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History 3308 History of Mexico

Student’s Name

Institution Name

Instructors Name

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History 3308 History of Mexico

1. Juan de Torquemada

The Franciscan friar Juan de Torquemada was a missionary of colonial Mexico and is

sometimes called the "eminent Franciscan historian of his day." His monumental work,

Monarqua Indiana ("Indian Monarchy"), a survey of the history and culture of New Spain's

indigenous citizens and a consideration of their conversion to Christianity, was first published in

Spain in 1615 and reissued in 1723. He also served as an administrator, engineer, architect, and

ethnographer (Parkes, 1969). As the "written source of Mexican history, it was predestined to

influence all future chronicles till the twentieth century," Monarquia Indiana was a landmark

publication for the country's history. [2] Later historians like Franciscan Augustin de Vetancurt

and the Jesuit Francisco Javier Clavijero in the 18th century used it. The original work has never

been published in English.

2. Carlos de Siguenza y Gongora

One of the first outstanding minds to emerge from the Spanish viceroyalty of New Spain

was Carlos de Sigüenza y Góngora (Mexico City). He favored New Spain over the old and was

considered a criollo patriot. He was a prolific author and professor who served in several

academic and government posts in the colonies. After expulsion from the Jesuits, he attended

Mexico's Royal and Pontifical University (Parkes, 1969). He flourished academically in

mathematics and discovered a love for the natural sciences that would last the rest of his life.

Since Sigüenza did not have a degree in Mathematics or Astrology (astronomy), he still applied

for a professor job in the fields. Sigüenza successfully advocated for his eligibility to compete
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when it was unclear that he would be allowed to do so. Students competed against one another

for positions for available faculty positions at universities.

3. Francisco Javier Clavijero

The Mexican Jesuit teacher, researcher, and historian Francisco Javier Clavijero

Echegaray. His study of that pre-Columbian history and civilizations in Mesoamerica and the

central Mexico altiplano was invaluable. Still, he was forced to flee to Italy after the eviction of

the Jesuits from Spanish regions (Parkes, 1969). He was an advocate for the Mexican

Enlightenment and history. Veracruz-born Clavigero is well known as the philosopher who

helped bring modern thought to Mexico (a modified Aristotelian cosmology influenced by

eighteenth-century sciences with an emphasis on the empirically based critical analysis). Before

the expulsion of the Jesuits from the Spanish Empire in 1767, he worked as a teacher in Jesuit

colegios in both Valladolid (present-day Morelia) and Guadalajara.

4. Repartimiento

Repartimiento, also known as mita or cuatequil in Spanish America, was a system that

authorized select colonists to enlist natives for involuntary labor. The repartimiento system

allowed Spanish colonists to use inexpensive work in industries like agriculture and mining

(Parkes, 1969). Native Americans suffered from the system since they were transported against

their will to serve their mandatory labor terms. Despite the low pay and lack of ownership

protections, the repartimiento system cannot be considered slavery. But, in reality, the treatment

of workers was not dissimilar to that of enslaved people.

5. Wage labor (debt peonage)

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Thousands of people, men and women were subjected to years of servitude to a master

under this system, known as debt peonage. The 1700s saw the establishment of this form of

indentured labor in what was then a Spanish province. Keeping slaves was declared illegal by the

U.S. Congress in 1867 (Parkes, 1969). Nonetheless, many black males in the South were forced

into peonage in various ways following Reconstruction, and the practice was not banned until the

1940s. And Employers often fronted workers cash to cover early transportation costs or wages,

and workers often agreed to labor for free until they were caught up. In some cases, the debts

were swiftly repaid, and a mutually beneficial arrangement was created between the employee

and the company.

6. Catholic Church in the Baroque era

Baroque, The Vatican in Rome, was the seat of the Roman Catholic Church. Popes, like

rulers, utilized patronage as a tool of power. They invested much in construction, commissioned

artwork, and art collections (Parkes, 1969). Some popes influence the creative climate by

supporting a select group of artists or a particular medium or theme. Although Lutheran Baroque

art also evolved in areas of Europe, it was primarily funded by the Catholic Church to respond to

the purity and severity of contemporary Protestant architecture, art, and music.

