch the pig into the
export line.
 Check that pig signals ZI1 and ZI2 indicate that the pig has left the launcher barrel.
 Open the launcher bypass valves V10 andV11.
 Close integral double block valves V3 and globe valve V4 in the “kicker line” to
return all flow to the by pass line.
 Close the launcher valves V8 andV9.
 Open valves V2 and V5 and gradually open globe valve V1 to depressurize the
launcher.
 Open vent valve V7 and globe valve V6 to depressurize the pipe spool between
valves V8 andV9.
 Close valves V1, V2, V5, V6 and V7 once the launcher is depressurized.
Pig launcher is then isolated once pigging operation is completed.
157
Steps to be followed at pig receiver end

Complete the following steps to receive a pig at pig receiver. Refer above figure for all
references to numbered valves, pressure gauges and pig signals:
 Once both pig signals ZI1 and ZI2 indicate that the pig has arrived in the receiver,
open valveV13.
 Close globe valve V6 and double block valves V7 and V8 in the receiver “kicker
line”.
 Close valve V12 at the upstream of the receiver.
 Open valves V2, V3 and V4 and gradually open globe valve V1 to depressurize
the receiver and the pipe spool between the receiver valves V11 andV12.
 Close valve V11 at the upstream of the receiver.
 Once pressure gauges PG1 and PG2 are showing that the receiver is completely
depressurized, open drain valves V9, V10, V14, V15, V16 and V17 to drain any
liquid from the launcher (and pipe spool between receiver valves) to the drain
system.
 Open valve V5 and the DN15 needle valve on the barrel end vent line to confirm
that the receiver is fully depressurized. Check that there is no sound of escaping
gas.
 Open the door on the receiver and retrieve the pig from the barrel.
 Remove the debris from the barrel in to collection drum or pan.
 Close and secure the receiver door.
 Close vent valves V1, V2, V3 andV4.
 Close drain valves V9, V10, V14, V15, V16 andV17.
Pig receiver is then isolated.

Typical Pigging Problems
The type of pig selected for use varies with what unwanted materials are required to be
removed from the pipelines. The pig selection is generally determined by corrosion
158
engineer and material selection is critical. If the wrong materials are used, normally two
unwanted situations can occur:
 The pig will swell up and stick in the pipeline
 The pig will disintegrate in the pipeline
Removal of either pig or pig particles can be difficult, costly and incur significant increase
in safety risks. With the advancement of pig construction technology, most companies
are using pigs that do not contain the steel mandrels. The important criteria to remember
is that the pigs used must be designed and manufactured of materials that are compatible
with the products being transported in the pipelines, such as sour gas or hydrocarbons.
7.7 SAFETY CONSIDERATIONS

Safety is a major concern to all companies and their employees that carry out pigging
operations. It is extremely important for anyone performing pigging operations to fully
understand the procedures required to do the job safely. There is also a serious
environmental concern associated with pigging operations in the event that hydrocarbon
spills occur or gases are released to the atmosphere other than through a proper liquid
knock out tank to a lighted flare stack.
In order to load or retrieve a pig it is critical that the pig barrels be properly isolated,
depressurized, drained and purged before they are opened. In the case of retrieving a
pig, it is essential to depressurize the barrel on both sides of the pig before opening.
Purging the barrels is normally done using sweet gas or in refineries an inert gas such as
nitrogen is used particularly where iron Sulphide are present and spontaneous
combustion of the iron Sulphide (Pyrophoric nature) can occur.
Today in a large number of pigging operations, pigs are launched and received by
operators who use only experience to confirm that the pig is travelling. They do this by
monitoring pressure differentials in the pipelines, knowing the velocities in the pipelines
to determine the time required for the pig to arrive at the receiving barrel and listening for
the pig to enter the receiver barrel. However, in more technically advanced systems the
pigs contain electronic signaling devices and an appropriate detection instrument can
confirm the exact location of the pig in the pipeline.
In large diameter pipelines with modern electronics, the receiving barrels are equipped
with interlocks that prevent the receiving barrels from being opened until instruments
confirm that the pig is in the barrel, the barrel isolation valve is closed and the barrel is
depressurized on both sides of the pig. At this stage a steel pin is retracted in the barrel
end cap, allowing the end cap to be removed to open the receiver and the pig to be taken
out.
159
Chapter 8
Start-Up and shut down of O&G process plant
160
CONTENTS
PROCESS & UTILITY START UP .............................................................................. 163
8.1 INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................. 163
8.2 POTENTIAL PROBLEMS DURING THE START-UP OPERATION .................... 164
8.3 STAFFING AND EQUIPMENT/MATERIALS REQUIREMENTS FOR PLANT
START-UP .................................................................................................................. 165
8.3.1 Staffing Requirements .................................................................................. 165
8.3.2 Typical Equipment and Material Requirements............................................. 165
8.4 GENERAL START-UP PREPARATION ............................................................... 166
8.4.1 Work Permits ................................................................................................ 166
8.4.2 Risk Assessment .......................................................................................... 167
8.2.3 Fire and Gas Detection ................................................................................. 167
8.4.4 Over- Rides ................................................................................................... 167
8.4.5 Start-Up Sequence for a New Plant .............................................................. 168
8.4.6 Record Keeping ........................................................................................ 169
8.5 MACHINERY START-UP OPERATION .......................................................... 169
8.5.1 Pumps ........................................................................................................... 169
8.5.2 Compressors................................................................................................. 172
8.5.3 Turbines and Turbo-expanders ..................................................................... 175
8.6 STATIC EQUIPMENT START-UP OPERATION ............................................... 177
8.6.1 Boilers ........................................................................................................... 177
8.6.2 Preparing a System that will contain Hydrocarbons for Start-Up .................. 179
8.6.3 Storage Tanks............................................................................................... 180
8.7 UTILITY START-UP OPERATION .................................................................... 181
8.7.1 Electrical Power ............................................................................................ 182
8.7.2 Water ............................................................................................................ 182
8.7.3 Compressed Air ............................................................................................ 183
8.7.4 Fuel Gas System .......................................................................................... 184
8.7.5 Drains and Flare System .............................................................................. 184
8.7.6 Diesel System ............................................................................................... 184
8.7.7 Steam system ............................................................................................... 184
8.8 PROCESS START-UP OPERATION ................................................................. 185
8.8.1 Process Systems Start-Up Operation ........................................................... 185
8.8.2 Start-Up Operating Sequence ....................................................................... 186
SHUT DOWN OPERATIONS FOR O&G PROCESS PLANT/EQUIPMENT .............. 191
8.9 INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................ 191
161
8.10 TYPES OF SHUTDOWN ................................................................................. 192

8.10.1 Shutdown for Production Reasons.............................................................. 192
8.10.2 Maintenance of Individual Equipment ......................................................... 192
8.10.3 Major Shutdowns of Plant and Equipment .................................................. 193
8.11 SHUTDOWN PLANNING ................................................................................ 194
8.11.1 Risk Assessment and Hazard Identification ................................................ 194
8.11.2 Permits to Work .......................................................................................... 194
8.11.3 Consents and Facilities for Disposal of Inventories..................................... 194
8.12 SHUT DOWN OPERATIONS PROCEDURES ................................................. 195
8.12.1 Normal Shut down Operation of Process and Utility Plant .......................... 195
8.12.2 Shut down for Maintenance of Individual Equipment .................................. 196
8.12.3 Major Shut - down of Process Equipment and Modules ............................. 196
8.12.4 Major Utilities System Shut-down ............................................................... 197
8.13 EQUIPMENT OR SECTION ISOLATION ........................................................ 197
8.13.1 Isolations ..................................................................................................... 197
8.13.2 Master Isolations ......................................................................................... 201
8.13.3 Electrical Isolations ..................................................................................... 201
EMERGENCY SHUTDOWN ....................................................................................... 206
8.14 INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................. 206
8.15 PURPOSE OF EMERGENCY SHUTDOWN (ESD) ............................................ 207
8.16 PROCESS SHUTDOWN SYSTEM ..................................................................... 208
8.17 INTERLOCKS ..................................................................................................... 212
8.18 ESD ACTIVATION ............................................................................................... 213
162
PROCESS & UTILITY START UP
8.1 INTRODUCTION
Process/Utility Start-Up Operation is a very important phase of the project overall

progress.
The first start-up of any plant is potentially the most hazardous time.
The activities described in this module emphasise that the start-up operation is
undertaken following supervisory instructions, and operating procedures.
Plant commissioning is the first of many start-ups. It is potentially the most hazardous and
there are always unknown factors.
More care and attention goes into the first start-up than into subsequent shutdowns and
start-ups.
Experience and expertise gained during the first start-up is used again by plant operators.
There are three types of plant start-up:

 Commissioning start-up following the construction stage of the plant
 Start-up after a short shut-down in normal operation
 Start-up after a long shut-down in normal operation
A short shut-down may be necessary to rectify some small problem on the plant, while a
long shut-down may be necessary for major repairs or for the statutory inspection of plant
equipment.
There are many similarities between the commissioning start-up and the start-up after a
long shut-down: for example, if the plant is to handle hydrocarbons it will have to be
purged in its entirety to reduce the oxygen concentration before the hydrocarbons can be
introduced. This would not normally be necessary after a short shut-down. The
commissioning start-up of any plant is potentially the most hazardous, as the plant, with
all its associated units, has never been run before: its ability to perform satisfactorily and
safely has yet to be proven and parts of it may malfunction.
It is essential that any start-up is performed following the operating procedures. Each
plant start-up and commissioning situation is different. Each plant must have its own
unique start-up and commissioning procedures developed, which take into account its
specific design, control philosophy, and the equipment being used.
The operating procedures represent best practice and by following them carefully, risks
to personnel, the environment, the plant and its equipment will be minimized.
The material in this module will mainly be concerned with the commissioning start-up.
163
8.2 POTENTIAL PROBLEMS DURING THE START-UP OPERATION

Plant start-up involves the following:
1. The introduction of process fluid to the plant
2. The start-up and initial operation
3. Trouble-shooting and problem correction
4. Taking the plant up to its design throughput
Problems can arise at plant start-up and are often due to:
1. Failure to check that equipment has been installed correctly
2. Failure to check that all items shown on the P&ID have been installed
3. Failure to remove blinds or install plugs
4. Failure to completely air-free all equipment, which is to contain hydrocarbons
5. Mechanical and thermal shock to equipment, especially piping, leading to leaks,
spills, fires, etc.
6. Failure to completely remove water from dry systems, or hot oil systems
7. Failure to check chemical systems and instrument loops
It has been estimated that the causes of delay at start-up can be attributed:
a. 75% due to equipment failure
b. 20% from inadequate equipment
c. 5% from process failure.
Considerable documentation is needed for a successful plant start-up. This

documentation includes:
1. P&IDs, PFDs, Cause and Effect Charts
2. Technical Manuals for the process and equipment
3. Equipment Data Sheets
4. Standard operating procedures for each system
5. Safety valve and rupture disc manual and the procedure for taking each item out
of service
6. Safety manual giving policies and procedures
7. Emergency response manual, giving emergency procedures and responses to
adverse conditions (e.g. weather)
8. Maintenance procedures specific to the plant
Remember that the three foundation stones of successful start-ups are:

 Planning, planning and more planning;
 Technical competence;
 Good leadership and direction.
164
8.3 STAFFING AND EQUIPMENT/MATERIALS REQUIREMENTS FOR PLANT

START-UP
8.3.1 Staffing Requirements
The start-up phase of a new project is more labor intensive than normal operation. It
requires personnel with specialist skills. These personnel may not be readily available at
the time of start-up, so their services must be booked in advance ready for the projected
start-up date.
A start-up organization chart, called an Organigram, is created. The start-up team should
include, not just those with specialist skills, as mentioned above, but those who will
eventually manage, operate and maintain the plant. In this way operational experience
gained at start-up will be carried through to the normal operation phase.
Start Up
Manager
Operations Maintenance HSE Technical
Figure 8.1 – Start-up Organigram
8.3.2 Typical Equipment and Material Requirements
1. Vehicles - buses, trucks, cars, cranes, forklift trucks

2. Tools - Hand tools, electrical meters, vibration meters, pneumatic
wrenches, specialist tools for major equipment
3. Spares – start-up spares for major equipment
4. Special equipment – mobile air compressors, mobile power generators,
portable pumps, lifting equipment
5. Personal protection equipment - including breathing apparatus
6. Consumables - chemicals, instrument and detector calibration gases,
nitrogen gas, oils, hydraulic fluids, cleaning fluids, debris strainer mesh,
hoses, hose fittings, gaskets, nuts, bolts
During the start-up phase, materials and equipment should be withdrawn from the
warehouse/stores only on presentation of the appropriate requisition form, so that stocks
can be controlled and maintained.
165
8.4 GENERAL START-UP PREPARATION
8.4.1 Work Permits
During preparation for a plant start-up and during the start-up itself, various jobs, which
require a Work Permit to be issued, will have to be done on the plant.
A Work Permit is issued and signed by an authorized person, but others may also be
required to sign it e.g. the person carrying out gas tests in a confined space before entry.
Those supervising the execution of the work receive the Work Permit. The Work Permit
controls that work activity. Permits, when issued, serve as an official written record of
conditions and requirements agreed upon by the issuer and receiver.
A Work Permit is required for:
1. Major & minor maintenance work
2. Inspection
3. Construction
4. Alterations
5. Process equipment cleaning
6. Entry into confined space
7. Excavation
8. Vehicle entry into hazardous areas, etc.
There are various kinds of Work Permit e.g.

