Thinai concepts of Tamil Sangam Age
as Tinais . The five Tinais referred to in the Sangam literature
3. SOCIETY, ECONOMY, RELIGION
AND CULTURE OF THE SANGAM AGE
Learning Objectives:
To know the social life of the Sangam Tamils.
To know the life of the people in five different
landscapes or Tinais.
To know the condition of women during the Sangam Age.
To know the economic life of the Sangam Tamils.
To understand the religion and culture of the Sangam
Tamils.
The Sangam Age in Tamil country is significant and
unique for its social, economic, religious and cultural life of the
Tamils. There was an all round development during this period.
The Sangam literature as well as the archaeological findings
reveal these developments.
Social Life:
In the Sangam Age, the Tamil people had a common
language and culture. But, they lived in five different natural
landscapes.
25
These natural landscapes or geographical regions were known
were Kurinji, Mullai, Marudham, Neydal and Palai. Each
Tinai was geographically distinct from the other. Moreover,
each of these regions had reflected their own social
characteristics.
Kurinji:
The Kurinji Tinai refers to the hilly region. The people in
this region were called Vettuvar and Kuravar. Hunting was
their primary occupation. They also cultivated fruits and
vegetables and gathered honey. They worshipped Murugan or
Seyon.
Mullai:
It is a forest tract with green pastures. The people of this
region domesticated animals. The people of the Mullai region
were called as Kovalar or Ayar. Being shepherds, they
produced dairy products like milk, curd and ghee. Their chief
deity was Thirumal or Mayon.
Marudham:
The region Marudham refers to fertile and cultivable
lands. Most of the people in this region were called as Vellalars
because they practised agriculture. They cultivated paddy, sugar
cane and a variety of fruits like mango, plantain and Jackfruit.
Irrigation methods were also known to them. Their chief deity
was Indra or the rain God.
Neydal:
Neydal was the coastal region. The people of this region
were known as Parathavar or Meenavar. Fishing was their
natural occupation. They were also famous sailors. A few
26
people of this region produced and sold salt. They were called
as Umanar. The God of the Neydal region was Varunan or the
God of the sea.

25 26
 Palai:
The term Palai refers to the desert region. But, there was no
desert in the Tamil country. Therefore, it could be said that
whenever there was drought due to failure of rains, that region
was called as Palai. The people of this region were called as
Maravar or Kalvar. They were forced to live as robbers due to
poverty. Maravar were also known for their heroism. These
people worshipped the Goddess Kotravai or Kali.
We have already studied about the pre-historic society in
the Tamil country. The Sangam age was the continuation of the
pre-historic period. As in the pre-historic period, the life of the
people in the Sangam age had remained simple and natural. The
Sangam Tamils had chosen their occupation according to their
natural environment. Although they lived in five different
regions, there was a close interaction between them. This
interaction had resulted in the development of a common
language and culture in the Tamil country.
Learn the importance of protecting the natural
environment for healthy living.
Social Divisions:
The Tamil society during the Sangam period was broadly
divided into several groups. In the beginning of the Sangam Age,
the Tamil society was not organised on the basis of the Vedic
caste system, namely Brahmanas, Kshatriyas, Vaisyas and
Sudras. However, the earliest of the Sangam literature,
Tolkappiyam refers to the four divisions prevalent in the Sangam
society namely, Anthanar, Arasar, Vaisiyar and Vellalar. It
may be said that this classification roughly corresponds to the
Vedic social division.
27
Another Sangam work, Purananuru mentions the names of
ancient Tamil tribes such as Tudiyan, Panan, and Kadamban.
These divisions indicate the complex social structure prevalent
in the Sangam Age.
Status of Women:
The Sangam literature describes the position of women in
ancient Tamil society. In the Sangam Age, women were treated
with special consideration. The natural feminine qualities such
as Achcham, Madam and Nanam were insisted in the Sangam
literature. Their most important virtue was chastity. The heroine
of Silappathigaram, Kannagi had been hailed for her chastity
and worshipped by the people. The women were given freedom
to choose their life partners during the Sangam period. The
concept of love had been elaborately discussed in Agananuru.
Women treated their husbands as equivalent to God
during the Sangam period. They were not permitted to remarry
and inherit property. Sati or the custom of self-immolation at
the death of one’s husband was not generally prevalent during
this period. However, some women from the royal family
indulged in the practice of Sati. According to the Sangam
literature, a woman had to play different roles in the family such
as a dutiful wife, responsible mother and an ideal hostess to
guests. Women’s education was also insisted during the Sangam
Age. We come to know a few women poets like Avvaiyar,
Kakkai Padiniyar and Nachchellaiyar, whose verses are found
in the Sangam literature. Sangam women were also known for
their courage. However, from the post-Sangam period, there
was a decline in the status of women.
Food and Hospitality:
Rice was the staple food during the Sangam period. The food
-habits varied among the people according to their economic
28
 status.

27 28
The rich had their feasts every day, while the poor took simple
food. Chewing betel leaves was most common among the
people. Offering betel leaves to guests had become a social
formality. Hospitality was a special virtue of the Sangam Tamils.
The Sangam literature describes how hosts had always been
waiting to welcome guests.
Try to know the custom of hospitality prevalent in
modern times.
Dress and Ornaments:
The Sangam Tamils paid more attention to their dress. It
varied according to their status. The rich wore silk and fine
cotton garments. The middle class people generally wore two
pieces of clothes made of cotton. Women paid much attention to
their hairstyle. They used flowers like Jasmine to decorate their
plaits and tufts. Both men and women used perfumes made of
sandal and flowers.
The Sangam literature refers to a variety of ornaments
worn by both men and women. They were made of gold, silver,
pearls and precious stones. Poor people used ornaments made of
shells and beads.
Economic Life:
Generally, the Tamil society had enjoyed an affluent
economy during the Sangam Age. Agriculture, industry, trade
and commerce made the Sangam Tamils almost self-sufficient.
Exports were also made to the other parts of the world.
Agriculture:
The chief occupation of the people was agriculture. Paddy
was the main crop. Millet, grams and sugarcane were also
29
cultivated. Irrigation through rivers, tanks and wells was used for
cultivation.
Occupation:
Weaving and spinning were the most important crafts of
the Sangam period. Uraiyur and Madurai were the main
centres for the manufacture of cotton fabrics. The weavers
produced and exported fine cotton clothes. The word Kalingam
refers to very nice garments. The Sangam literature refers to
clothes, which were thinner than steam. Silk clothes were also
produced in the Tamil country. Other craftsmen like the
carpenter, blacksmith, goldsmith and potter had practised their
respective occupations. Fishing and hunting had also remained
as important occupation during this period.
Trade and Commerce:
In the beginning of the Sangam Age, the barter system of
trade was followed. Generally, the people exchanged their
commodities with their neighbours. For example, the people of
Kurinji region exchanged honey with the people of Neydal
region for getting fish and salt. Likewise, the Mullai people
gave their milk products to Marudham people to get rice from
them.
Later, when they began to use coins, trade picked up
rapidly. Local markets came up and they were known as
Angadis. Both Day Market (Nalangadi) and Evening Bazaar
(Allangadi) existed in port towns. The Pattinappalai refers to
their existence at Puhar. Goods from distant places were
brought to these markets. The expansion of trade led to the
growth of towns. Moreover, export of goods to other countries
had increased. (It will be described in the next chapter).
30
 Religion: of the people.