7. The Enlightenment in Mexico

Once the Bourbon monarchy was established in Spain in the eighteenth century, the

principles of a Spanish Enlightenment, which valued reason, science, pragmatism, clarity instead

of ignorance, and secularism, were exported to the New World by way of France (Parkes, 1969).

Educated elites in Spanish America were influenced by Enlightenment concepts, notably in cities
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like Mexico City, Lima, and Guatemala that had colleges established in the 16th and 17th

centuries. Before the first Spanish Bourbons came to power, intellectuals born in the Americas

participated in the intellectual and scientific dialogue in Spain's academic institutions. The oldest

and most well-researched is the Guatemala's University of San Carlos, which opened in 1676. To

give a broad timeline, the Spanish American Enlightenment may have begun with Charles III's

ascension to the Spanish throne in 1759 and ended with the rise of independence wars in 1810.

8. Jose Antonio Alzate and the colegio de mineria

Priest, scientist, historian, geographer, and journalist: Jose Antonio de Alzate contributed

significantly to the study and documentation of New Spain. As a man of science, he placed a

premium on studying physics, astronomy, and mathematics. He performed several experiments

and had several publications published in academic journals. The Colegio de Mineria, often

known as the Palace of Mining or the Palace for Mines, is a neoclassical edifice in Mexico City,

Mexico. Between the years 1797 and 1813, Valencian Spanish artist the architect Manuel Tolsá

conceived and constructed it.

9. Churrigueresque architectural style

Extreme, expressive, and florid ornamental ornamentation is characteristic of the

Churrigueresque style of Spanish Baroque architecture, which arose as a way of stucco

decoration in the late seventeenth century and was utilized up until roughly 1750. There were

three distinct eras during the style's evolution (Parkes, 1969). The Churriguera spread Guarino

Guarini's "supreme order," combining Solomonic column and composite order, between 1680
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and 1720. The Churrigueresque column, also known as an estimate, took the form of the inverted

cone and obelisk and became a staple of decorative art between 1720 and 1760.

10. Neoclassical architectural style

The Neoclassical movement, which originated in Italy and France around the middle of

the 18th century, gave rise to the Neoclassical style of architecture. It quickly rose to prominence

as a significant Western architectural movement (Parkes, 1969). Even though Renaissance and

Baroque architecture, the two dominant types in most of Europe for the two preceding centuries,

depicted incomplete remakes of Classical architecture of ancient Rome but also ancient Greece,

the Neoclassical movement sought to eliminate the extremes of Late Baroque and come back to a

purer and even more authentic classical style, modified for modern purposes. The birth of

Neoclassical architecture owes much to advancing archaeology and publishing reliable accounts

of the remaining classical structures.

11. Peninsulares and criollos in the Baroque era

Individuals born in the Americas, or criollos, were distinct from those born in Spain or

the peninsular. It was widely held that Criollos were inherently less capable than native-born

citizens. Mestizos, people of mixed Indian and Spanish ancestry, were a rapidly expanding

demographic in early modern America. The Spanish were as varied in appearance and origin as

the Indians they encountered. It's possible that some of the troops and missionaries came from

Spain. In addition, long-time New Spain inhabitants arrived (Mexico) (Parkes, 1969). Those born

in the Americas were called criollos, while those from Spain were called peninsulares. Criollos

were looked down upon in favor of native-born citizens. Mestizos, of mixed Indian and Spanish
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ancestry, comprised one of the fastest-expanding communities in early modern America. They

were the foundation of the Spanish empire within the Americas, despite having a culture that was

a fusion of Indian and Spanish influences yet bearing Spanish names. Most soldiers were

mestizos, and after the war, many went on to careers as merchants, artisans, and government

officials.