A. Hot work
B. Cold work
C. Confined Space Entry
The Operations Work Permit System does not normally cover work performed by
construction personnel during the construction phase
The introduction and use of Work Permits during the completion of construction / start-up
phase of any project, can be confusing if definite rules and responsibilities are not
established.
The Operations Work Permit System should be introduced as soon as portions of the
plant, systems, or sub-systems, are being prepared for start-up.
All work within an operational area is controlled by the Work Permit system, and the
relevant type of permit must be issued for specific activities. The rule is that if a permit is
required to carry out the job during normal operations, it will also be required during start-
up preparations. It is the responsibility of the personnel who will perform the work to obtain
a Work Permit, prior to starting the job.
166
Preparations for start-up of a plant will involve work performed by start-up personnel while
the construction phase is still being completed. This can often lead to two different groups
of personnel working in the same locality, with the potential for serious accidents to occur.
It is the responsibility of the start-up operations group to ensure that conflicts between the
different work groups do not occur.
For example, controller loop checking and electrical work are potentially hazardous
activities and are areas where conflict might occur. If a conflict does occur, which cannot
be solved immediately, the existing work permits should be cancelled, the conflict
resolved, and new permits issued.
8.4.2 Risk Assessment
A risk assessment must be carried out before the application of any over-ride. An over-
ride should only be applied with the approval of the responsible person. If multiple over-
rides are involved another risk assessment must be carried out.
8.2.3 Fire and Gas Detection

F&G systems are inherently different to ESD systems by virtue of built-in redundancy,
voting logic etc. Make sure that any Fire and Gas over-rides do not compromise plant
safety. Accurate records of all current over-rides and risk assessments must be kept in
the Central Control Room.
8.4.4 Over- Rides

An over-ride is defined as the application of anything that prevents a protective device
from functioning
At plant start-up, whether initial start-up, or start-up after a shut-down in normal operation,
it is sometimes necessary to over-ride certain trips, which would otherwise prevent start-
up.
For example, an oil/gas separator is fitted with a low-low level switch, which, if it actuates,
will block-in the separator. At start-up there is zero level in the separator, so the low-low
switch will have actuated and closed the inlet shut-down valve, as well as the outlet
shutdown valves. It will therefore be impossible to feed well fluids into the separator. To
overcome this, so that start-up can proceed, an over-ride on the low-low switch is fitted.
The over-ride allows the inlet shut-down valve to open, even though there is zero level in
the separator. There are several types of override:
 ESD
 Fire & Gas
 Control/Trip Systems
These over-rides may operate through the software of the DCS or Fire & Gas systems,
or may be achieved through hardwired components such as key-switches, or through
some form of mechanical system.
167
Mechanical over-rides must be carried out using the Work Permit System and
countersigned by the approval authority for over-rides.
It is good practice to maintain an “over-ride register”, which provides an historical record
of all types of over-rides employed. Temporary over-rides should be highlighted and this
information included as part of every shift handover.
8.4.5 Start-Up Sequence for a New Plant

To sequence events, means to place them in a specific order.
A plan must be produced to show the order in which the new plant units will be
commissioned at the end of construction. Commissioning Engineers must have an input
into the design, layout and overall construction schedule of a new plant at an early stage
in its development. This is to ensure that facilities will be completed in the correct order
and that their layout will permit the commissioning of individual sections separately. The
usual procedure is that the utilities are completed before the process units and are
commissioned first.
Consider the simplified process system shown below:
Figure 8.2 - Simplified Plant

The commissioning plan for this plant might be:
 Start-up and operation of all utilities while the process units are still in the final
stages of construction.
 Start-up of Units 1 and 2, using the utilities, while other units are still being finished
off.
 Start-up of Units 3 and 4, bringing the whole facility into production.
This plan would require, for instance, that:
168
 The utilities are located in a distinctive area, which is far enough away from the
process units to permit operation of the utilities while construction is still taking
place in other areas.
 Units 1 and 2 need to be separated from Units 3 and 4, so that Units 1 and 2 can
be operated while Units 3 and 4 are still being finished off.
 The distribution of steam, electricity, instrument air, nitrogen, cooling water, etc
must be such that it can be provided to Units 1 and 2, without affecting
construction work on Units 3 and 4.
8.4.6 Record Keeping
1- Log Books
During the pre-start-up and start-up periods, a log book should be maintained to record
events and their timings. The log books should be completed on a shift basis and record
all commissioning events, production rates (when applicable), shut-downs, equipment
change-overs and failures.
2- Machinery Data
During the initial running and proving of individual items of equipment such as:
1. pumps
2. compressors
3. gas turbines
4. boilers
Data must be recorded for historical “benchmarking”. The data will be used to compare
running data obtained later in the life of the equipment, to determine if the performance
has deteriorated with time.
8.5 MACHINERY START-UP OPERATION
8.5.1 Pumps
Pump Pre-Start-Up Operations and Checks
It is assumed that the following mechanical checks have been carried out:
a. That the suction and discharge piping are properly supported and are not imposing
stresses on the pump
b. The pump/driver alignment has been checked and is satisfactory. If the pump is to
operate at high temperature, the alignment will have to be rechecked once working
temperature has been reached (obviously the pump will have to be shut down for
this procedure to be carried out)
169
c. That the mechanical seal has been correctly installed
 The technical manuals and instructions supplied by the pump manufacturer, as

well as those from the driver and auxiliary equipment suppliers should be
thoroughly read to appreciate the specific requirements of the equipment
 Confirm that all valves shown on the P&ID, including check valves and foot valves,
are installed suitably for the direction of flow. Valves usually have an arrow cast
on the outer surface of the body to indicate the direction flow. Check that all
manual valves are operable. In addition, check that pressure relief valves are
installed correctly
 Check that all piping and instrumentation associated with the pump that is shown
on the P&ID is installed and complete
 Check that all instrumentation has been installed and calibrated
 If the pump is not fitted with a suction strainer, a temporary strainer should be
fitted to prevent constructional debris entering it and causing damage
 Positive displacement pumps will have a pressure relief valve installed on the
discharge piping upstream of the first block valve to return the liquid back to the
feed tank, or pump suction, if the pump is started and the first pipeline block valve
left closed. Confirm that this has been set to the specified operating pressure
 If the pump driver is an electric motor, check it is rotating in the correct direction
for the pump. The pump will have an arrow, usually cast into its surface, or on an
indication plate riveted to the body, to indicate the required direction of rotation.
To carry out a check of the direction of rotation of the driver, the pump should be
disconnected from the driver and the motor momentarily started then stopped. If
the direction is incorrect, it can be changed by reversing the connections of two
of the three electrical conductors supplying the motor. The driver/pump coupling
should be reconnected once the direction of rotation is confirmed as being correct
 Rotating machinery always has some form of lubrication for its bearings. This may
be permanently grease packed sealed ball bearings, or a system involving a
separate lubricating oil pump complete with cooler, filter and instrumentation. If
the pumped system is used, it should be flushed-out and cleaned after
construction before being filled with the correct lubricant. A temporary strainer
should be fitted upstream of each bearing to remove any residual construction
debris remaining in the system after cleaning
 Oil filled equipment, such as a gearbox, that has been in storage may require
draining, flushing out and refilling with the correct grade of fresh lubricant before
being used on the plant
 Constant level oilers should be filled to their mark with clean, fresh lubricant of the
correct grade. Some flexible couplings are grease lubricated, which should be
170
checked. Most electric motors have grease lubricated bearings that should be
checked as well
 It is desirable to attempt to turn a pump over by hand before the initial start-up.
The pump should turn smoothly with little effort being required. If this is not the
case, the pump may need to be dismantled to determine the cause of the problem
 Pumps must be checked by both operations and maintenance personnel prior to
start-up
It is advisable to use a checklist prior to starting a pump for the first time to ensure that
no checks are overlooked. A check list for a rotary pump is shown below.
Figure 8.3 - Rotary Pump Start-Up Check List
171
Pump Start-Up Operation

Be sure electric power, steam, cooling water, hot oil, instrumentation, power, air or any
other necessary auxiliary resources are available before start-up
If the pump is to handle hot liquid, pre-heat it as necessary so it is not exposed to thermal
shock when hot liquid reaches the pump at ambient temperature. Rotary pumps may be
more sensitive to thermal shock than centrifugal pumps because of their close internal
running clearances.
Open the suction valve and any other valve on the feed line in order to fill the pump with
the liquid. Vent air or gas from the pump casing using the vent valve. Close the vent valve
when liquid is seen emerging.
Small centrifugal pumps can be started with the discharge valve closed to limit the starting
load on the motor, but once the pump has been started, the discharge valve should be
opened as soon as possible. Large centrifugal pumps and rotary pumps are started with
the discharge valve and the recycle valves open. Once the pump is running the recycle
valve should be closed, but watch the current taken by the electric motor and do not
exceed the maximum current stated on the motor nameplate.
During operation, check:
 Suction pressure
 Discharge pressure
 Electric motor current
 Pump/driver vibration
 Bearing temperatures
 The operation of any auxiliary systems e.g. lube oil
 Position of standby pumps (i.e. valves lined up, pump primed, automatic standby
selected)
8.5.2 Compressors
Compressor Pre Start-Up Operations and Checks
It is assumed that the following mechanical checks have been carried out:
 that the suction, discharge and inter-stage piping are properly supported and are not
imposing stresses on the compressor.
 the compressor/driver alignment has been checked and is satisfactory.
 The technical manuals and instructions supplied by the compressor manufacturer, as
well as those from the driver and auxiliary equipment suppliers should be thoroughly
read to appreciate the specific requirements of the equipment
 Confirm that all piping, valves, instrumentation and other fittings, as indicated on the
P&ID, are in place and correctly fitted
172
 Confirm that all instrumentation has been calibrated and commissioned

 If the compressor driver is an electric motor, check it is rotating in the correct direction
for the compressor. To carry out a check of the direction of rotation of the motor, the
compressor should be disconnected from the motor and the motor momentarily
started then stopped. If the direction is incorrect, it can be changed by reversing the
connections of two of the three electrical conductors supplying the motor. The
driver/compressor coupling should be reconnected once the direction of rotation is
confirmed as being correct
 If the compressor driver is a gas, or steam turbine, an indication of the start-up
procedure is given in the next section
 Oil filled equipment, such as a gearbox, that has been in storage may require
draining, flushing out and refilling with the correct grade of fresh lubricant before
being used on the plant
 Suction and discharge piping for each stage has to be thoroughly cleaned before the
compressor is put on-line. This is usually done by blowing through with steam or air
at a velocity much greater than that which will be experienced in normal operation.
Mesh strainers are fitted immediately upstream of each casing of the compressor.
 All lubricating oil equipment and lines must be thoroughly cleaned before the
lubricating oil is fed into the system. This is usually done by disconnecting the oil feed
lines to the machine and fitting by-passes, which connect to the return oil lines.
Temporary fine-mesh filters should be installed upstream of the oil tank and flushing
oil circulated at the maximum possible flowrate around the system for a period of
time. It is usual practice to heat the oil using the oil tank heater, so that its viscosity
is reduced during this flushing period. At the end of several hours, the circulation is
stopped and the temporary filters removed and inspected. If they are dirty they are
cleaned and replaced. Circulation is then continued for several more hours and the
strainers inspected again. This process is repeated until either, the strainers are
found to be clean on inspection, or the Vendor’s representative gives clearance to
proceed. At this point the oil tank is drained, the temporary strainers are removed,
main oil filters are cleaned and the tank refilled with the correct grade of oil.
Temporary strainers are usually fitted upstream of all bearings during initial
operation.
 Check that the shaft sealing system on a centrifugal compressor is operational. This
system may involve oil or it may involve dry gas seals. Check that the inter-stage
coolers, inter-stage scrubbers (separators) are in place and fully operational
 If the driver is an electric motor with an inert gas pressurised casing, check that the
inert gas system is operating
173
Compressor Start-Up Operation
The oil pump in most compressors is driven directly by the compressor shaft. Clearly,
before start-up, this pump will not be operating, so oil must be circulated around the
system using the auxiliary pump, which is electrically driven. Once the compressor is
running and the oil pressure is high enough, the auxiliary pump will be shut-down
automatically and the main oil pump will continue alone to supply the lubricating oil to the
system. Start the auxiliary oil pump and check the lubrication system pressures
A compressor, whether reciprocating or centrifugal, is started with the recycle valve open
to limit the load on the driver.
Check that gas is available and that the user of the gas is ready to receive it. Open the
suction valve.
Open the discharge valve and start the driver. When the compressor has reached normal
operating speed, close the recycle valve slowly.
Check that operating conditions are not such that the compressor, if centrifugal, enters
the surge region. The machine will make a loud and characteristic noise when in surge.
Surge is a very dangerous condition for a centrifugal compressor and will rapidly cause
severe damage to the machine. Anti-surge control equipment will be fitted and should
prevent this happening, but if the control equipment fails to operate, the machine must be
shut down manually without delay.
Check the following operating parameters
 Suction pressure
 Speed of rotation (if turbine driven)
 Inlet flowrate
 Inter-stage and discharge pressures
 Recycle flowrate
 Recycle valve position
 Bearing temperatures
 Lube/seal oil temperature
 Lube/seal oil pressure
 Differential pressure across lube/seal oil filters
 Vibration
 Shaft axial displacement
 Outlet temperatures on inter-stage coolers and after-coolers
 Cooling water flows to inter-stage coolers and after-coolers, or the operation of
cooling fans if air coolers are fitted.
 Levels in suction scrubbers.
174
The machine will be protected by various devices, which will cause the machine to trip if
certain preset values are exceeded. Typically, these trips will be:
 Low lube oil pressure
 Low seal oil differential pressure
 High vibration (2of3 voting)
 Over-speed (if turbine driven)
 High shaft axial displacement (2of3 voting)
 High level in a suction scrubber.
8.5.3 Turbines and Turbo-expanders