We have already referred to the five Gods worshipped in

the five different regions. In addition to these Gods, the Sangam
Tamils worshipped their ancestors. They erected memorial
stones called as Nadukal. They were also known as Hero
Stones or Virakkal. Such stones were erected in memory of
those who died in battles.

Try to understand the significance of the ancestral

worship. This tradition is still in practice.

The Sangam people had also worshipped the natural

objects. For example, the Sun, Moon, Earth, rivers and
mountains became their objects of worship. Neem tree was
considered sacred.
Cultural Life:
The Sangam Tamils enjoyed a high degree of cultural life.
Their interests in education, literature, music, dance, drama and
festivals have been described in the Sangam literature.
Education and Literature:
Education was common for all, men and women, rich and
poor and for different communities. Parents attached importance
to the education of their children. The Purananuru describes that
it is the duty of the father to make his children learned.
“ It remains the duty of the father to make his
children learned” - Purananuru.

The bulk of the Sangam literature written by about 500

poets indicates the importance given to education. The poets of
the Sangam period played vital role in the social and culture life
31 32
 Recreation:

The people of the Sangam Age had spent their time in

excellent ways of recreations. Poetry, music, dance and drama
were significant. The Sangam poets made the kings as well as
the people through rendering beautiful verses. The bards made
merry in the king’s courts. The rulers and nobles patronized
them with liberal donations. Hunting was another important
recreation. The young and energetic took part in duals, while the
old played indoor games like dice. Women and girl children had
their own games to play and evinced much interest in
swimming.

Fine Arts:

The Sangam Tamils had also established their greatness in

fine arts. They developed the concept of Muthamizh – Iyal,
Isai and Natakam. The Panars or bards were experts in music.
They moved from place to place, singing bards in praise of
kings and local chieftains. Later, the Tamils developed musical
notes or swarams. The musical tune was known as Pann.
Several musical instruments were also used. Shells, drums, flute
and lutes were famous instruments. Karikalan had been hailed
as Ezhisai Vallavan. The art of dancing was encouraged during
the Sangam period. Attam and Koothu were performed during
festivals. Tholkaappiyam refers to Natakam or Drama. The art
of painting was also known to the Sangam Tamils. They
celebrated several festivals. Kaarthigai, Onam and Indra
festival were some of them. The Indra festival had been
celebrated annually at Puhar. The dance and music had its
religious connotation from the earliest times.

31 32
 Learning Outcomes: 2. Those who produced and sold salt were called as
(a) Paradhavar (b) Vellalar (c) Umanar
1. Pupil has learnt that the social life of the Sangam
Tamils was based on the natural environment. 3. The book which refers to the trade in Puhar
(a) Padhittrupaththu (b) Pattinappalai (c) Thirukkural
2. Understands the status of women in the Sangam
age - their duties, different roles such as wife, 4. The chief God of Marudham region
mother and hostess. Realises that women play (a) Varunan (b) Murugan (c) Thirumal
important role in the development of society. III. Fill in the Blanks:
3. Learnt that agriculture, industry and commerce 1. The hilly region was known as tinai.
were prevalent during the Sangam period.
2. The people of Palai region worshipped --.
4. Understands the religion and ancestral worship
prevalent during the Sangam Age. 3. The guests were offered with during the Sangam period.
5. Learnt about the education, literature, music and 4. was known as evening bazaar.
dance during the Sangam period. Realises the
responsibility of preserving such ancient arts - 5. were known as Muttamil.
Koothu and Natakam. IV. Match the Following:
1. Paradhavar (a) Vettuvar
SELF - EVALUATION
2. Kurinji (b) Poetess
I. Say True or False: 3. Nachchellaiyar (c) Sangam Age
worship
1. Hunting was the chief occupation of the people of the Kurinji
4. Seyon (d) Neydal
region.
5. Nadukal (e) Mullai
2. There were plenty of deserts in Tamil Nadu.
V. Answer briefly:
3. The Sangam women possessed the right to inherit property.
1. Mention the social divisions of the Sangam Age.
4. The custom of receiving guests was popular during the Sangam
period. 2. What were the five Tinais?

II. Choose the Correct Answer: 3. Mention a few women poets lived during the Sangam period.

1. Coastal region was known as 4. Write about the dress and ornaments of the Sangam people.
(a) Kurinji (b) Marudham (c) Neydal 5. Write a note on agriculture during the Sangam period.

33 34
6. What were the chief occupations of the Sangam people?
7. Write about the barter system of trade during the Sangam period.
8. Write a note on Nadukal worship.
9. What were the important festivals of the Sangam period?
VI. Answer in detail:
1. Describe the social life of the Sangam Tamils.
2. Explain the status of women during the Sangam Age.
3. Write about the economic life of the Sangam Tamils.
4. Describe the culture of the Sangam Age.
VII. Fill up the boxes with the help of your lesson:
Tinai Nature of the Occupation Deity
land
Kurinji
Mullai
Marudham
Neydal
Palai

Practical Exercises
1. Learn from your teacher the details of the five Tinais.
2. Make models of five Tinais and exhibit in your classroom.
3. Write essays on the socio-economic and cultural life of the
Sangam Tamils.
4. Learn about the ancient music instruments of Tamil Nadu.
5. Compose dance and drama based on the Sangam poems and
enact them in school functions.