12. Bourbon reforms

Since 1700, during the majority of the 18th century, the Spanish Crown, under several

rulers of the House of Bourbon, implemented a series of changes in politics and economy known

as the Bourbon Reforms. Expanded colonial resource extraction, higher taxes, particular trading

ports for Spain, and the creation of government monopolies were all part of the new wave of

reforms. A lot of the political, economic, and social concerns of Spain and its colonies were

molded by the Bourbon reforms of the eighteenth century. Local elites in Peru regarded the

changes as a chance to advance the Crown's interests by reshaping people's ideas about and

access to healthcare.

13. Jose del Campillo and Jose de Galvez

The Spanish politician José del Campillo. The Bourbon Reforms, in which the Spanish

monarchy restructured its empire, owed much to the ideas he had written about. He was sent to

the Inquisition in 1726 on charges of reading heretical texts (Parkes, 1969). While the case

against him was dropped, it illustrates the Holy Office's vexatious authoritarianism and the

chilling impact it had to have, even in its decay on all forms of intellectual endeavor. A Spanish

lawyer, a Visitador general of New Spain, José de Gálvez, was subsequently assigned to a
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Council of the Indies. He was the first Marquess of Sonora. Simply put, he was significant in

bringing about the Bourbon Reforms.

14. Consulado de Comerciantes in Mexico City

Established in 1543, the Consulado de mercaderes became Seville's merchant guild. The

Consulado had near monopolistic power over products sent to the Americas via the city's regular

and tightly regulated West Indies Fleet. In 1594, peninsular commercial merchants who engaged

in long-distance commerce and often married local aristocratic families with economic links

established a consulate in Mexico City. They needed to have at least 28,000 pesos in liquid

assets. While it was against the rules for them to engage in direct retail, they frequently did it.

15. Bourbon reforms in Guadalajara

For Mexico in the 18th century, the Bourbon Reforms included governmental and

economic changes. A Look at Guadalajara's Rural Economy from 1675 to 1820. The initial

changes were made to strengthen Spain's economy and government. With an eye on monitoring

and encouraging regional and national economic integration and growth, they set out to improve

agricultural practices, shipbuilding, and infrastructure. A rope of imperial competition between

the British, the French, and the Portuguese was tightening around the necks of the Spanish

overseas (Parkes, 1969). Competition for control of Atlantic commerce was fierce. The Spanish

Bourbons made continual short-term modifications colonial and, increasingly, continental war-

making to deal with Spain's most pressing issue: it is neighbor. Since the hegemonic nations

competed with one another for territory, war was inevitable.

16. Mining reforms

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To achieve their objective of increasing Spain's riches, the Bourbons instituted several

mining reforms, which reversed the collapse of mining in New Spain. When tunnels were dug

deeper, flooding became more straightforward, and the cost and time required to recover mineral

ores increased, leading to the mines' gradual decline (Parkes, 1969). As a result, the Spanish

Crown instituted several changes intended to reinvigorate the mines and foster the development

of new ones. Lower wages for workers gave mine owners more say over production costs;

cheaper, better-distributed gunpowder helped streamline production; and a more reliable, less

expensive mercury supply made refining silver ore easier. Output from mines was also excluded

from taxation due to the changes. New Spain's mining regulations and the Tribunal de Minera in

Lima were established in 1787 to regulate and improve the mining industry. The Tribunal

launched a new mining academy, the Royal Mining Seminary, with mixed results in 1792.

During the Bourbons, mining output soared, with Mexico's silver production growing by more

than 15 million Pesos. Historians are split on whether this expansion can be attributed to

Bourbon reforms or the increasing interest of businesspeople in mining at the time.

17. Military and political reforms

It was in 1857 that Benito Juárez established a new constitution as part of his Liberal

Reforms, which aimed to limit the influence of the military and the Church. Before 1848,

political discourse in Germany centered on a need for military Reform. Critics charged that

sovereign standing armies were merely tools of monarchical rule, deployed for repression at will,

and were cut off from the rest of society (Parkes, 1969). Under the presidency of Ignacio

Comonfort, liberals and conservatives clashed over the proclamation of the Constitution of 1857.