Most turbines used in the petro-chemical and refining industries are either steam or gas
turbines. The objective of a steam or gas turbine is to produce power. A turbo-expander
is similar to a gas turbine, but its objective, other than producing power as a pressurized
gas flows through it, is to cause the gas to cool
Turbine Pre-Start-Up Operations and Checks
 All the checks on pipework, valves, fittings, instrumentation and other equipment
outlined in the section above on compressors must be carried out for the turbine
 The technical manuals and instructions supplied by the turbine manufacturer, as well
as those from the auxiliary equipment suppliers should be thoroughly read to
appreciate the specific requirements of the equipment
 The turbine lubrication system is usually connected to the compressor lubrication
system and should be cleaned at the same time. If this is not the case, the cleaning
procedure to be adopted is the same as that outlined for a compressor
 Clearly, the steam turbine requires steam to operate it, so the steam system will have
to be commissioned before the steam turbine. The gas turbine may use a liquid fuel,
but most commonly in the oil and gas industries, gas is used. The fuel gas system will
have to be commissioned before the gas turbine can be operated
 With a steam turbine check that all casing drain valves and the inlet steam chest drain
valves are operable
 With a gas turbine check that that the start-up device and ignition system is ready to
start
 With a steam turbine, check that either the condenser is ready to operate, or if there
are users of the low pressure steam leaving the machine, that they are ready to
receive the steam
 With a gas turbine, the hot exhaust gas may be passed through a waste heat boiler
before flowing to atmosphere. If this is the case, check that the boiler is ready to
operate and that there are users for the steam produced
175
Turbine Start-Up Operation
 Start the auxiliary oil pump (electrically operated) and circulate oil around the system.
Check the oil pressure.
 If a steam turbine is being used, the steam feed line and the turbine itself must be
warmed up thoroughly before any attempt is made to start the machine. To do this,
steam is passed through the equipment at a low rate and any condensate formed
drained off. If this step is not carried out, damage to the machine may result due to the
impingement of high speed water droplets on the blades.
 When the machine is warm, close down the drain valves so that they are just a few
turns open and increase the steam pressure and flow rate to the machine. The turbine
shaft will start to turn. Slowly increase the steam pressure to increase the speed in line
with the manufacturer’s instructions. Usually a graph of the turbine speed against time
is provided to allow the speed to be brought up at a rate to suitable to ensure thorough
and uniform heating of the machine as the steam temperature increases.
 As the steam pressure and temperature rise and condensate is no longer a problem,
the casing drain valves can be fully closed.
 If a gas turbine is to be used, operate the starting device and rotate the machine for
the specified period at low speed in order for air to flow through and purge combustible
gases from the combustion chamber(s).
 Introduce fuel and operate the igniter. Start to increase the fuel flow-rate to raise the
speed of the machine. This must be done slowly so that the rate of rise of temperature
in the machine is not greater than that allowed by the manufacturer.
 During the run-up to working speed check the machine for excessive vibration or noise.
At working speed, check the normal operating parameters:
- Steam pressure and temperature in inlet chest
- Steam pressure at turbine outlet
- Speed of rotation
- Fuel gas pressure (gas turbine)
- Combustion chamber temperature (gas turbine)
- Exhaust gas temperature (gas turbine)
- Bearing temperatures
- Lube oil temperature
- Lube oil pressure
- Differential pressure across lube oil filters
- Vibration
- Shaft axial displacement
176
8.6 STATIC EQUIPMENT START-UP OPERATION
8.6.1 Boilers
Boiler Pre-Start-Up Operations and Checks.
It will be assumed that the boiler is a forced circulation water tube unit.
 Carefully read the boiler manufacturer’s technical data and instruction sheets for the
boiler as well as that of the auxiliary equipment manufacturers
 Check that all piping, valves, instrumentation and other equipment and fittings shown
on the P&ID are in place and correctly fitted
 Check that the steam main has been commissioned and that the users are ready to
receive steam
 Check all thermal insulation is in place
 Check that the boiler feed pumps and circulation pumps are ready to operate
 Check that the treated water plant is operable and capable of producing boiler feed
water of the correct quality
 Check that the water deaeration system is operable
 Check that the boiler water chemical dosing pumps are operable and sufficient
supplies of chemicals are available
 Check that the boiler water sample cooler is operational
 Check that pipework, valves and instrumentation associated with the economiser (if
fitted) are in place
 Check that the fuel burners are in place and that the fuel supply system has been
commissioned
 Check that any refractory material necessary in the combustion chamber is in place
by viewing through an inspection port
 Check that pipework, valves and instrumentation associated with the combustion air
pre-heater (if fitted) are in place
 Check all combustion air dampers (valves) and exhaust gas dampers are operable
 Check that the combustion air fans are ready to operate
 Check that the exhaust gas fans (if fitted) are ready to operate
Boiler Start-Up Operation
 Close all boiler drain and blow-down valves

 Open the steam drum vent valve
 Start one of the boiler feed pumps and slowly feed water into the boiler. Continue
until the water is just below the normal working level in the steam drum as indicated
on the level gauge then stop the feed pump. Ideally, the feed water temperature
177
should be the same as the metal of the boiler. Note, space must be left in the drum
for the water to expand as it is heated.
 Blow-down the level gauge and observe the return of liquid to ensure that the gauge
is clear and functioning properly.
 Start the boiler water circulation pump.
 Start the combustion air fan and run it in order to purge any combustible gases from
the combustion chamber. The boiler manufacturer will specify how long this process
should take
 Start the exhaust gas fan, if fitted, and control the pressure in the combustion
chamber to the specified value
 Start to fire the boiler, but do this at a low rate to avoid cracking the refractory
insulation inside the boiler and/or thermally overstressing the tubes and drums due
to non-uniform temperatures. The boiler manufacturer will specify the maximum
allowable rate of temperature rise.
 When the water reaches the boiling point, steam will be produced, which should
initially be vented through the steam drum vent valve in order to remove air from the
system. At a steam drum pressure of about 1barg close the vent valve
 Check that all instrumentation is working
 Start the boiler feed pump and feed more water into the boiler to maintain the level
in the steam drum
 Start to dose chemicals into the boiler
 When the steam pressure has reached the desired value slowly open the boiler
steam outlet valve to the steam main and users.
 When the boiler is operating steadily take a sample of water from the steam drum.
Note, exercise caution during this operation and wear the specified PPE. A sample
cooler is normally provided, make sure that this is operating, otherwise some of the
very hot water will flash to steam as the sample leaves the boiler
 Have the sample analysed for dissolved oxygen concentration, total dissolved solids
concentration (TDS) and concentration of corrosion inhibitor
 Adjust the chemical dosing pumps to give the desired corrosion inhibitor
concentration and a zero concentration of dissolved oxygen.
 Adjust the continuous blow-down valve to control the TDS in the boiler water to the
desired value
 Adjust the combustion air flow dependent on the CO2 and oxygen concentrations in
the exhaust gas from the boiler.
 Check the combustion process by observation through an inspection port
178
Figure 8.4 – Boiler
8.6.2 Preparing a System that will contain Hydrocarbons for Start-Up

Before vessels, equipment and pipework that will handle hydrocarbons can be placed in
service after construction, or intrusive maintenance, two important safety procedures
must be carried out:
 The vessel or equipment must be pressure tested to ensure that there are no leaks.
 Air must be purged out of the system to prevent the formation of combustible
mixtures when hydrocarbons are introduced.
There are two ways that air can be purged from a system:
1. Displace the air, with its 20.8% oxygen, by sweeping the vessels/ equipment/ pipework
with a constant flow of nitrogen gas until the oxygen content is below 2% by vol.
2. Pressure-Cycle the systems with nitrogen gas until the oxygen content is below 2%
by vol. In this method the plant is pressurised with nitrogen, then depressurised to
flare. This procedure is repeated a number of times until the gas being vented has an
oxygen concentration of less than 2%.
179
Prior to purging the system with nitrogen, it is usual to pressurize the plant to about 4barg
with compressed air, then carrying out a leak test at each flange or joint using soap
solution. To carry out this leak test, masking tape is stuck around each flanged joint and
a hole made in the tape at the top. Soap solution is squirted into the hole from a plastic
bottle and if there is a leak, the soap solution will produce bubbles. Carrying out the leak
test first, then rectifying the leaks, saves valuable nitrogen which otherwise would have
to be vented to allow the leak to be rectified.
Having tightened up the bolts on the leaking flanges, or replaced the gaskets, the plant is
re-pressurized with compressed air to confirm that all the leaks have been rectified. It is
then depressurized and the air it contains replaced by nitrogen. Once the oxygen content
of the gas in the plant is 2% by volume or less, hydrocarbons can be introduced. Initially,
the process gas passing through the plant would be vented to the flare, because it would
be rich in nitrogen, but after a short time the vent would be closed and the plant pressure
steadily increased to the working value.
8.6.3 Storage Tanks

Two types of storage tank are in common use:
a. Fixed roof tanks for materials of relatively low volatility
b. Floating roof tanks for materials of relatively high volatility
Fixed Roof Tanks Pre Start-Up Operations and Checks
 Check that the bund wall around the tank(s) is of the specified height
 Check that the bunded area sump pumps are in place and operational
 Check all tank equipment shown on the P&ID and tank data sheets is in place
 Check all pipework, valves and instrumentation shown on the P&ID are in place and
operational
 Check that the vent pipe on the roof is free
 Check that the inside of the tank is free from constructional debris
 Check that the inert gas injection system, if fitted, is operational
 Check that a vacuum breaker, if fitted, is correctly installed
 Check that tank heaters, if fitted, are in place and operational
 Check that if the tank is thermally insulated, all the insulation has been installed
 Check that all inspection manhole doors are in place and tightened up
 Check that the tank and the incoming and outgoing pipework is electrically earthed
 Check that any pumps associated with the tank are operational
 Check that adequate access and hand railing has been provided to the top of the tank
so that dips and sampling can be carried out safely
180
Floating Roof Tanks Pre Start-Up Operations and Checks
 Check that the bund wall around the tank(s) is of the specified height
 Check that the bunded area sump pumps are in place and operational
 Check all tank equipment shown on the P&ID and tank data sheets is in place
 Check all pipework, valves and instrumentation shown on the P&ID are in place
and operational
 Check that the inside of the tank is free from constructional debris
 Check that the roof support legs are all in place
 Check that tank heaters, if fitted, are in place and operational
 Check that if the tank is thermally insulated, all the insulation has been installed
 Check that the seal between the floating roof and the wall of the tank has been
fitted correctly
 Check that all inspection manhole doors are in place and tightened up
 Check that the tank and the incoming and outgoing pipework is electrically earthed
 Check that any pumps associated with the tank are operational
 Check that adequate access and hand railing has been provided to the top of the
tank and that access to the tank roof from the top of the tank is in place and free
to move
Storage Tank Start-Up.
 Check that the tank outlet is closed

 Start to feed liquid into the tank and check for leaks as the level rises
 Check level indication equipment by carrying out physical dips or ullage
measurements
 Check that the level does not rise to a point at which the tank overflows
8.7 UTILITY START-UP OPERATION

The Utilities are provided to support the process units by supplying the following
services:
1. Electrical power
2. Potable water, plant water, cooling water, demineralised water
3. Instrument and plant air
4. Fuel gas
5. Drains and flare systems
6. Diesel oil
7. Steam
181
Utilities are usually brought on line at a time determined by the requirements of the
process. The order that each of the utilities units will be brought on line is decided at the
start-up planning stage. Very similar checks are carried out when bringing a utility plant
on-line as are carried out for a process plant.
8.7.1 Electrical Power