35
Flora and Fauna of Tamils
Flora and Fauna in Tamil Nadu | தமிழ்நாட்டில் தாவரங்கள் மற்றும் விலங்கினங்கள்
Flora and Fauna in Tamil Nadu: Flora refers to plant life whereas fauna refers to animal life. Read the Article to get detail information about Flora
and Fauna in Tamil Nadu.
Flora and Fauna: Flora refers to all plant life and fauna refers to all animal life. Fauna cannot prepare their own food so they depend upon the flora
for their food. Flora refers to plant life whereas fauna refers to animal life. On the other side, abiotic factors are the non-living components of the
interconnected network of the ecosystem including water, soil, temperature, sunlight, pollution and wind. Read the Article to get detail information
about Flora and Fauna in Tamil Nadu.
Whats is Flora?
தாவர வாழ்க்கையின் மக்கள்தொகை, ஒரு குறிப்பிட்ட புவியியல் பகுதி அல்லது நேரத்தில் பூஞ்சை, பாசிகள்
மற்றும் உள்நாட்டு தாவரங்கள் உள்ளிட்ட இயற்கை தாவரங்கள் தாவரங்கள் என்று அழைக்கப்படுகிறது. “மலரின்
தெய்வம்” என்று அறியப்பட்ட தாவரங்கள் முழு தாவர இராச்சியத்தையும் பிரதிபலிக்கின்றன. பல்வேறு
காரணிகளைப் பொறுத்து இது பல்வேறு வகைகளாக வகைப்படுத்தலாம். பாலைவனங்களில் வளரும் சில
தாவரங்கள், சில நீரில் வளரும், மற்றும் சில மலைப்பகுதிகளில் காணப்படும், முதலியன தாவரங்களை
உருவாக்குகின்றன. ஒரு குறிப்பிட்ட பகுதியில் வளரும் தாவரங்களும் தழுவல்களைக் கொண்டிருக்கும்;
எடுத்துக்காட்டாக, கற்றாழை, ஒரு பாலைவன தாவரம், பாலைவனங்களில் மாற்றியமைக்கப்பட்ட இலைகள்
மற்றும் முட்கள் போன்ற மாற்றங்களுடன் தண்ண ீரைப் பாதுகாப்பதற்கும் வேட்டையாடுபவர்களிடமிருந்து
பாதுகாப்பதற்கும் காணப்படுகிறது.

மலர்களும் ஃப்ளோரா வகைக்குள் அடங்கும், ஆண்கள் விவசாய மற்றும் அலங்கார பூக்களை பயிரிடுகிறார்கள்
மற்றும் இந்த நடைமுறை தோட்டக்கலை என்று அழைக்கப்படுகிறது. இலக்கிய குறிப்புகள், வாழ்விடங்கள்,
புவியியல் பரவல், பூக்கும் நேரம், விளக்கப்படங்கள் மற்றும் பலவற்றை உள்ளடக்கியதால், ஒரு குறிப்பிட்ட
தாவரவியல் பொருள் அதன் அறிவியல் பெயரில் ஆழமாக உள்ளது.
What is Fauna?
ஒரு குறிப்பிட்ட பகுதியில் அல்லது காலப்பகுதியில் உள்ள விலங்குகளின் மக்கள்தொகை விலங்கினங்களைக்
குறிக்கிறது. ‘கருவுறுதல் தெய்வம்’ என்பது விலங்கினங்களுக்கு வழங்கப்பட்ட பெயர் மற்றும் இது பல்வேறு
வகையான விலங்கு உயிர்களைக் கொண்டுள்ளது. விலங்கு இராச்சியத்தின் வகைப்பாடு பறவைகள், மீ ன்,
35
நுண்ணுயிரிகள் மற்றும் கிரிப்டோபவுனா அதாவது கண்டுபிடிக்கப்படாத விலங்குகள் உள்ளிட்ட வகைகளின் கீ ழ்
பரவலாகக் கிடைக்கிறது.

அவிஃபவுனா என்பது பறவைகளைக் குறிக்கும் ஒரு சொல், பிசிஃபவுனா என்பது மீ ன்களைக் குறிக்கும் சொல்.
மைக்ரோஃபானா என்பது ஆர்க்கியா மற்றும் பாக்டீரியா போன்ற களங்கள் உட்பட நுண்ணிய உயிரினங்களுக்கு
வழங்கப்படும் சொல். விலங்கினங்கள் என்பது ஒரு குறிப்பிட்ட வாழ்விடத்தில் வாழும் அனைத்து வகையான
விலங்குகளையும் குறிக்கும். ஃபெசண்ட் முதல் கழுகு வரை பறவைகள், எலி முதல் காட்டெருமை வரை
பாலூட்டிகள், புழுக்கள் முதல் ஊர்வன, பூச்சிகள், மண் மற்றும் நீர் விலங்கினங்கள், முதலியன ஒன்றோடொன்று
தொடர்புடைய அனைத்து உயிரினங்களும் விலங்கினங்களின் வகையின் கீ ழ் வருகின்றன.
Famous for Flora and Fauna
ராஜீவ் காந்தி தேசியப் பூங்கா என்று பிரபலமாக அறியப்படும் நாகர்ஹோல் தேசியப் பூங்கா, தாவரங்கள் மற்றும்
விலங்கினங்கள் உட்பட அதன் வளமான வனவிலங்குகளைக் கொண்டுள்ளது.
How many species of fauna are found in Tamil Nadu
மாநிலத்தின் விலங்கின பன்முகத்தன்மையில் 165 வகையான நன்ன ீர் மீ ன்கள், 76 வகையான நீர்வழ்ச்சிகள்,
ீ 177
வகையான ஊர்வன, 454 வகையான பறவைகள் மற்றும் 187 வகையான பாலூட்டிகள் உள்ளன.
Flora and Fauna in Tamil Nadu
தமிழ்நாடு காட்டுத் தாவரப் பன்முகத்தன்மையில் ஏராளமான பிரையோபைட்டுகள், லைகன்கள், பூஞ்சைகள்,
பாசிகள் மற்றும் பாக்டீரியாக்கள் உள்ளன. விலங்கினங்களின் பன்முகத்தன்மை: தமிழ்நாட்டின் விலங்கினப்
பன்முகத்தன்மையில் 165 வகையான நன்ன ீர் மீ னங்கள், 76 வகையான நீர்வழ்ச்சிகள்,
ீ 177 வகையான ஊர்வன, 454
வகையான பறவைகள் மற்றும் 187 வகையான பாலூட்டிகள் உள்ளன.
Importance of Flora
விலங்கினங்கள் சுவாச நடவடிக்கைகளுக்காக உட்கொள்ளும் ஆக்ஸிஜனை தாவரங்கள் விடுவிக்கின்றன.
விலங்கினங்கள், ஒளிச்சேர்க்கைக்காக தாவரங்களால் நுகரப்படும் கார்பன் டை ஆக்சைடை விடுவிக்கிறது.
தாவரங்கள் மற்றும் விலங்கினங்கள் அதன் மருத்துவ மற்றும் உணவு பிரசாத மூலம் மனிதகுலத்திற்கு பெரிதும்
பயனளிக்கின்றன.