This conflict, known as the Reform War or the Three Years' War, lasted from January 11, 1858,
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until January 11, 1861. The fuero was abolished, the Mexican Army was de-emphasized, the

secular state was bolstered via public education, and the country's economic growth was

encouraged by the constitution's liberal policy to restrict the political and economic as the

cultural authority of the Catholic Church.

18. Religious reforms

Specific anticlerical laws were enacted during the Reform to limit the Church's influence

in public education, land ownership, and the administration of birth, marriage, and death records.

Military hero Antonio López de Santa Anna was elected as president in 1833. Still, instead of

exercising power, he decided to retire to his estate in Veracruz, emphasizing the hands of his vice

president, radical liberal Valentn Gómez Faras (Parkes, 1969). This gave voice to the reactionary

tendencies of Mexican liberals who objected to the governmental powers of a Catholic Church

and its total dominance in economic matters. Through a series of decrees beginning in 1855,

Benito Juárez nationalized church property, established a wall of separation between Church and

state, and shut down religious institutions. Religious institutions and the clergy were denied their

most fundamental civil and political rights, and their holdings were taken.

19. French revolution and Spain

Napoleon Bonaparte, emperor of France, invaded Spain on February 16, 1808, claiming

he was doing so to reinforce the French army holding Portugal. So started the Peninsular War, a

pivotal conflict in the Napoleonic Wars between France and most of Europe from 1792 to 1815.

Most Spaniards hated French rule and waged a terrible battle to eliminate the occupiers. The

Peninsula War, which lasted from 1808 to Napoleon's defeat by the Sixth Coalition in 1814, is
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sometimes cited as the first conflict of national liberation. It also marks a turning point in the

development of guerilla warfare on a grand scale.

20. Jose de Iturrigaray

Viceroy of New Spain between January 4, 1803, and September 16, 1808, José de

Iturrigaray served in the Spanish army during the Napoleonic invasion and subsequent creation

of the Bonapartist administration in Spain (Parkes, 1969). Attempts to construct an interim

autonomous administration resulted in his arrest and removal from office. Godoy appointed

Iturrigaray viceroy of New Spain after serving as the governor of Cádiz from 1793 to 1798.

21. The Bajio in central Mexico

Culturally and geographically, the Bajio region of central Mexico stretches roughly from

the suburbs northwest of Mexico City to the country's primary silver mines, mainly in the

country's north-central part (Parkes, 1969). Western-central Mexico's Bajo is an area on the

Mexican Plateau. Throughout the 19th century, Bajo has been a crucial agricultural location

thanks to its rich soil, mild temperature, and sufficient rainfall. Principal crops include wheat,

maize (corn), chickpeas, beans, and other fruits.

22. Criollo discontent before independence

For the sake of consolidating their authority, Creoles fought for freedom. They

accomplished this by working to better the country's economic and political climate. Many

creoles believed they could take control of South America if they could obtain independence

from the Spanish. The Creoles detested the purely Spanish Peninsulares. Events on the

diplomatic and military fronts in Europe were the ultimate spark that set off movements for

independence in South America that had been brewing for some time. A chain of events began
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when the Spanish monarchy allied with France in 1795, increasing the geographical, political,

and economic distance between Spain and her American possessions.

23. Ignacio Allende

The Spanish army captain Ignacio Allende eventually sided with the Mexican

independence struggle. A potential independent Mexico was considered at the secret sessions he

attended, which were conducted the Josefa Ortiz de Dominguez (Parkes, 1969). He was a

Spanish army commander of Mexican ancestry who defected and fought for the revolution. He

fought alongside Father Miguel Hidalgo y Costilla, known as the "Father of Mexican

Independence," at the outset of the fight.

24. Miguel Hidalgo

Known as the "Father of the Country," Miguel Hidalgo was a priest who led Mexico to

independence from Spain (Parkes, 1969). As a result of his efforts, he is often called the "Father

of Mexican Independence." His family's property was in rural Guanajuato, where he was born.

At present-day Morelia, at the Colegio de San Nicolás Obispo, he excelled as a student of both

theology and philosophy.

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References

Parkes, H. B. (1969). A History of Mexico. Mariner Books.