A typical start-up plan will give priority to the production of electrical power. This can be
from an outside supply, or from generators within the plant utility unit. If the electrical
power is supplied from outside the complex, it is necessary to start-up the electrical
distribution systems sequentially, starting with the high voltage system, then the medium
voltage, and low voltage systems.
8.7.2 Water
There are several types of water used on a process plant.
Potable Water
Potable water is water that is fit for human consumption. Water, which has already been
purified by desalination or de-ionization, is first treated to give it a taste by adding mineral
salts, then chemicals e.g. chlorine or sodium hypochlorite solution, are injected to kill
bacteria and viruses. Holding tanks are provided downstream of the chlorine injection
point to provide sufficient residence time for the chlorine to do its work. An activated
carbon adsorption unit is often employed to remove unpleasant tastes, smells or coloring
agents from the water. Quite often, as a final treatment, the water is exposed to strong
ultra-violet radiation inside special equipment in order to kill any residual bacteria or
viruses. The water produced initially, should be discarded until laboratory tests show that
it is of the required quality for human consumption. Prior to start-up check that:
 purified water is available
 all water treatment equipment and storage tanks have been scrupulously cleaned.
 all chemical injection pumps are operational.
 all treatment chemicals are available on site
 analytical equipment has been calibrated and is operational.
Plant Water
Plant/service water is typically required for hose stations, wash down water or for vessel
flushing
The treatment that water destined to be plant water receives will depend on the source of
the water. Borehole water is typically filtered, and sterilized using an ultra-violet radiation
system, as described above.Prior to start-up,
182
 check that all pumps and filters are in place and that storage tanks are clean and
ready to receive the water
Cooling Water
Cooling water is produced in a similar way to plant water, except that corrosion inhibitors
are added to minimize corrosion of carbon steel equipment and biocide is injected to
prevent the buildup of algae on heat transfer surfaces.
Prior to start-up check that:
 the cooling water circuit around the process plant is complete.
 all cooling water circulation pumps are in place and operational.
 all chemical injection systems are in place and operational.
 sufficient treatment chemicals exist on site.
 the cooling tower is complete and that the fans are operational.
Demineralized Water
Demineralized water is very pure water that is normally used as boiler feed water. It is
produced using an ion exchange process. Desalinated water is also very pure, but usually
not quite so pure as that produced by deionization.
 all ion exchange vessels have been filled with the correct ion exchange resin and that
each vessel contains the specified depth of resin bed
 all equipment, pipework, valves and instrumentation shown on the P&ID are in place
 all instruments have been calibrated and are commissioned
 any pumps associated with the ion exchange system are operational
 any automatic control equipment fitted is working correctly
 demineralised water storage tanks are clean and ready to receive the water
 ion exchange resin regeneration chemicals are available on site.
8.7.3 Compressed Air

The compressed air system provides a dried and filtered air supply to the instrument air
header, plant air header, and the inert gas generator.
A typical system will comprise two 100% air compression packages. Normally these
machines operate on a one duty and one standby basis, however the standby compressor
operates during periods of peak demand for inert gas and/or plant air.
An air dryer package typically consists of two 100% duty and standby dryer sets. Each
set matches the capacity of one compressor and has two dryer vessels to allow for one
183
on dryer duty, and one on regeneration. In periods when both compressors are running,
both dryer sets are required for duty.
 all pipework, valves, other equipment and instrumentation shown on the P&ID is in
place.
 power is available to drive the compressors
 the compressed air coolers are operational
 the air dryers have been filled with desiccant
8.7.4 Fuel Gas System

The fuel gas system provides fuel gas to users such as gas turbines, the flare pilots and
fired heaters. Prior to start-up check that:
place
 liquid hydrocarbon removal systems are operational
8.7.5 Drains and Flare System

 the entire drains system is in place and connected to the appropriate equipment
 the oily water treatment system is operational
 the flare condensate knock-out drum is in place and the associated pumps and liquid
receiving system are operational
 fuel gas is available for the flare pilot lights
 the pilot light ignition system is operational.
8.7.6 Diesel System

Prior to start-up, check that:
place
 the diesel day tanks are clean
8.7.7 Steam system

184
 the steam mains are complete, fully insulated and the steam users ready to receive
steam
 all instrumentation, pressure reducing valves, manual valves and other equipment
shown on the P&ID are in place
 the systems for the removal of condensate from the mains are in place and
operational
 the condensate return system from steam users is in place and operational
When the pre-start-up checks have been carried out, it is essential that the steam is
admitted into the mains at a low flow rate. This because, initially, the mains will be cold
and the first steam will condense on the cold metal surface of the pipes.
The condensate formed must be able to drain off from the main otherwise it may cause
water hammer. Consider the situation when steam enters a cold main at a high flow rate.
Initially, a substantial amount of condensate will be formed in the main and this
condensate will be pushed quickly along it by the following steam. If there is a restriction
in the pipeline, such as a partly closed valve or bend, the condensate will be slowed down.
The kinetic energy lost by the condensate will be converted into pressure energy,
resulting in a very high instantaneous pressure which can cause serious damage to the
main and its fittings. This phenomena, which is accompanied by loud bangs within the
pipework, is called water hammer.
8.8 PROCESS START-UP OPERATION
8.8.1 Process Systems Start-Up Operation

This section of the module describes the start-up considerations for typical processes
found on a hydrocarbon processing plant.
Example of gas processing system is:
 Compression
 Export Gas Compression.
Example of oil processing system is:
 Separation
 Dehydration
 Metering and Export
185
Figure 8.5 - Process Block
8.8.2 Start-Up Operating Sequence

For a normal start-up any interdependent systems should be online or in the appropriate
state for this start-up procedure. For example, if a system being started is part of a flow
stream, the upstream and downstream systems should be online or pressurized and
ready to deliver or receive product.
Prior to start-up of a facility that has undergone significant maintenance or a major
turnaround, it is essential to conduct a pre-start safety and operations meeting.
Attendees at the meeting should include the following:
 Operations personnel
 Maintenance personnel
 Other personnel involved in the turnaround if required
Topics for discussion include the following:
 Safety issues
 Work plan
 Valve line-up
 De-isolation (blinds list)
 Purge requirements
186
 Personal Protective Equipment

 Common Protective Equipment
 Safety Equipment
All the procedures from Normal Running to Maintenance and back are organized in a
clockwise cycle.
Figure 8.6 - Normal Running to Maintenance procedure

After maintenance and before purging, all the utilities must be prepared, in order to be
available before starting up the process equipment.
Preliminary checks
A fundamental condition for starting up is that maintenance works have been completed
(instrumental, electrical and mechanical) and all Permit to Work (PTW) are closed out.
Operational Checks
The operation personnel have to make several checks:
187
Step Responsibility Action

Confirm that all construction and repair work on the
Shift Controller /
1. system is completed.
Operator
Confirm that all permits and maintenance checklists

Shift Controller /
2. are closed out.
Operator
Confirm that the drain, vent, and bleed valves are in

3. Operator the closed position.
Review the blind list and ensure that the blinds and
4. Operator flanges are removed and documented.
5. Operator Confirm that energy isolation has been removed.
Confirm that the safety and firefighting equipment is

in place, operational, and ready for use.
6. Operator
Confirm that the status of each temporary defect is

7. Operator correct
Confirm that housekeeping has been properly

8. Operator carried out.
8. Operator Confirm that instruments availability for analysis
188
Maintenance Checks
Step Responsibility Action

1. Instrument Tech Confirm that control and shutdown loops are
functional.
2. Instrument Tech Confirm that flow orifices are installed correctly.
3. Instrument Tech Confirm that all transmitters are lined up and

calibrated.
4. Instrument Tech Confirm that fire and gas detectors are

functioning and calibrated.
5. Electrician Confirm that electrical power is connected and

tested for any necessary equipment.
6. Inspection Confirm that insulation is replaced on equipment

where appropriate.
Depending on the exact equipment installed, a typical start-up sequence for a

hydrocarbon plant might be:
1 Purge (oxygen-free) the plant
2 Pressurise the plant
3 Start separation
4 Commission flare pilots
5 Commission flares
6 Start booster/MOL pumps
7 Stabilise flow
189
The reality of the start-up of process units is that it is impracticable for individual
systems to be brought on line independently of the adjacent and related systems.
We can review a flare system start -up as an example:
Fuel Gas To Pliots
Flare
TIC
HP Flare Scrubber LIC
HP
Scrubber
Heater
Flare Header
PSV on Process
Equipment
Figure 8.7 – Flare system
General and Initial Flare Start-Up
It is assumed that at the point of start-up of the flare system, the plant status is as
follows:
 All parts of the system including vessels, equipment, piping, valves and instruments
have previously been fully tested and commissioned, and have been proven safe and
operable
 All headers, vessels and pipework have been purged of O2 to remove the potential for
an explosive mixture to exist
 The HP and LP flare scrubber vessels have been filled with potable water to provide a
liquid seal and to assist in establishing level control
 The flare snuffing skid CO2 bottles are fully charged and tested
190
 All isolation valves are in their safe starting positions. All vent and drain valves are
closed. All instrument-tapping valves are open
 All required utility systems are fully functional and available
 The pilots have been previously lit for test purposes and closely inspected to ensure
there are no leaks and are burning correctly.
HP Flare System Start-Up
In a hydrocarbon production and processing plant, the high-pressure flare system is one
of the first systems to be started up in advance of the other production systems, with only
utility systems already running.
The flares must be available to act as a depressurization route, before gas can be brought
into the facilities for the initial start-up of production separation and the fuel gas systems.
When fuel gas is available the flare pilots and flare can be lit. For test purposes and initial
pilot lighting, a temporary gas supply from propane bottles may be used. The flare system
start-up procedure commences from the point at which gas is first available at production
separation and is being fed into the fuel gas system. The procedure shown next is an
example of the general type of procedure used to start a flare system.
SHUT DOWN OPERATIONS FOR O&G PROCESS PLANT/EQUIPMENT
8.9 INTRODUCTION
Process and Utility Shutdown Preparation covers a wide range of different types of
shutdown for various operational, maintenance or inspection reasons. This booklet and
associated Module does not cover shutdowns occurring during normal operations, for
example shutdowns caused by process upsets or emergency situations.
The emphasis is on preparation and planning so that a planned shutdown is carried out
in a safe, efficient and cost effective manner.
The range of shutdowns covered are those required for normal production planning where
equipment is not required to be operated due to the current production and planning
requirements through to major shutdowns required for plant inspection purposes.
Shutdown preparation is considerably more problematic than routine operation and
maintenance because of the need to keep business disruption to a minimum. Shutdown
durations are extremely short compared with other projects and the compressed time
allowed
The day-to-day difficulties are greatly amplified during shutdowns and the effects of any
miscalculation in preparation are significantly increased at this time.
The prime goal of shutdown preparation is to produce a detailed, overall time-based plan
and not just a work list.
Because of the compressed time, an almost minute-by-minute schedule of tasks is
produced even though planned job sequences and timings are likely to change on the
191
day, achieving a detailed schedule is essential. The process of producing a schedule will
always ensure the best shutdown outcome, even when circumstances force changes.
It must be emphasised that no matter which type of shutdown is being planned the same
consideration must be given to the preparation, safety and environmental aspects of the
work.
8.10 TYPES OF SHUTDOWN
8.10.1 Shutdown for Production Reasons

During normal operations, it is quite common for process and utility equipment to be shut
down due to production requirements. Reasons for this can be:
 Where production targets are less than the capacity of the Process Plant.
 Sales outlets are restricted
 Availability of Feed Stock is reduced.
 Seasonal swings in production requirements.
 Utilities are not currently required.
 Planned rotation of equipment / machinery
 There is a plant restriction, blockage or other malfunction
These shutdowns can range from individual pieces of equipment through to complete
process trains or modules.
Preparation requirements for this type of shutdown need to consider the following:
 The time period the plant or equipment is to shutdown.

 The restart time of the plant or equipment.
 The type of isolation required.
 The effect on other systems
 The effect on the process control system
The amount of preparation time for this type of shutdown will depend on the above factors.
8.10.2 Maintenance of Individual Equipment

The Computerised Maintenance Management System will develop work orders for routine
maintenance and defect repair of equipment.
The routine maintenance is a planned activity and the preparation for shutdown can be
planned well in advance with all the HSE, and operations procedures prepared prior to
the activity taking place.
While this type of maintenance is considered routine it is important that the preparation
for carrying out the work takes into account:
192
 Current production activities.