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TAMIL NADU –LAND OF RICH BIODIVERSITY                                    TAMIL NADU BIO-DIVERSITY RULES 2017   
Tamil Nadu, the southernmost State of the Indian peninsula is spread over 1,30,058 sq.km land mass and accounts for
about 4 % of the total area of the country. It lies between 8° 05' and 13° 34' North latitudes and 76° 14' and 80° 21' East
longitudes. The topography of Tamil Nadu broadly consists of the coastal plains in the east, uplands and hills as one
proceeds westwards. The central plains account for more than half the area of the State. The geographical area of the State
has a roughly rhomboidal appearance with the longer diagonal of it stretching from Pulicat Lake in the north to
Kanniyakumari in the south and the shorter diagonal from Gudalur in the west to Point Calimere in the east.

Tamil Nadu is endowed with rich biodiversity, right from marine coastal systems in the Gulf of Mannar to terrestrial
evergreen forests in the Western Ghats. Tamil Nadu shares the Western Ghats with the States of Kerala, Karnataka, Goa,
Maharashtra and Gujarat. It shares the Eastern Ghats with the States of Andhra Pradesh and Orissa.
THE PIONEERS IN SEARCH OF THE PRESIDENCY'S FLORA

Botanical description of the Presidency's vegetation owe to the hard and dedicated work of few explorers, some of whom
served as early foresters here. J. S. Gamble was requested to undertake the preparation of a Flora of the Presidency of
Madras in 1912, a task for which he was remarkably well qualified owing to the exceptional knowledge of the flora, he had
acquired during his long service in the Presidency as Conservator of Forests. During the course of his extensive and careful
tours, he made very complete collection of plants of the Presidency, formed and maintained a private herbarium, which he
subsequently presented to the Royal Botanical Gardens at Kew, England.

The  first  part  of  the  'Flora  of  the  Presidency  of  Madras'(Ranunculaceae to Opiliaceae), consisting of 200 pages, was
published in November 1915 and the draft of the botanical portion of the first 132 pages was prepared by S. T. Dunn, as
explained by Gamble in his introduction to this part, since Gamble had not at that time completed his Malayan work. The
remainder of this part and the editing of the whole and the preparation of Parts II to VII inclusive were undertaken entirely by
Gamble. Part II was published in 1918 and was followed by Part III in 1919, Parts IV, V, VI and VII in 1921, 1923, 1924 and
1925, respectively. This mammoth task could not be completed in the lifetime of Gamble and Part VII was published very
shortly after his death on October 16th 1925. Publication of this part carried the compilation of this work to the end of the
Euphorbiaceae. With the consent of the Government of India and of Mrs. Gamble, further continuation of the 'Flora' was
entrusted to C. E. C. Fischer, who was also formerly a member of the Imperial Forest Service and the then Assistant for
India at the Kew Gardens. With many years of experience in the Presidency and his exceptional knowledge of the flora, the
onerous task of publication of Parts VIII, IX and X was completed in 1928, 1931 and 1934, respectively.

35
 THE FLORA OF THE NILGIRIS AND PULNEY HILL TOPS

The early explorers evinced keen interest in documenting the floral assemblage of the hills as well. The first account of the
flora of the Pulney Hills was published by Robert Wight in the Journal of the Madras Literary and Scientific Society in 1837.
Twenty one years later Col. Beddome published in the same journal, a list of 700 species collected from the Pulneys and he
also wrote an account of the flora of the Nilgiris for the Nilgiri District Manual. Mrs. Mackay's charmingly wrote on Wild
flowers of Kodaikanal. Later, P.F. Fyson in 1915 published 'The Flora of the Nilgiri and Pulney Hill tops' with 286 illustrated
pages and 483 species. Of the species described by Fyson, 430 were indigenous to the Nilgiris and Pulneys hill tops. Out of
this, 44 were exclusively found in the Nilgiris and 29 in the Pulneys. A supplement followed in 1921 with species from the
lower elevations and notes on the Shervaroy hills. This was followed in 1932 by 'The Flora of the South Indian Hill Stations'
covering 877 species. His wife Diana Ruth Fyson illustrated the book by contributing nearly 320 of the 611 plates in it.
THE STATE'S FLORAL DIVERSITY

The Indian region with a total area of about 328 million ha is very rich in biological diversity. It is estimated that about 45,000
species of plants occur in the country. The vascular flora, which forms the conspicuous vegetation cover itself comprises
15,000 species, of which more than 60% are endemic and have so far not been reported from anywhere else in the world.
The total plant wealth of the country includes not only the usually large, showy-flowered vascular plants, but a large number
of non-flowering plants, viz. ferns, liverworts, algae and fungi. The wild relatives of crop plants along with related species as
well as the species of economic plants (estimated to be over 150) are in themselves very valuable gene pool.
Inventorization of floral and faunal distribution continued under the aegis of the national institutes of Botanical Survey of
India and the Zoological Survey of India across the country and with every subsequent survey, new and unknown species of
plants and animals came to be identified and added to the list. Tamil Nadu's diversity was also surveyed during the course
of investigations by researchers from other scientific institutions. Gamble (1935) enumerated 4,516 species in the then
Madras Presidency, while after the State's reorganization 2,260 species belonging to 983 genera and 173 families have
been described in Tamil Nadu and Carnatic region (Mathew et al. 1981). Besides, they have also reported 111 species of
Pteridophytes from 59 genera and 11 species of gymnosperms from 9 genera and 5 families. Subbarayalu and Velmurugan
(1999) have described 202 species under different IUCN categories of threat. Of this 45 species are endangered, 53
possibly extinct, 29 vulnerable and 75 rare.