 Security of the process operation while the work is being carried out.
 Is the plant protection being reduced i.e. are protection systems being inhibited?
 Do temporary measures need to be put in place?
Some defect work will arise that needs to be carried out urgently due to safety,
environmental implications or operational impact and there may be a reduction in the time
available to prepare for this type of shutdown. However urgent the task, consideration
should always be given to the following.
 Risk analysis of the activities must be carried out.
 HSE and operational procedures must be adhered to.
 Correct and approved isolations must be in place.
Many incidents and accidents have been caused due to the “quick fix.”
8.10.3 Major Shutdowns of Plant and Equipment

Major shutdowns are normally planned well in advance unless there has been a
catastrophic failure of plant or equipment. This would be treated as a special case and is
not considered in this module.
Major shutdowns involve total facilities shutdown or complete process modules and major
equipment such as gas generator driven compressors.
These shutdowns are carried out to enable internal inspections, plant modifications and
major overhaul to be carried out.
The preparation for a major shutdown involves many different activities and departments
with shutdown preparation and planning carried out over a long period of time prior to the
shutdown.
The ownership of the shutdown plan is normally with the Maintenance function with the
Production activities integrated into the overall plan
While the main aim is to maximise hydrocarbon production, or at least, meet contractual
obligations, nevertheless maximum production is not always the sole driver.
There are a number of other factors which also need to be considered; there may be
expensive resources in use whose cost would override the drive to maximise production.
HSE issues may also be an overriding factor. Typical of the activities that must be
included in the schedule are:
 Pipeline, vessel and tank cleaning.
 Internal inspection.
 Rotating machinery maintenance.
The actual plant shut-down operation will be the responsibility of Production Operations
Department, but other departments and contractors will be involved in carrying out various
shut-down related tasks such as:
 The installation of large spades or blinds
 The venting and purging of process pipe work and equipment
193
 The draining and disposal of liquids

 The opening of process vessels, separators and tanks for inspection
The process of shutting the plant down for major maintenance may well take more than
one shift to achieve, so sufficient time must be allocated at shift change to ensure an
adequate handover to the on-coming shift.
Many consecutive and simultaneous operations will be occurring during a shut-down for
major maintenance. Control and monitoring of these operations is vital to ensure the
safety of personnel, plant and the environment.
8.11 SHUTDOWN PLANNING
Some of the shutdown planning requriment

8.11.1 Risk Assessment and Hazard Identification
A risk assessment and hazard identification must be carried out as part of the preparation
for all the work to be performed during a shut-down.
This risk assessment and hazard identification will be carried out within the framework for
risk management.
8.11.2 Permits to Work
Permits to Work (PTW) will be raised as part of the preparation for all the work to be
carried out during a shut-down.
A PTW is a written document used to authorise work, other than routine operational work,
which has been identified as potentially hazardous. The document specifies the work to
be done and the precautions to be taken.
The Permit to Work system covers work activities performed by the Company and
contractor personnel while working at a location controlled by the Company. It provides a
written method of ensuring that work carried out is strictly controlled by defined work
practices and safety precautions.
The work content to be undertaken by a workforce shall be discussed with the appropriate
supervisor(s) to determine the type of permit required and Work Place Risk Assessment
(WRAP) that will be applicable.
8.11.3 Consents and Facilities for Disposal of Inventories

Maintenance of process equipment will be likely to require the following disposal:
 Venting of hydrocarbons.
 Draining of process liquids.
 Removal of materials.
 Draining of lubricating oils from rotating equipment.
Part of the preparation for shutdown must include the following considerations in regard
to these liquids and materials.
194
 Can the hydrocarbon gas be recovered to the process?

 Can the process liquids be recovered to the process?
 Can any of the materials be recycled for re-use?
If there are gases, liquids or materials that cannot be recovered or re-cycled then
consents and approvals for disposal from the relevant authorities must be obtained prior
to the shutdown.
The approval for disposal must include the procurement and setting up of an accredited
approved contract for the disposal of the materials.
Failure to obtain the necessary consents and the use of an accredited contractor could
result in delays to the shutdown, prohibition orders on plant operations and eventual
prosecution.
8.12 SHUT DOWN OPERATIONS PROCEDURES
8.12.1 Normal Shut down Operation of Process and Utility Plant

Where the process or equipment is under process control, accurately input the shut-down
parameters and gradually take the plant down to minimum setting or to zero production.
Stop plant machinery e.g. pumps, compressors etc. according to the set out procedures
and in the order specified in the procedures. If required, the process plant should then be
suitably vented, drained, flushed, purged and isolated. Safety, re-start and availability
requirements will determine the extent of isolation required while the process equipment
is shut-down.
During the shut-down period the process equipment must be monitored to ensure
 That the status of all isolations is maintained
 That the protection devices are operational
 That the ambient temperatures have not affected status of the process
Utilities
A total shut-down of a utility system is not normal, however individual equipment within a
utility system may be shut-down, but left in a state of readiness in case the running
equipment should fail.
A typical example is an Instrument Air System, where there are certainly two and maybe
three, air compressors within the system. It is normal to have one compressor on line and
the other compressor, or compressors, on stand-by ready to start on failure of the running
compressor. If required, the stand-by compressor would be shut-down simply by
switching off the electrical supply, but the air compressor valves would be left open ready
for start-up.
During the shut-down period, utility equipment must be monitored to ensure:
 That, where applicable, the equipment is available for automatic re-start
195
 That the status of all isolations is maintained

 That the protection devices are operational
 That the ambient temperatures have not affected status of the system
8.12.2 Shut down for Maintenance of Individual Equipment

The procedure to be followed for a maintenance shut-down of equipment would be the
same as that previously described, however the isolation requirements would be different
depending on the maintenance to be carried out.
Once the process or equipment has been shut-down the following should be carried out:
 Identify and understand the preparation work to be carried out on the equipment
 Obtain the appropriate preparation procedures and organise the work correctly
 Ensure a Permit to Work has been prepared stating the isolations required
 Carry out the initial isolations, which will prevent the ingress of undesirable liquids or
gases
 Depressurise or vent, ensuring environmental considerations have been addressed
 Drain liquids ensuring environmental considerations have been addressed
 Flush and/or steam equipment to remove residual oil if required
 Purge the equipment if required
 Complete final isolation in readiness for work to commence
8.12.3 Major Shut - down of Process Equipment and Modules

Major shut-downs can range from main equipment shut-downs, such as gas compression
units, through to process modules and complete installation shutdowns. Shut-down
operations for this type of shut-down are far more complex than those for the types of
shut-downs discussed previously. The isolations required and preparation necessary are
much greater.
The sequence for the shut-down of major equipment and process modules for
maintenance will generally be as follows:
 Obtain the shut-down time from production planning i.e. the time when the equipment
is no longer required for production.
 Inform the relevant personnel, e.g. maintenance crew, co-workers.
 Obtain the relevant operational instructions for the shut-down, sequence of shut-down
and recommended rate of shut-down.
 Assess the real and potential hazards such as vent noise, the release of liquid
hydrocarbons into the closed drain system, the effects of heating and cooling and the
effect on other equipment.
 Input the shut-down settings and process variables. This would normally be done in
the main control room, but in some cases could be carried out locally on the plant.
 Monitor the shut-down and correct any faults and problems.
 When the shut-down is complete, isolate the plant from operating sources.
196
Once the equipment or plant has been isolated from the process, preparation for
maintenance can begin. Ensure a Permit to Work is available stating the isolations and
the final status of the equipment for the work to be carried out safely. A separate Permit
to Work may be raised to carry out isolations if they are extensive and involve heavy lifting
and line break.
De-pressurise, vent and drain the plant giving consideration to:
 The limits on vent and flare systems
 Dde-pressurisation rates
 Plant cooling due to depressurisation
 Relief systems
 Limits on the drain systems
 Composition and properties of the plant inventory i.e. toxicity, flammability, and
specific gravity
 Purging media available
Once the equipment and plant has been tested with appropriate test equipment, and
confirmed safe from any ingress of hydrocarbons, final isolations can be made and the
equipment handed over for maintenance.
During the period of the shut-down, the area should be checked for cleanliness and
freedom from hazards, with periodic checks carried out to ensure all isolations are in place
and secure.
8.12.4 Major Utilities System Shut-down

The procedure for shutting-down an individual piece of equipment within a utilities system
would be the same as that described earlier. However, unless the entire utility system is
being shut-down, that particular utility must still be available to the process units. For
example, if an electrical generator, or an instrument air compressor, is being shut-down
for maintenance, the stand-by equipment must be on-line to maintain the utility supply
before the shut-down commences.
If a complete utility system, which supports the process, for example electrical power
generation, or instrument air, has to be shut-down, the main process will also have to be
shut-down, unless arrangements have been made for temporary supplies to be available.
8.13 EQUIPMENT OR SECTION ISOLATION
8.13.1 Isolations
Prior to the shutdown of any equipment for maintenance, the isolations required need to
be identified and the work activity inputted into the shutdown plan and onto the Permits
to Work.
Isolations required will depend on the following:
197
 Type of equipment e.g. wells, process vessels, pumps, compressors, tanks etc.
 Type of work to be carried out.
 Working pressure and temperature
 Composition of Process Inventories
To isolate process equipment P&ID’s will be required to identify the isolation points.
The type of maintenance work to be carried out will determine the isolations necessary
and this will be agreed after a risk assessment has been done.
Where isolations form part of the preparations for work there must be a clear description
of the isolation procedure, including a detailed list of all items used in the isolation. These
are typically:
 Valves.
 Spades.
 Blinds.
 Pipe-work removed.
 Blank flanges fitted.
 Vents and Drains opened.
 Electrical Breakers racked out or fuses removed.
When the isolation is complete, an Isolation Certificate should be issued. The Isolation
Certificate should indicate the location and the type of isolation that has been carried out.
Alternatively, this information can be given on an Isolation Detail Sheet and/or marked up
on a P&ID, which is crossed referenced to the Isolation Certificate and attached to it.
An example of a typical Mechanical Isolation Certificate and Mechanical Isolation Detail

Sheet are shown in Figure 8.7 and Figure 8.8 respectively.
198
Figure 8.8 - Mechanical Isolation Certificate
199
Mechanical Isolation Detail Sheet

EQUIPMEN PERMIT/JOB CARD NO. DATE: ISC
T: NO.
VALVE/LIN POSITION (SEE KEY) OTHER

E NO. ISOLATED DE-OLATED PRECAUTIONS.
O C S B INITIA O C S B INITIA
L L
KEY: O = OPEN C = CLOSED S = SPADE B = BLANK
GREEN - WORKSITE COPY BUFF-PCF COPY WHITE - INFO COPY
Figure 8.9 - Mechanical Isolation Detail Sheet
200
8.13.2 Master Isolations
A Major isolation may be used to establish isolation boundaries for major maintenance
tasks. This is so that a number of tasks can be controlled within a single boundary. The
number of Master Isolations applied should be kept to a minimum.
Each master isolation boundary is defined on a Master Isolation/De-isolation Control

Sheet, see Figure 8.9 This sheet indicates the type, and isolated or de-isolated position,
of each isolation device. It has boxes which must be initialled by the person carrying out
the isolation or de-isolation of each point.
This sheet is used as an attachment to the Master Isolation Certificate, which is clearly
marked MASTER ISOLATION, and stamped MASTER. The number of the Master
Isolation Certificate must be shown on the Master Isolation/De-isolation Control Sheet.
Control of the Permits being worked on within the boundary is maintained by using a Work
under Master Isolation Control Sheet, see Figure 8.10. This sheet is retained with the
Master Isolation Certificate and cross-referenced to any additional Isolation Certificates
for isolations within the overall boundary.
When a Master Isolation is in place, the Work under Master Isolation Control Sheet is
used to ensure that all permits, being worked on within the boundary, have been
completed and signed off before the isolation tags are removed, and the valves returned
to their normal operating positions.
A controlled change of the boundary may be carried out with the authorisation of the
Permit Issuer if an extension or reduction of the boundary is necessary.
8.13.3 Electrical Isolations
A separate Isolation Certificate is used for recording electrical isolation and de-isolation
operations, for the purpose of the PTW System.
Electrical isolation may be by removing links, switchgear, fuses or disconnection of the

equipment.
A copy of a typical Electrical Isolation Detail Sheet and Electrical Isolation Certificate is
shown in Figure 8.11 and Figure 8.12 respectively.
201
Master Isolation/De-isolation Control Sheet SER NO.

SYSTEM : ISOLATION CERTIFICATE No. :
VESSEL/EQUIPMENT : DRAWING No. :
ISOLATED DE-ISOLATED
ISOL VALVE No. DESCRIPTION O C S B INITIAL O C S B INITIAL COMMENTS
No.
CONTINUED ON SHEET SER NO.

ISOLATION COMPLETE :
DATE :
O = Open C = Closed DE-ISOLATION COMPLETE :
S = Spade B = Blind DATE :
B blind
Figure 8.9 – Master Isolation/De-isolation Sheet
202
Work Under Master Isolations - Control Sheet SER NO.

SYSTEM : ISOLATION CERTIFICATE No. :
VESSEL/EQUIPMENT : DRAWING No. :
JOB ADDITION HOT COLD DTC.
DESCRIPTION J/CARD START FINISH COMMENTS
No AL ISC NO. WORK WORK No
CONTINUED ON SHEET SER NO

Figure 8.10 – Work under Master Isolations – Control Sheet
203
Electrical Isolation Detail Sheet

EQUIPMENT: PERMIT/JOB CARD NO. DATE: ISC NO.
TERMINATIONS OR KNIFE EDGES ISOLATED

ISOLATION POINT TERMINATION RAIL
AND TAPED
Fuses
Safety Padlock Equipment Tails
Isolation Point Placed Cable Disconnected
No. Disconnected
At
GREEN - WORKSITE COPY BUFF - PCF COPY WHITE - INFO COPY

Figure 8.11– Electrical Isolation Detail Sheet
204
MaintenanceManager:
MaintenanceManager:
Man
Figure 8.12– Electrical Isolation Certificate
205
EMERGENCY SHUTDOWN
8.14 INTRODUCTION
Emergency Shutdown (ESD) systems are safeguarding systems. They are systems,
which are designed to protect operating plants and personnel from serious injury.
Hydrocarbon processing systems are designed to operate automatically. Plant
operating personnel have only to start up a process, adjust the set points, and then
allow the instrument loops to control the process. This is fine as long as everything
operates and behaves, as it should. But no system will operate forever without a
problem.
Alarm systems and emergency shutdown (ESD) systems are necessary because things
will go wrong in plant processes occasionally.
• Alarm systems WARN
• ESD systems PROTECT
In this course delegates will learn about some of the devices used in Alarm and
Shutdown systems. Their two main functions are to:
• Warn plant operators that a process or a machine is not operating correctly.
• Shut down a machine, a process or an entire plant to protect people and equipment
from injury or damage if a hazardous condition develops.
Figure 8.13 –oil and gas process plant
206
Figure 8.14 – emergency shutdown switch

8.15 PURPOSE OF EMERGENCY SHUTDOWN (ESD)
Sometimes, despite a plant operator’s best efforts, operating conditions get out of
control, with the possibility of dramatic negative effects on plant operations. At times like
these, there must be some way to quickly and safely shut down facilities, or portions of
facilities, in a way that will isolate and contain the problem. Emergency Shutdown
Systems (ESD) serves this purpose.
An ESD system is made up of special purpose devices that are designed to quickly open
or close valves and energize or de-energize equipment – either from a manual station(s),
or automatically if certain operating parameters are exceeded. The devices are operated
by air, hydraulics, electricity, or combinations of all three; they may be operated
selectively by different modes of ESD depending on the nature of the emergency.
Two typical ESD modes are:
1. Shutdown and isolation of rotating equipment to remove a source of ignition and stop
a leak that may be located in the equipment, but still allow the process to remain
pressurized
2. Shutdown, isolation, and depressurization of process equipment in the event of fire
or gas leakage to lower the risk created by the compressed material Sometimes it is
only necessary to shut down and isolated a particular piece of equipment or process,
and the remainder of the process may be kept pressurized. There are also times when
it is not advisable to depressurize because that would present a greater hazard. An
example of this would be the release of combustible vapour to atmosphere when there
is a fire already burning in the immediate area.
207
8.16 PROCESS SHUTDOWN SYSTEM

High level activated process shutdown system
Figure 8.15
Filling might normally be achieved by means of a pump under operator control and
supervision. Using level gauge, the operator would normally turn the pump off at a point
safely below the true full point of the tank. However, due to instrument failure or human
error, this safe full point could easily be exceeded, whereupon the rising liquid would be
detected by a high liquid level sensor (H). This would initiate an alarm at the pump/tank
and in the control room, alerting the operator to the condition, enabling corrective action
to be taken in good time before the rising liquid could reach a dangerous level.
If, for any reason, no action was to be taken as a result of the alarm, a high- high liquid
level sensor (HH) would detect the now dangerously rising liquid and pass a signal to
the ESD logic system. The logic would equate the signal with other system parameters
and initiate a local system shutdown. In this case, this would probably involve nothing
more than shutting down the pump, although activation (automatic closure) of an ESD
valve on the discharge side of the pump could also be an option as a backup measure.
An ‘ESD Operated’ alarm would also be activated in the control room CCR.
208
A similar system is also used to protect equipment in the event of tank liquid levels
falling too low. This arrangement protects the export pump should the tank liquid level
fall below the export pump suction line level (centrifugal pumps must never run dry).
When emptying the tank, the operator would normally turn the pump off at a point safely
above the normal lowest level of the product being pumped. As with over-high levels,
however, this point could easily be exceeded, whereupon the falling liquid level would
be detected by a low liquid level sensor (L). This would initiate an alarm at the pump/tank
and in the control room, alerting the operator to the condition, enabling corrective action
to be taken before the liquid level could fall below the product level.
If, for any reason, no action was to be taken as a result of the alarm, a low- low liquid
level sensor (LL) would detect the dangerously falling liquid and pass a signal to the
ESD system. The logic would equate the signal with other system parameters and
initiate a local system shutdown by stopping the export pump. An ‘ESD operated’ alarm
would also be activated in the control room.
It should be noted that, for this level of ESD, shutdown of the export pump would not
affect the operation of the filling pump or the status of any ESD valve in the filling line
as these would still need to be operational to correct the level anomalies in the tank.
High pressure activated process shutdown system
Figure 8.16 - Pressure Activated ESD System Process with High Pressure
209
Figure 8.17 - Pressure Activated ESD System

Figure 8.16 and Figure 8.17 have been greatly simplified so you can see how
this pressure activated system works.
A. A production trap is separating gas from crude oil. The normal operating pressure in
the vessel is between 85 psi and 100 psi. The gas goes through a pipeline to a gas
compression plant.
In this system, if the pressure in the production trap gets too high, the system will shut
down automatically. How does it do it?
B. A dual switch pressure switch is used as a trigger to activate the system. The switch
has two pressure settings: 100 psi and 120 psi.
C. If the pressure in the production trap goes up to 100 psi, the pressure switch will trip.
Relay R1 will open. When the relay opens, the circuit to the alarm system is broken.
D. An alarm light will come on to warn the operator that the pressure is too high. An alarm
horn will also sound.
If the operator can correct the high pressure, the system will return to normal operation.
Suppose the operator cannot correct the problem, and the pressure continues to rise?
E. The second micro switch in the pressure switch will trip and relay R2 will open. This
210
will set of the emergency shutdown system. When the relay opens, the contact of the
relay armature is broken. This broken contact breaks the AC circuit.
F. There is a 3-way solenoid operated pilot valve in the instrument air supply for each of
the valves in the gas pipelines.
Look at the air failure action abbreviations next to the valves: AC/AFO and
AO/AFC.
G. AO/AFC. When the current to the three-way pilot valve is cut off, the air supply to the
pressure control valve will be cut off, the air in the actuator will be vented, and the
valve will close.
H. AC/AFO. Look at the three-way pilot valve for the valve on the pipeline to the flare.
When current to this solenoid valve is cut off, the pressure control valve will open.
All the gas in the production trap will go to the flare where it is safely burned.
Most plant ESD systems are much more complicated than the system just described. But
plant ESD systems have many things in common.
One of a number of types of switch will trigger the ESD. In the above example, it is the
pressure switch.
Relays are the heart of most ESD systems. Notice that the relay R2 is in a low voltage
circuit, 24 volts DC. Low voltage keeps the relay contacts closed. When the pressure
switch trip, the 24-volt circuit opens and releases the relay contacts.
The movement of the relay armature opens and closes a higher voltage AC circuit. This
has the advantage of keeping higher voltages away from process vessels. The relay is
usually located far away from the process.
Most process control valves that are parts of ESD systems have pilot valves in the lines.
The pilot valves supply air to the control valves. Simply cutting off the air supply to the
control valves causes them to fail in the correct position. Simple solenoids are used to
operate most pilot valves.
Relays are also used to start or stop electric motors.
Remember these points:
• Switches are the triggers for ESD systems.
• Electrical relays are used to start or stop other electrical devices.
• You can use low voltages in a relay control circuit to control a
high voltage device
Protective devices prevent individual pieces of equipment from being damaged by
extreme process conditions, or faults within the equipment itself.
211
ESD’s are intended to safely shutdown whole facilities (or portions of a facility) when
operating conditions are threatened from an external source, or become unstable and
out of control.
8.17 INTERLOCKS
Interlocks are another mechanism of protection.

Essentially, they will not allow a piece of equipment to run unless some specific
conditions are satisfied.
An example is shown in Figure 8.18.
Before the burner can be lit there must be sufficient flow through the tubes,
otherwise the tubes would overheat and be damaged.
Interlocks are also used to prevent a restart attempt until a manual reset action
has been performed.
Figure 8.18 - Interlocks
212
8.18 ESD ACTIVATION

An emergency shutdown could be activated automatically or manually.
For example, an automatic ESD could be activated at an unmanned station where a
gas monitor detects a concentration of gas approaching the point of combustion. At this
point, all sources of ignition would be shut off, the station isolated and possibly
depressurized. In addition, ventilation fans might be turned on to clear gas from the
building.
Another example of an automatic ESD might be in a pipeline system.
If there is a difference in readings between a meter placed at the discharge of a station
And another meter placed at the inlet to the plant that is receiving the pipeline product,
an automatic signal is sent to shut down pumps and close valves. This block’s both ends
of the pipe and isolates a possible leak.
Figure 8.19 – emergency shutdown switch

Manual shutdown stations are more common in manned facilities and allow an individual
to shut down a section of a facility quickly. These stations are usually located outside of
buildings on the normal route of travel, so that they can be activated while on the way
out of the emergency situation. They must be clearly marked and easily accessed.
213
Chapter 9
Prepare Plant and Equipment For Maintenance
214
CONTENTS
9.1 SITE PREPARATIONS………………………………………………..……….……216
9.1.1 Planning ..................................................................................................... 216
9.1.2 Worksite Preparation.................................................................................. 216
9.1.3 Required Activities Prior to Mechanical Isolation ....................................... 217
9.1.4 Requirements for Blinds / Spades and Blank Flanges ............................... 217
9.1.5 Mechanical isolation of Process Piping, Vessels and Equipment .............. 217
9.1.6 Process / Utility Area Considerations ......................................................... 218
9.1.7 Operator Maintenance Tasks. .................................................................... 219
9.2 ISOLATIONS ………………………………………………………………………220
9.2.1 Positive Isolation ..................................................................................... 220
9.2.2 Double Block and Bleed ............................................................................. 221
9.2.3 Single Valve Isolation ................................................................................. 222
9.2.4 Other Isolation Methods ............................................................................. 222
9.3 DEPRESSURISING / DRAINING ………………………………………………224
9.3.1 Depressurising ........................................................................................... 224
9.3.2 Draining...................................................................................................... 224
9.4 CLEANING AND GAS FREEING…………………………………………………..225
9.4.1 Water Flooding ........................................................................................... 225
9.4.2 Inert Gas .................................................................................................... 225
9.4.3 Steam......................................................................................................... 226
9.4.4 Air............................................................................................................... 227
9.5 DOCUMENTATION……………………………………………………………….. 228
9.5.1 Permit to Work ........................................................................................... 228
9.5.2 Cold Work Permit ....................................................................................... 230
9.5.3 Hot Work Certificate ................................................................................... 231
9.5.4 Electric Permit to Work............................................................................... 232
9.5.5 Break in Containment................................................................................. 233
9.5.6 Electrical Isolation Certificate ..................................................................... 234
9.5.7 Mechanical Isolation Certificate ................................................................. 235
9.5.8 Confined Space Entry Certificate ............................................................... 236
9.5.9 Gas Test Certificate ................................................................................... 237
9.5.10 Heavy Lift Certificate ................................................................................ 237
9.5.11 Sanction to Test Certificate .................................................................... 237
9.5.12 Valve List ................................................................................................. 237
9.5.13 Spade List ................................................................................................ 237
9.5.14 Isolation Register ..................................................................................... 237
215
9.1 SITE PREPARATIONS

Preparation involves the following topics:
1. Planning
2. Worksite Preparation
3. Required Activities Prior to Mechanical Isolation
4. Requirements for Blinds / Spades and Blank Flanges
5. Mechanical isolation of Process Piping, Vessels and Equipment
9.1.1 Planning
Planning is the scheduling of events to ensure the economical use of resources available
in order to achieve a defined objective.
The planned work shall be discussed with all departments, contractors and personnel
who are to be involved in the work. These discussions shall include, but not be limited to:
 Preparation of the system, piping, vessel or equipment.

 Administration of work permits, associated certificates and the Isolation Register.
 Identification of safety devices that need to be overridden.
 Identification of electrical isolations under the control of the PTW system, for which
coordination with an Authorised Electrical Person will be required to ensure that
effective isolations are identified and carried out.
 Procedures or guidelines to be used to enable the work to be carried out.
 Notification to personnel whose work activities may affect or may be affected by
the planned work.
 Procedure to return the piping, vessel or equipment to a normal operating
condition.
9.1.2 Worksite Preparation
All work activities involving the mechanical and electrical isolation, opening and closing
of process piping, vessels and equipment shall be administered under the control of the
PTW system.
It is the responsibility of the Permit Controller to ensure the safe preparation of the
worksite. He may assign the application for process isolations to a nominated person: but
he still retains overall responsibility.
Based upon the detailed description of the work to be performed, hazards shall be
assessed. The possible impact of the work on the surrounding area shall also be
assessed to ensure that it does not impact on adjacent work.
216
9.1.3 Required Activities Prior to Mechanical Isolation
Prior to commencing mechanical isolation, the authorised personnel shall ensure that:
Adequate valve isolation is in place and all are locked and tagged
Successful integrity tests have been carried out on all block valves in the isolated system
The equipment is proved to be depressurised and free from hazardous materials
Isolation devices and new gaskets selected for use are of the correct rating to withstand
full operating line pressure and are suitable for corrosive/ sour service if required
Workers are instructed where the isolation devices are to be placed
All pumps and electrically driven equipment associated with the system shall be isolated
(locked off) and tagged by authorised electrical personnel. AlI requirements of the
relevant procedure shall be met
Instrumentation associated with the isolated system shall be disconnected, removed and
capped.A record shall be maintained in the Isolation Register of all disconnections. If the
instrumentation is a safety device, this isolation shall also be recorded in the Override
Logbook.
An alternative action plan shall be implemented when over-riding flammable gas and toxic
gas detection systems, fire detection and deluge systems (e.g. check work areas with
portable detection equipment).
Note: Where a safety system is over-ridden, ensure that adjacent systems are not
affected.
The area in the vicinity of the work activity shall be barriered-off and warning notices
posted
9.1.4 Requirements for Blinds / Spades and Blank Flanges
Blinds and spades shall always be of the same pressure rating specification as the line
into which they will be installed and the appropriate new gaskets shall be used.
Flanges at mechanical isolation points shall have all bolts re-installed and tightened to
withstand system working pressure
Wherever possible, blank flanges shall be drilled and tapped to accommodate a ½-inch
threaded needle valve (used to vent any residual pressure from the line).
9.1.5 Mechanical isolation of Process Piping, Vessels and Equipment
Mechanical isolations shall be installed and tagged with identifying tags as per the work
scope and the P&IDs
The location and other required data of all installed blinds / spades or blank flanges and
identifying tags must be identified on drawings, attached to the relevant work permit, and
entered in the Isolation Register
A ‘Spading / End Blinding List' shall be completed for all spades and blanks fitted and
must be attached to the certificate to which it refers. Although this list is not classified as
a certificate, it is mandatory for all vessel or tank entry activities
217
The effectiveness of all mechanical isolations shall be verified by pressure readings taken
on the depressurised equipment.
9.1.6 Process / Utility Area Considerations
In preparation for maintenance there are always specific process / utility plant and
equipment considerations.
The wide range and variety of plant and equipment that will be present at complex O&G
plant is too great to deal with in detail in this module.
However, a number of typical examples are discussed below:
1- Furnaces / Fired Equipment.
This equipment operates at elevated temperatures, and must be shut-down in a controlled