The Angiosperm diversity of India includes 17,672 species. With 5,640 species of flowering plants, Tamil Nadu ranks first
among the States in the country in angiosperm diversity. It accounts for nearly one-third of the total flora of India. This
includes 533 endemic species, 230 red-listed species, 1,559 species of medicinal plants and 260 species of wild relatives of
cultivated plants. The gymnosperm diversity of the country is 64 species, of which four species are indigenous
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Gymnosperms and the rest are introduced species. The pteridophyte diversity of India includes 1,022 species of which
Tamil Nadu has about 184 species. Tamil Nadu's wild plant diversity also includes vast number of bryophytes, lichens,
fungi, algae and bacteria. The analysis provided the total number of plants in Polypetalae, Gamopetalae and
Monochlamydae to be 1,944, 1,720 and 642, respectively. Distribution of plants in different plant taxa shows there are a
total of 4,306 dicots and 1,241 monocots.
 RICHNESS OF FAUNAL DIVERSITY IN TAMIL NADU

India is represented by a wide array of faunal species. More than 50,000 species of insects, 4,000 of molluscs, 6,500 of
other invertebrates, 2,000 of fishes, 140 of amphibians, 420 of reptiles, 1,200 of birds and 340 of mammals, totalling more
than 65,000 species of animals are recorded from the country. Tamil Nadu's faunal biodiversity is equally impressive. Dr. K.
Venkataraman of Zoological Survey of India, Chennai has published about 595 species of freshwater faunal, 2,247 species
of marine faunal and 1,898 species of terrestrial faunal species in Tamil Nadu. The faunal diversity of the State includes 165
species of fresh water fishes, 76 species of amphibians, 177 species of reptiles, 454 species of birds and 187 species of
mammals. According to the CAMP reports the red-listed species include 126 species of fishes, 56 species of amphibians,
77 species of reptiles, 32 species of birds and 40 species of mammals. The endemic fauna includes 36 species of
amphibians, 63 species of reptiles, 17 species of birds and 24 species of mammals. Many faunal species have been
included in the various schedules of the Wild Life Protection Act 1972, considering their endangered status. Schedule I
animals include 22 species of mammals, 42 species of birds and 9 species of reptiles. Schedule II includes 13 species of
mammals. Schedule III includes 5 species of mammals and Schedule IV includes 5 species of mammals, 367 species of
birds, 109 species of reptiles and 23 species of amphibians. Schedule V incorporates 13 species of mammals and 1
species of birds.
 FOREST TYPES OF TAMIL NADU

The physiography of the country has been classified into ten bio geographic zones, of which two viz., the Coramandel or the
East Coast and the Western Ghats are occurring in the State. Naturally, landmass of the State falls under two natural
divisions' viz., the eastern coastal plain and the hilly region along the north and the west. In view of the vast physical and
climatic variations in the landscape, the State encounters diverse types of vegetation. Among the Southern states, Tamil
Nadu contains the maximum number of 9 of the total of 16 major forest types recognized in India by Champion and Seth.
Within the major types, 48 sub types of forests are found in Tamil Nadu. It will be interesting to study the vegetation and
forest types in the zone in which they are present.

35
(i) The coastal plain It can be sub divided into (a) the Coramandel plain, comprising the districts of Chengalpet, Viluppuram,
Cuddalore, (b) the Alluvial plains of the Cauvery delta extending over the composite Thanjavur and part of Trichirapalli
districts,(c) the dry Southern plains in Madurai, Ramanathapuram, Kanyakumari and Tirunelveli and (d) the inner plains
comprising districts of Dharmapuri, Salem, Vellore and Madurai districts. Along the coast at places like Mahabalipuram,
Mandapam and Kanniyakumari, outcrops of rocky head lands are present. A narrow belt of sand dunes rising to about 10m
is found on the Toothukudi coast. Further south in Toothukudi, red sand hills locally known as “Teri” rises to 50 m above
mean sea level (MSL). Typical coral reefs occur at Pamban islands at the head of the Gulf of Mannar on the east coast.

Along the coast, here and there, there are but a few lakes, lagoons and marshy lands. The Buckingham canal, which
connects river Krishna in Andhra Pradesh with Chennai, passes through some of them. Veeranam lake in Chenglepet is
one of the largest lakes in the State.

(ii) The hilly region along the North and the West Along the whole length of the western part, at a distance from the sea
varying from 80 to 160 km runs the range of Western Ghats, a steep and rugged mass averaging 1220m above MSL and
rising to 2554 m at Mukurti and 2637 m at Doddabetta in Nilgiris. It has tropical evergreen, semi-evergreen and deciduous
forests, as well as savannahs intermixed with cultivated lands and settled areas in the valleys. The Eastern Ghats from
Andhra Pradesh cut across the State to meet the Nilgiri hils. The 'Palghat gap' of about 30 km width is the only marked
break in the Western Ghats. To the south of this gap, the range is called Anamalai and Cardamom hills. On the east of
Western Ghats are Palni hills, which are an offshoot of Anamalais. Other prominent groups of hills are Javadis, Shervaroys,
Chitteris, Kolli hills, Kalrayans and Pachamalais. All these form a chain of low, flat-topped hills. Nilgiris and Anamalais are
hill groups with the maximum height. Slopes of the Western Ghats are the sources of many rivers, which flow eastwards
towards the Bay of Bengal. Of these, Cauvery, Moyar, Bhavani, Amaravati, Chittar and Tamaraparani are perennial rivers,
whereas Vellar, Noyyal, Suruli, Gundar and Vaipar are non-perennial ones. All these rivers are rain-fed, unlike the snow-fed
ones of the Himalayas. Cauvery, which rises from Brahmagiri in Coorg is the longest river of the State. It travels the entire
breadth of Tamil Nadu and forms a large delta at its mouth in the erstwhile composite Thanjavur district making the region
the 'granary of Southern India'. Tamiraparani also has deltaic deposits at its mouth in Toothukudi district.

Aham and Puram concept from Tholkapiyam and Sangam literature

Introduction to Sangam Literature
Sangam Literature
Tamil, one of the classical languages of the world has a continuous history of literature for more than 2500 years. The earliest
35
Tamil work, now extant is Tolkappiyam, a treatise on Tamil phonology, morphology, syntax and poetics. (300 B. C) The earliest
Tamil literature that has come down to us is popularly known as Sangam literature.
The Pandya line of Tamil monarchs patronized three academies, one after the other, in their successive capitals
namely Thenmadurai, Kapaatapuram and the temple city of modern Madurai. Sangam literature is believed to have been authored
by the poets who were attached to the third Academy which flourished in Madurai from 300 B. C to 300 A. D. The poems were
composed by poets drawn from almost all the sections of the ancient Tamil society and belonging to different villages and towns.
These poems were later compiled and made into nine anthologies called Eṭṭuttokai and Pattuppāṭṭu. The Eṭṭuttokai division
includes eight separate anthologies
— Naṟṟiṇai, Kuṟuntokai, Aiṅkuṟunūṟu, Patiṟṟuppattu, Paripāṭal, Kalittokai, Akanaṉūṟu and Puṟanāṉūṟu.  The Pattuppāṭṭu division
has ten long poems
— Tirumurukāṟṟuppaṭai, Poruṇarāṟṟuppaṭai, Ciṟupāṇāṟṟuppaṭai, Perumpāṇāṟṟuppaṭai, Mullaippāṭṭu, Maturaikkāñci, Neṭunalvāṭai, K
uṟiñcippāṭṭu, Paṭṭiṉappālai, Malaipaṭukaṭām.