manner, reducing temperatures in pre-determined increments over a specified period of
time. This is necessary to reduce thermal stresses on the equipment, in particular the
refractory material.
This is most important on the Claus Process for the recovery of sulphur from sour gas
streams.
2- High-pressure hydrocarbon condensate systems
These systems must also be shut-down in a controlled manner, with pressures being
reduced in stages over a period of time. A rapid depressurisation will cause the low boiling
point hydrocarbons to ‘boil’ and significantly reduce the operating temperature. In a worst
case scenario, the process temperature can drop sufficiently to cause a catastrophic
failure of pipework / equipment.
All blow-down facilities are normally provided with low temperature measuring and alarm
devices
3- High-pressure plant using catalyst / molecular sieves etc.
These systems must also be shut-down in a controlled manner, with pressures being
reduced in stages over a period of time.
A rapid depressurisation can cause the media to disintegrate resulting in future loss of
performance and possible plugging of pipework and equipment with media fines
4- Hydrogen Sulphide
Large concentrations of hydrogen sulphide are present in many areas of the plant.
Particular care must be taken during preparation for maintenance to ensure that where
possible all areas of plant and equipment are purged to remove the hydrogen sulphide.
5- Pyrophoric Scale
Usually present as finely divided Ferrous Sulphide, formed when hydrogen sulphide or
mercaptans come into contact with carbon steel pipework or equipment. It is capable of
rapid oxidation on exposure to air that heating to incandescence can occur. Pyrophoric
218
scale is often found in pig launcher / receivers in sour gas service. Equipment must
always be nitrogen purged and wetted with water before opening up.
6- Naturally Occurring Radio-Active material (NORM)
This is often present in well fluids and may accumulate in production separators. The
levels of radiation are not normally high, an awareness of this phenomena is advisable.
7- Mercury
Traces of Mercury (Hg) may be present in the incoming gas from the reservoir. Low-
temperature plant downstream of the incoming gas reception area often use brazed
aluminium plate heat exchangers, which are susceptible to damage from the Mercury.
Disposal of accumulated Mercury has environmental implications. If designated Mercury
filters are not present, the likely place to find Mercury will be in the gas inlet
filter/separator.
Maintenance personnel must be made aware of the possibility of Mercury being present,
and make provision for its retention and safe disposal.
Note: It is not usually for large amounts to be present
8- Chemical Injection Systems
Although mainly small in size, these systems operate at high pressures. Ensure that in
preparation for maintenance, all chemical injection systems are fully isolated and
depressurised.
9-Nitrogen
This is used extensively in maintenance preparations for purging systems of

hydrocarbons.
Nitrogen is heavier than air and will accumulate in low points. Nitrogen does not support
life; it is an asphixiant.
Always place warning signs on equipment that has been nitrogen purged. Inform
maintenance personnel of the presence of nitrogen.
9.1.7 Operator Maintenance Tasks.
This module discusses preparation for maintenance. However, during a shut-down, there
are many tasks carried out by operating personnel.
The scope of this module does not lend itself to discuss these in great detail, but it would
be advisable for operating personnel to be aware of some of the tasks that might come
their way.
 Removal / replacement of ion-exchange resins
 Removal / replacement of molecular sieves / desiccants
 Removal / replacement of random packed columns
 Removal / replacement of catalysts
219
Each of these tasks has its own risks, and hazards associated with it
As these tasks are non-standard, usually done infrequently, it is important for an operator
to fully understand the procedure, and ask questions if they are unsure
Each task will require different PPE.
Each task will require a Permit to Work. The associated paperwork may be different.
Always check the permit. Always check the job site.
Familiarise yourself with the task, ensure that it is safe to proceed.
9.2 ISOLATIONS
Isolations are an important aspect of preparing plant and equipment for maintenance.
The various aspects of isolating are listed below:
 Isolation Planning
 Isolation Methods
 Isolation Standards
 Precautions When Breaking Containment
 Risk Assessment of Non-Compliant Isolations
 Isolation for Confined Space Entry
Isolation of any item of equipment must be planned to minimize the time removing and
installing the blind,The highest quality of isolation which is reasonably practicable must
be applied to every isolation point
Mechanical Isolation is the physical separation of equipment from a source of hazardous
energy.
In this document, valve closure, spade insertion and physical disconnection are all
described as mechanical isolation
The main categories of mechanical isolation are:
1. Positive Isolation
2. Double Block & Bleed
3. Single Valve Isolation
9.2.1 Positive Isolation
Removal of a section of pipework and bolting of a full-face flange on the open ends.
Full-face Flanges Fitted

at Break Point
Live Side
Spool-piece Removed
Figure 9.1 - Positive Isolation
220
Witnessed insertion of a blind plate / spectacle blind between flanges
Live Side
Figure 9.2 - Positive Isolation

In both examples, a double block and bleed isolation must be in place upstream of the
break point, and the downstream side depressurised before the positive isolation can be
implemented.
9.2.2 Double Block and Bleed
Vent /Drain Vent /Drain

P1 P2
Live Side
V1 V2
B
Figure 9.3 - Double Block and Bleed
V1 – First (upstream) isolation valve from live system

P1 – Live side monitoring point (pressure gauge or vent / drain)
V2 – Second (downstream) isolation valve from live system
P2 – Monitoring point between valves and break point (pressure gauge or vent /
drain
B – Bleed point between isolation valves
1) If possible, ensure that tapping’s at P1, P2 and B are not blocked and that pressure
Gauges are operating correctly.
2) Close downstream valve V2 and secure in closed position
3) Note pressure at monitoring points P1 and P2
4) Vent / drain section of line to be broken into and monitor at P2 until the pressure is
near zero.
5) Close the vent / drain at break point and monitor P2 for a minimum of 10 minutes. No
pressure build-up at P2 indicates the integrity of the downstream valve V2.
221
6) Close upstream valve V1 and secure in the closed position.

7) Note pressure at P1 and B.
8) Vent / drain between V1 and V2 (B) and monitor B until pressure is near to zero.
9) Close vent / drain (B) and monitor at P1 and B for a minimum of 10 minutes. (No
pressure build-up at B indicates the integrity of upstream valve V1).
10) Leave vent / drain (B) in closed position to allow further monitoring.
Note: The two block valves are now closed and secured. The bleed valve is closed but
not locked. It is possible for pressure to build-up between the two block valves therefore
regular monitoring of the isolation is essential; a suitable pressure gauge may be fitted to
the vent to monitor the pressure.
9.2.3 Single Valve Isolation

Vent /Drain Vent /Drain
P1 P2
Break
Point
Live Side
SVI
Figure 9.4 - Single Valve Isolation
P1 – Live side monitoring point (pressure gauge or vent / drain)

P2 – Monitoring point between valves and break point (pressure gauge or vent /
drain
1) Ensure that tapping’s at P1 and P2 are not blocked and that pressure gauges where
installed are operating correctly.
2) Close isolation valve SVI and secure in closed position
3) Note pressure at monitoring points P1 and P2
4) Vent / drain section of line to be broken into and monitor at P2 until the pressure is
near zero.
5) Close downstream vent / drain and monitor P2 for a minimum of 10 minutes. No
pressure build-up at P2 indicates the integrity of the single valve SVI.
6) Leave downstream vent / drain at break point in closed position to allow further
monitoring.
Note: The single isolation valve is now closed and secured and the downstream vent /
drain valve is closed. Any fluid passing through the single valve would be monitored by
means of the mandatory additional safeguards listed in the following table.
9.2.4 Other Isolation Methods

Occasionally there may be the need to isolate sections of pipework where isolations
valves do not exist and an alternative method of temporary isolation must be found.
222
A couple of these other isolation methods are discussed below:

1- Stopple
TDW STOPPLE® Plugging Machines serve as temporary block valves installed

anywhere in a piping system. They are used to isolate a section of line for repairs or
additions without interruption of service.
The STOPPLE Plugging Machine consists of three major sections: a hydraulic cylinder or
jackscrew, a plugging head housing, and a plugging head. Operation of the hydraulic
STOPPLE Plugging Machine is easy due to the location of the control valve, which is
positioned at the lower end of the hydraulic cylinder. The hydraulically operated control
bar has a direct reading scale visible to the operator, enabling him to know the plugging
head position at all times. The TDW STOPPLE Plugging Machine is available for pipe
sizes 4" (DN 100mm) and larger. Its maximum operating temperature is 180°F (82°C).
Figure 9.5 - stopple

2- Freezing
With this method, a refrigerant bag surrounds the pipeline, which is filled with water.
Refrigerant is circulated through the bag and freezes a plug of ice in the pipeline,
effectively sealing the pipeline and allowing work to commence. This method is for
atmospheric or very low pressure systems. And a full risk assessment / method statement
must be taken into account.
Figure 9.6 - freezing
223
SEWER / PIPE PLUGS
Another method of isolating atmospheric / low pressure (LP) systems. This time a
mechanically expandable plug or inflatable bag is inserted into the pipeline then expanded
to form the isolation.
Figure 9.7 - Mechanically Expandable Sewer Plug Figure 9.8 - Inflatable Bag
9.3 DEPRESSURISING / DRAINING

This is the removal of the inventory from the process / utility unit.
9.3.1 Depressurising
This is the removal of the bulk of the vapour / gas phase from the system.
Preferred depressurisation route is to flare, secondary depressurisation route to a vent
stack. Atmospheric depressurisation can only occur under strictly controlled procedures.
Precautions when depressurising plant / equipment.
The rate of depressurisation is important.
It is possible to over-load the flare system, especially if depressurising multiple areas of
the plant. Select which areas are to be depressurised and depressurise sequentially.
When depressurising low boiling point systems, it is possible to reduce the temperature
of the plant to below design conditions. This must be avoided at all costs as in the worst
possible outcome pipework can fracture. Therefore, reduce pressures slowly and monitor
temperatures.
9.3.2 Draining
This is the removal of the bulk of the liquid phase from the system.
Preferred draining route is to a closed system, alternate draining can be to a road tanker.
Draining to atmosphere to a container or bund can only occur under strictly controlled
procedures.
Precautions when draining plant / equipment.
Check that the volume of material to be drained can be accommodated in the drain
system. It is easy to over-load the drain system, especially if draining multiple areas of
the plant. Select which areas are to be drained and drain sequentially.
224
Check temperature of material to be drained is not too hot / too cold for the drain system.
Too hot material may flash-off lighter material already in the drain system. Too cold
material may solidify heavier material already in the drain system.
9.4 CLEANING AND GAS FREEING

After depressurisation and draining, residual hydrocarbon liquids, vapours and gases
must be removed before further work can proceed. Various media can be used for this
purpose but the choice is liable to be governed by what is available at the work location.
9.4.1 Water Flooding

Cold water is usually the most readily available cleaning medium. It is reasonably effective
at displacing hydrocarbons, although it does not easily remove sludge’s or oils trapped in
complex pipework or vessel internal structures
Before a tank or vessel is flooded with water, it must be confirmed that its supporting
structure is capable of sustaining the weight. In addition, adequate run-down and draining
facilities must be provided, as large volumes of water are usually necessary for these
operations.
To avoid a build-up of a static charge when this method is used, water should be added
from the base of the tank or vessel. If a hosepipe is used, the nozzle must be electrically
earthed and the velocity must be kept low until the end is submerged. Flooding with water
is not to be relied upon to remove all hydrocarbon vapour, liquid or solid resides
Water used for displacing and removal of hydrocarbons will be heavily contaminated after
use and must be disposed of in an environmentally responsible manner
9.4.2 Inert Gas

Nitrogen (N2), carbon dioxide (CO2) or combustion gases (N2 & CO2) can be used to
displace hydrocarbon gas and vapour, if available in sufficient quantity. This method may
be useful if it is impracticable to introduce water into a system in case of damage. When
injecting such mixtures care should be taken to ensure that localised freezing of valves
and gauges is not induced due to excessive injection rates.
Particular care should be taken with systems which may contain pyrophoric scale from
high-sulphur bearing hydrocarbons. If such scale is exposed to the air, it may burst into
flame. Water sprays may be used to prevent this by keeping the scale constantly wetted.
A quantity of inert gas at least twice the volume of the vessel being purged is likely to be
necessary to ensure adequate dispersal of hydrocarbon gases. Introduction of gas at
reasonably high velocity is also helpful in ensuring good mixing. Purge with inert gas until
the concentration of flammable vapour is less than 4% in the emerging mixture of
hydrocarbon gas / inert gas.
Normal flammable vapour monitoring (gas testing) devices will not work accurately in
atmospheres which are deficient in oxygen, therefore it is necessary to use specialised
equipment to determine the effectiveness of an inert gas purge.
225
Following displacement of hydrocarbon vapour with inert gas, the vessel or tank should
normally be purged again with air to displace the inert gas in its turn.
This must always be done in cases where man-entry is planned, regardless of any
intended use of PPE.
There are three methods of purging with inert gas:
1. Displacement Purging
2. Pressurisation Purging
3. Dilution Purging
1- Displacement Purging
This method is used for equipment with simple cross sections such as pipelines or tanks.
The volume of nitrogen required corresponds to the physical volume of the pipe or tank.
In many pipelines, a "pig," is introduced and propelled through the pipe by the nitrogen
pressure to clean the line.
Tanks can be filled with water to displace air, then nitrogen introduced into the tank as
the water is drained out. This leaves the tank inerted.
2- Pressurisation Purging
This method is used when conditions do not permit a sweeping action of nitrogen through
the vessel. The vessel is repeatedly pressurised and mixed with nitrogen gas and then
the mixture is exhausted.
3- Dilution Purging
This method is used for equipment cross sections such as distillation columns, kilns,
reactors, etc.
Nitrogen partially mixes with the gas to be purged out, and then the mixture exits through
an outlet located as far as possible from the inlet.
9.4.3 Steam
At on-shore sites, steam may be available in sufficient quantities to permit its use for
purging and cleaning vessels, tanks and pipework.
Steam is the most effective of the common media for this purpose. It should be used at
low pressure, not exceeding 1.0 barg maximum.
Two methods of steaming may be employed; open-steaming or closed-steaming:
Open-steaming is used where the tank or vessel and its associated pipework is fully open
to atmosphere.
Closed-steaming is used for closed vessels and their associated equipment. During this
operation, the temperature is raised allowing volatile liquids to vaporise and disperse
together with the bulk of the steam via the condensing system. The heavy constituents
can flow freely and be drained off with condensed steam from the base of the system.
226
For all but the largest of vessels and tanks, sufficient steam should be available to raise
the external surface temperature to at least 95oC. Steaming should continue until the
condensate flowing from the vessel is substantially free of hydrocarbon.
Steam may be used in the case of process vessels, small storage tanks and medium
sized insulated tanks.
It is essential that following a period of closed-steaming, adequate provision is made to
prevent vacuum damage caused by the condensation of steam. In large tanks the rate of
condensation is such that adequate purging is not possible.
After steaming, it is normal practice to cool down the equipment with of water, this gives
an additional wash to help remove residual hydrocarbons
Where residual material is left in the tank or vessel surface after prolonged steaming,
such residual material may still vaporize on application of heat, eg burning or welding. In
such cases, cold-cutting may be employed or the internal surface kept thoroughly wet
during the heating operation. All temporary steam hoses used must be electrically bonded
and earthed.
9.4.4 Air
Where it is not possible or practicable to use any of the foregoing methods, it may be
necessary to use air to ventilate equipment and remove hydrocarbon vapour
When a decision is made to use this technique, every effort must be made to pump out
as much liquid and sludge as possible before opening the tank or vessel, where
practicable. Forced ventilation must be used so that the flammable vapour is cleared in
the shortest possible time.
During this operation, the flammable range will be passed through, presenting an
explosion hazard if an ignition source is nearby.
All electrical equipment used must be suitable for use in a Zone 1 Hazardous Area. Other
equipment within the hazard range of flammable vapour must be effectively isolated.
Air movers must be fitted at the roof or top manhole so as to pull air in at low level.
Temporary trunking may be needed to achieve high-level disposal. In order to minimise
the emission of gas/vapour when the lower manhole door is opened, the air movers must
be started up first to obtain a slightly negative pressure before the lower manhole is
opened.
Vapour issuing from shell manholes may give rise to dangerous concentrations in a
bunded or confined area and, under such conditions, no kind of ignition source is
permitted. Removal of vapour by air movers attached to the roof manhole is the
recommended safe practice.
Care must be taken when using natural draft ventilation during periods of calm weather,
since vapour released from tanks can travel considerable distances without being
dispersed. Due regard must be given to wind direction and the risks to adjacent premises
and the public.
227
Owing to the possible presence of pyrophoric scale within tanks or vessels that have
contained sour crude or products, provision must be made for continuous wetting of the
internal surfaces by means of water from one or more fog nozzles inserted into the roof
opening. The nozzles must be turned on first and the air movers opened immediately
afterwards.
A shell manhole must be opened after approximately 5 minutes of operation, when the
internals are thoroughly wetted. With the air movers still in operation, the fog nozzles
should be removed and loose scale dislodged with high pressure water streams.
CAUTION: When this method is employed, the water nozzles must be earthed.
9.5 DOCUMENTATION
Control of documentation in preparation for maintenance is essential. There will be large

numbers of documents in circulation for major maintenance on the plant. All these
documents are controlled by the Permit to Work System.
The Permit to Work System and a selection of typical supporting documents are
described below.
9.5.1 Permit to Work

A permit-to-work system is a formal written system used to control certain types of work
that are potentially hazardous. A permit-to-work is a document which specifies the work
to be done and the precautions to be taken.
Permits-to-work form an essential part of safe systems of work for many maintenance
activities. They allow work to start only after safe procedures have been defined and they
provide a clear record that all foreseeable hazards have been considered.
A permit is needed when maintenance work can only be carried out if normal safeguards
are dropped or when new hazards are introduced by the work.
Examples are, entry into vessels, cold work (electrical / mechanical), hot work and
breaking containment.
Examples of the more common and important permits to work and supporting certificates
are described and shown in the following pages.
Abbreviations etc. used within the permits, certificates, together with descriptions of
personnel (position holders) are given in the Definitions section of this Booklet.
Considerations for a Permit to Work
228
Activity Contains Raise

Single permit for each of the hot work
Hot and Cold Work
and cold work tasks
Single electrical permit for the electrical
Electrical Work with associated hot work
work, with linked hot work and cold work
and cold work
permits
Breaking containment of process Single equipment dis-jointing permit with
equipment linked hot work and cold work permits
Complex method statement with
Permits for each discrete task
numerous tasks – Divide the activity into
accordingly
discrete tasks
Tasks spread over large work areas, Separate permits for each Area
broader than that covered by a single Area Authority, clearly defining the boundary
Authority point(s)
229
9.5.2 Cold Work Permit
This is issued for all work requiring a permit, except:

 Hot Work
 Electrical Work
 Break in Containment
For which, separate permits are issued.
A typical example of a cold work permit is shown below.
Figure 9.9 - Cold Work Permit
230
9.5.3 Hot Work Certificate
This certificate issued by Operations in association with a PTW and is used to control hot
work that produces an open flame or spark
It includes, but is not limited to, welding, burning, grinding, heat treatment, stress relieving,
any work involving naked flames, heat guns, electrically powered equipment used in
hazardous areas, and needle guns equipped with sparking tips
A typical example of a Hot Work Permit is shown below.
Figure 9.10 - hot Work Permit
Hot Work Permits are usually coloured red for easy identification.
231
9.5.4 Electric Permit to Work
This gives the permission for the electrical work to be undertaken. A typical example
is shown below.
Figure 9.11 - Electric Permit to Work
232
9.5.5 Break in Containment
A break in containment requires a special permit. This is often a ‘Dis-jointing Permit’,

that allows flanges to be opened.
A typical example of such a permit is shown below.
Figure 9.12 - Break in Containment
233
9.5.6 Electrical Isolation Certificate
This certificate is issued by Operations and is used to provide a formal means of

documenting details for an electrical isolation.
It ensures adequate communication and understanding between all persons involved in

controlling the electrical isolation, and eventual re-energisation of equipment. It must be
accompanied by an Electrical Permit to Work.
A typical example of an Electrical Isolation Certificate is shown below.
Figure 9.13 - Electrical Isolation Certificate
234
9.5.7 Mechanical Isolation Certificate
This certificate is issued by Operations to provide a formal means of documenting, details

for a mechanical isolation.
It ensures adequate communication and understanding between all persons involved in
controlling the mechanical isolation / blinding of systems, sub-systems and auxiliary
equipment and eventual re-energising of equipment.
A typical of a Mechanical Isolation Certificate is shown below.
Figure 9.14 - Mechanical Isolation Certificate
235
9.5.8 Confined Space Entry Certificate
A certificate issued to advise that a confined space is safe to enter
Note: A confined space entry certificate must always be accompanied by a gas test
certificate to verify the atmosphere in the space is hazard free immediately before entry
The entry and gas test certificates must be carried out under a PTW.
A typical example of a Confined Space Entry Certificate is shown below.
Figure 9.15 - Confined Space Entry Certificate
236
9.5.9 Gas Test Certificate
This certificate issued by Operations indicates the levels of oxygen, toxic and
combustible materials in a confined space and must accompany a PTW and a
confined space entry certificate
9.5.10 Heavy Lift Certificate
This certificate issued by Operations is required whenever a load in excess of 15 tons

is being lifted onto the plant or whenever the plant cranes are being used to lift a load
in excess of 15 tons
9.5.11 Sanction to Test Certificate
This certificate, issued by Operations, is required to temporarily remove an isolation

under controlled conditions to facilitate function testing. It provides a formalised
means of controlling the test and helps ensure adequate communications
9.5.12 Valve List
This is a list that identifies the status of valves used in isolating equipment and sections
of plant
9.5.13 Spade List
This is a list that identifies the status of spades / spectacle blinds / full-face flanges
used in isolating equipment and sections of plant
9.5.14 Isolation Register
A written record of the location and description of all physical disconnections and
mechanical isolations (blanks / spades and blank flanges) installed in process piping,
vessels or equipment
This information includes the type of blind, tag number, date installed, date removed,
authorising signatures, and other required information
237
RESOURCES
1- Modelling and Optimisation of Oil and Gas Production Systems by J.D. Jansen and
P.K.Currie – 2004
2- Petroleum Production Engineering by Boyun Guo, William C. Lyons and Ali
Ghalambor – 2007
3- Ejada project
238

تقنية الانتاج ثاني

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

تقنية الانتاج ثاني

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Production technology

Production and filed measurements

KIRKUK OIL TRAINING INSTITUTE

1-Herish wishear noory

BAGHDAD OIL TRAINING INSTITUTE

1- Thamir rada hussain

2- Aziz abdul qadir aziz

BASRA OIL TRAINING INSTITUTE

1- Mohammed noory jaze

2- Wafe nema ziebel

3- Ali diya abdul kareem

Production technology / Second stage 128 hours

# Chapters Hours pages

5 Chemical Treatment And Injection 14 90-107

6 Water Treatment 12 108-139

8 Start Up And Shut Down Of Plant 8 160-213

Well Performance and Improve Oil Recovery

1.2 ARTIFICIAL LEFT SYSTEMS ............................................................................. 4

1.2.1 Sucker rod pumping ....................................................................................... 5

1.2.2 Gas lift ............................................................................................................ 6

1.2.3 Electrical Submersible Pump ......................................................................... 7

1.3 SECONDARY RECOVERY ............................................................................... 10

1.3.1 Gas Injection ................................................................................................ 10

1.3.2 Water Injection ............................................................................................. 11

1.4 EOR TCHNOLOGY............................................................................................ 16

1.4.1 Thermal EOR ............................................................................................... 16

1.4.2 Miscible Gas EOR ........................................................................................ 16

1.4.3 Chemical EOR ............................................................................................. 17

1.5 INFLOW PERFORMANCE RELATIONSHIP .................................................... 19

1.1 OIL RECOVERY

1.2 ARTIFICIAL LEFT SYSTEMS

1- A mechanical device inside the well, such as a pump

1.2.1 Sucker rod pumping

Figure 1.1 - Sucker Rod Pump

1.2.2 Gas lift

Gas may be injected continuously or intermittently, depending on the producing

Figure 1.2 - Gas lift

1.2.3 Electrical Submersible Pump

operational mechanism of radial and mixed flow pumps.

Figure 1.3 - ESP

Figure 1.4 - ESP system

1.3 SECONDARY RECOVERY

Pressure maintenance is a secondary recovery process that is implemented early during

Water injection processes may be designed to:

Spacing of Wells and Well Patterns

Figure 1.5 - wells spaces

Two general types of well locations are common:

1. Peripheral or Central flooding where the injectors are grouped together,

1. Peripheral or Central Flooding

Figure 1.6 - central or peripheral flood

Figure 1.7 - pattern flood

1.4 EOR TCHNOLOGY

Figure 1.8 – Example of Tertiary Recovery – CO2 injection.

Figure 1.9 – Example of Tertiary Recovery - Chemical EOR.

1.5 INFLOW PERFORMANCE RELATIONSHIP

Figure 1.10 - IPR for single-phase liquid well

Figure 1.11 - radial flow in the reservoir

Figure 1.12 - IPR for two-phase flow

Pay zone thickness: h = 53 ft

Figure 1.4 - IPR

Pay zone thickness: h = 30 ft

Crude Oil Treatment

2.1 INTRODUCTION ..................................................................................................... 27