The Twofold Division

The ancient Tamils conceived a twofold division of themes namely Akam and Puram. Akam means ‘interior’ and deals with love
in its purest form. Puram means ‘exterior’ and deals with everything else. This twofold division of poetry is peculiar to Tamil.
The Akam Theme and Its Characters
The theme of love dealt with Akam is not in relation to any particular man or woman. It is love that is universal in its sweep. The
ancient poets took care that even by suggestion the lovers are not to be identified. These love poems are dramatic monologues. In
them, we don’t hear the voice of the composers. No poem is addressed to the reader.  The characters of the Akam poetry are
limited. The hero and the heroine are the main characters. The confidante of the heroine occupies the next place of importance. The
other characters are the friend of the hero, the parents and brothers of the heroine, the charioteer of the hero, the
aides, panan, patini, velan, hetaera, parappan, dancer, bystanders, village folk and other minor characters. Some of these characters
are not vocal, but their ideas are referred to by other characters. The father and the brother of the heroine remain mute participants.
There is almost no mention of the hero’s parents.
The Sevenfold Division of Akam Poetry
The Akam poems are highly conventional. They are based on well-established and strict literary tradition, the knowledge of which
is a basic necessity to understand and appreciate the poems. The grammarian Tolkappiyar divides the Tamil country into four
distinct geographical regions and each one of them is a world by itself. They are the pastoral, montane, riverine and littoral regions
which are presided over by Lord Tirumal, Lord Murukan, Lord Indira and Lord Varuna respectively. There is also a fifth division,
the wasteland, which is temporary in nature and it is presided over by Goddess  Kotravai.  These regions are denoted
35
as Mullai, Kurinci, Marutam, Neythal and Palai in Sangam poems. The lands are named after the plants peculiar to the
respective regions. These names, by extension of meaning also denote the Tinais, the love life of the people and the literature
belonging to the Tinais.
According to Tolkappiyar, the theme of love is sevenfold. They are,
1. Kaikkilai
2. Kurinci
3. Mullai
4. Marutam
5. Neytal
6. Palai
7. Peruntinai.
Of these, Kaikkilai is unrequited love and Peruntinai is mismatched love.The other five are compositely
called Aintinai (the five tinais) and Anpin Aintinai (the five structured on true love)
The Akam Triad
There are three aspects which are very basic to Akam poetry. They are:
1. Mutal Porul
2. Karupporul
3. Uripporul.
The geographical division (Nilam — land) and the element of time namely, the six seasons of the year and the six parts
of the day are included in the Mutal Porul.
The natural, as well as the social aspects of the various regions, constitute the Karupporul. The aspects may include in
them the deity, foodstuff, animals, birds, Theloveplants, music, drum, occupation etc.,
The Uripporul is the emotional content of the poem without which no Akam poetry can come into existence. In Tamil
tradition, the love-life of ideal pairs is described in five thematic divisions of Uripporul.
They are as follows:
1. Punartal – Secret union of the lovers.
2. Pirital – Separation and the suffering associated with it.
3. Iruttal – Patient waiting of the heroine for the return of the hero.
4. Irankal – Feeling of despair of the woman in the absence of the hero.
5. The love-quarrel between the lovers.
Though these aspects are common to all the Tinas, convention links a particular Uripporul to a particular Tinai or

35
geographical unit. According to the convention, the following is the distribution.
1. Kurinci – Mountain – Secret union
2. Mullai – Forest – Patient waiting of the wife
3. Marutam – Plain – Love quarrel
4. Neytal – Coastal region – Mood of despair
5. Palai – Wasteland – Separation of lovers and the suffering associated with it and the elopement of the lovers.

The Two Phases of Love life

There are two distinctive phases of love-life. They are,
 1. Kalavu (Premarital)
 2. Karpu (Marital)
So long as the love-affair remains unknown to the society at large, it is called Kalavu. The close associates of the lovers
are an exception. When it becomes a public affair, it is treated on a par with marital love. Tradition divides this phase
into three aspects, thematically — the providential meeting of the lovers, their subsequent meeting in the same place
and their meeting in the secret during the day or night with the aid of their friends. The part played by the confidante
during this period is significant. It is through her the lovers gain union. Her major objective is to hasten the lovers’
wedding. She consoles the heroine when she becomes sad when the lover is absent or when he is away in a foreign
land, in quest of wealth needed for their wedded life; she serves as the prop for the heroine. When parents detect
symptomatic change in their daughter’s physique or deportment, they are prone to attribute it to some divine
interference.Normally, the Velan (priest) ascribes it to Lord Murukan and so the mother arranges for a ritualistic dance
namely Veriyattu in their house.
The word Karpu means many things. It means chasity of a woman and also the phase in love life. This phase covers the
aspects of marriage itself, the joyous married life, love quarrels, the resolution of such quarrels and the separation of
the hero for various reasons.

The Puram Theme

The Puram division has seven Tinas or divisions corresponding to the seven divisions or Tinais of Akam. This theory is
peculiar to Tolkappiyam. But in later ages, this seven fold division gave place to the twelve fold division. It is followed in
the grammatical works like the Pannirupadalam and the Purapporul venba maalai. The compilers of the Sangam poems
have adopted the later day classifications. According to the later tradition, the following will be the various divisions.

35
 1. Vetchi – Stealing away of the cattle of the enemies
2. Karanthai – Redemption of the stolen cattle
3. Vanji – A king’s march against a foe with his armies
4.  Kanchi – The defensive warfare by the attacked king
5. Uzhinai – Seize of a fort by an invader
6. Nochi – Defense of the fort
7. Tumpai – Heroic exploits and personal valour of kings and warriors
8. Vagai – Victory in war and excellence in other pursuits of every section of the community
9. Padan – Singing the glory of patrons and victorious kings and seeking rewards
10.Podhuviyal – Special themes dealing with higher values of life and experiences of loss and sorrow
11.Kaikilai – One-sided attachment
12.Perunthinai – Relationship between unequal people and its sorrows
Every Tinai has anumber of subdivisions called Turais. Every Turai is an integral aspect of the
corresponding Tinai which define the particular activity of war, the glorification of patrons, and other higher
aspects of life.
The Puram poetry covers all areas of experience related to the socio-political life of ancient Tamils. It also includes in
it the ripe experience of wise men and saints. It ranges over vast thematic landscapes of praises of heroic
exploits, just rule of kings and their munificent patronage of bards and poets and other groups of suppliants. The
Puram poems form the main source of information for writing the social history of the Tamils.

The scientific analysis of the Sangam literature says that this work was composed in 120-150 years and most of the literature was
composed from 100 AD to 250 AD. This is entire different from what has been mentioned in the Iraiyanar Akapporul and Sangam
legend. There are 2289 poems available under Sangam Literature now; many of them are very short having only 3-5 verses. 102 of
them are anonymous. The number of poets estimated is 473.
Earliest Extant Tamil Work: Tolkāppiyam

Tolkāppiyam is a work of Tamil Grammar, which is said to be the earliest extant work of Tamil Literature. There are three books in
Tolkāppiyam viz. Ezhuttadikaram, Solladikaram and Poruladikaram, and each of them are composed of nine chapters. This work
has divided the Tamil Language into two types’ viz. Sentamil (Classical Tamil) and Kotuntamil (Spoken Tamil). Sentamil is used in
almost all literary works of the Tamil Language.

35
 Earliest Tamil Work: Agattiyam

However, the first work on Tamil Grammar, which is not extant and is lost irretrievably, is Agattiyam. Rishi Agastya wrote it.
Tolakappiar who wrote the above-mentioned Tolkāppiyam is said to be a disciple of Rishi Agastya. As per the Tamil traditions, Rishi
Agasyta invented the Tamil Language and brought its syntax from the lord Shiva.
Themes of Sangam Literature

On the basis of interpretation and context, the Sangam literature can be described into two types viz.  Agam (inner)
and Puram (outer). The topics of Agam are related to personal and human aspects such as love and sexual things. The topics of
Puram are related to human experiences and emotions such as Heroism, Valor, Ethics and Philanthropy. The poems have also been
classified on nature themes which are known as Thinai. The themes are as follows:
● Kurinji (Mountianous Theme).
● Mullai (Forests Theme)
● Marutham (Agricultural Land Theme)
● Neithal (Coastal Theme)
● Paalai (Desert Theme)
The literature was lost and forgotten. The Tamil Scholars S V Damodaram Pillai and U V Swamitha Iyer brought it into light. They
printed and published different works such as Tholkappiyam, Nachinarkiniyar urai, Tholkappiyam Senavariyar urai, Manimekalai,
Cilappatikaram, Pattupattu, and Purananuru in different parts of the 19th century, all with commentaries.
Classification of Sangam Literature

Broadly, we can divide the Sangam literature in 2 parts viz. Patinenmēlkanakku and Patinenkīlkanakku. Out of them,
the Patinenmēlkanakku refers to the oldest surviving Tamil Poetry of the Sangam Age, dating back to 200 BC to 100 BC while the
Patinenkīlkanakku refers to the collection of 18 poetic works, which belongs to Post Sangam period, and date back to 100 AD to 500
AD. This classification has been further summarized as follows:
Patinenmēlkanakku

This is the collection of the Sangam Period works. Ettutokai is a large volume of the poems which is consisting of more than 2000
poems. These works, which are called “The Eight Anthologies”, are on deferent themes such as Narrinai on love, Kuruntokai on love,
Aiankurunuru on erotic love etc. So most works of Ettukottai are of Agam style. Most works of Pattuppāttu are of Puram context and
they have works on seasons and picturesque nature of Tamil Country. They are based upon the themes of the nature.

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 Patinenkīlkanakku

Patinenkīlkanakku is the post Sangam work that is of Agam as well as Puram context. Some important points of some of these works
is as follows:
● Naaladiyar was composed by Jain monks and the theme is the transient nature of life and youth. It was work of Nalatiyar.
● Nanmanikkatiga is the collection of 100 songs of Vilambi Naganaar and deals conditions / emotions of 4 types of people who cannot sleep in the night and they
are thief, lovelorn, after money, and worrying about losing money.
● Inna Narpathu describes the things which should be avoided by the people. It deals with the things that bring unhappiness such as beautiful but disloyal wife,
wealth of a miser, life under a tyrant and a beautiful flower without fragrance.
● Iniyavai Narpathu deals with the things which should not be avoided by a person and seek even in adverse situations such as learning even by begging, advice
of learned persons, healthy children, and not coveting other’s spouse.
● Kalavazhi Narpathu deals with war and politics.
● Ainthinai Aimpathu deals with human emotions, love, separation, lovers’ quarrels.
● Thinaimozhi Aimpathu also deals with the Agam subjects such as love, seperation, lover fights etc.
● Same is with Ainthinai Ezhupathu.
● Same is with Thinaimalai Nurru Aimpathu .
● Thirukkural is the first work in all of the Dravidian literature which deals with the ehics. It was authored by Thiruvalluvar . It is also known as Kural and is a
collection of 1330 couplets.
● Thirikatukam deals with herbal medicines.
● Acharakkovai deals with the personal behavior and correct methods to follow.
● Pazhamozhi Nanuru deals with the character of the person.
● Siruppanchamulam deals with the nature and combines the benevolent humans with benevolent neighbors.
● Muthumozhikkanch deals with the right behavior and chastity.
● Elathi deals with human qualities and also narrates some herbal medicines.
● Kainnilai deals with the agam concepts.
Impact of Sanskrit on Tamil Literature

The Tamil language and literature did not flourish in isolation and was influenced by Sanskrit. The Aryans had penetrated the whole of
the Tamil Land by 6th century AD and Post Sangam literature contains some traces of Aryan Culture. Influence of Sanskrit is more on
the five epics of Tamil Literature, which were written between 1st century AD to 9th century AD. Out of them  Silappatikaram, which

35
 was written by Ilango Adigal, brother of Senguvattan, a Chera King and who was a Jain monk is a highly regarded epic. The other
four epics are
● Manimegalai which is a Buddhist Religious Work
● Civaka Chintamani which is a Jain Religious work
● Valayapathi which is also a Jain work of 9th Century
● Kundalkesi which is a Buddhist work of 5th century by Nagasena.

Aram concepts of Tamils education and literacy

The Tamil word ‘aram’ means doing the proper things and performing good deeds, said Malayaman, in a discourse.
Avvaiyar says that aram means providing food to the hungry and money to the poor. Providing food, shelter and clothing
is aram, says Seethalai Sathanar, the author of Manimekalai. Kanimedaviyar emphasises the same idea in his work Eladi.
Vilambi Naganar, author of Naanmanikkadigai, says discipline and good conduct are essential in life. According to him,
living an honest and upright life is aram. Poet Kaari Asan, in his Siru Panchamoolam, says serving food to others in one’s
own home, giving water to a thirsty man and establishing roads with shade giving trees can be called aram.

The Jain work Naladiyar, while defining aram, shows us how we should conduct ourselves in life. Naladiyar says that if a
man does not listen to gossip about other people’s private affairs, if he does not see another man’s wife with wrong
intentions and if he abstains from speaking ill of a person behind his back, then you don’t have to teach him what aram
means. In other words, such qualities constitute aram.

Thirukkural says that having a pure heart is aram. So, what are the qualities we must shun, to have such purity? We must
not be prone to jealousy, greed, anger or the tendency to use harsh words. Not coveting another man’s wife is aram,
Thiruvalluvar says in yet another verse. When someone visits us, we must welcome them with a smiling countenance, and
with sweet words, says Thiruvalluvar. This too is classified by him as aram. If we care about the welfare of others and
speak pleasantly to people, then our sins fade away and aram (virtues) increases. Thus Tamil literature gives us many
valuable moral lessons through the word ‘aram.’

Education and literacy during Sangam Age

35
Mathematics and language were considered the two eyes of the learned in Sangam age. Astronomy being the summation of a host of other sciences,
the Sangam astronomy certainly indicates the existence of science education in those days. The description of many cities in the Sangam literature
shows that there existed a developed engineering and architectural skill Though notions like universal education and universal literacy are
essentially modern, the ancient Tamils knew the need of certain basic education, as different from scholarship, for getting on well with others.
Social education aimed at the inculcation of good manners and social etiquette and the home was the best training ground for these. Thus, education
was secular and it was not peculiar preserve of any particular caste or community".
'The Tamil society of the Sangam age was an advanced and civilized society, which had reached great heights in commercial prosperity and in the
field of the fine arts. (N. Subramanian, Sangam Polity, Madurai, 1980, p.337). During this period Tamil learning had developed vastly judged from
the number of works extant. However, a study of this society shows that education was not formalized or institutionalized. Teaching does not seem
to have developed into a separate or distinct profession. Probably parental upbringing constituted the full education, because education was mostly a
training in the hereditary vocation. If so, learning was not separated from doing and the family was an agency of education. Besides this, the elders
in the immediate social environment also influenced the moral and intellectual growth of the youths. The pattern of education was not merely
reading and understanding books, but listening to learned persons.
Education was considered important in Ancient Tamil as they considered the mind of the uneducated to be an "abode of darkness". The period of
acquiring knowledge was during youth.[1][2]
The rulers and aristocrats of ancient Tamilakam were always conscious of their duties to their country. They considered development of education as an
important duty. So the kings and chieftains took all measures for the education of people. [3] Naladiyar one of the Tamil books of Law lauds that "men
gathered books in abundance and filled their house with them." They studied science, mathematics, engineering, astronomy, logic and ethics. [4][5]
Education was widespread and there was high standard of literacy. Libraries attached to Jain Pallis and Buddha Viharas promoted education among the
people.[citation needed] The Sangam literature makes clear that people irrespective of sectarian or sex considerations were entitled to get the benefits of full
education, making the Tamil people one of the earliest civilisations to acquire high female literacy. [6][7]

Women and education[edit]

The girls of the Sangam age were given a good training in literature, music and drama. The Sangam literature bears ample evidence to the fact that many
women had distinguished themselves in the art of music.[8]
More than fifty women have been ranked among the Sangam poets. [9]

Late Sangam age[edit]

The Pallavas patronised both Prakrit and Sanskrit. They established an institution for Sanskrit at Kanji and lesser schools near Pondicherry. They
attracted the best students from Tamizhagam and other parts of the south. Buddhism particularly flourished in the next few centuries attracting students
from Sri Lanka and as far flung as China. Bodhidharma is a noteworthy mention. Even though the Tamil language saw a decline during this
period, Cilappatikaram and Manimekalai, two of The Five Great Epics of Tamil Literature were composed during this period. These epics broke with the
Sangam convention of not mentioning the names or specific details of the characters, showing signs of growing influence from Sanskrit.[10]

35
Decline after Sangam age[edit]
Unlike the cosmopolitanism of the Sangam period, the new era of Vedic teaching was an exclusive privilege of the Brahmins as can be seen from
Thirukkachi Nambi's refusal to teach Ramanuja vedic texts.[11] The Guru Shishya parampara was instigated at this point and signalled the decline of
education among females[12] and the general population. This is in line with the Manusmrti injunction against teaching to lower castes, whereby if a
Brahmin were to teach a Shudra, he would fall into Asamvrita, or hell; conversely, if a Shudra were to hear or utter the Veda, the penalty was that molten
lead was poured into his ears and a hot stylus be thrust in his tongue, respectively.
Agriculture
The chief occupation of the people was agriculture .
Paddy was the main crop .
Rice was the common crop and ragi , sugar cane , cotton , pepper , ginger , turmeric and a variety of fruits were the other crops , Jack Fruits and Pepper were
famous in the Chera country .
Millet , grams and sugarcane were also cultivated .
Irrigation through Rivers , Tanks and Wells were used for cultivation .
Industries
Weaving and spinning were the most important crafts of the Sangam period .
Uraiyur and Madurai were the main centres for the manufacture of Cotton fabrics .
The weavers produced and exported fine cotton clothes .
The handicrafts of the Sangam period were popular , weaving , Metal works and Carpentry , Ship building and making of ornaments using beads , stones and
ivory .
The word Kalingam refers to very nice garments .
The Sangam literature refers to clothes , which were thinner than steam .
Silk clothes were also produced in the Tamil country .
Other Craftsmen like the Carpenter , Blacksmith , Goldsmith and Potter had practised their respective occupations.

Economy of the Sangam Age

The Sangam period was inhabited by the three most magnanimous regimes of Indian History, Cheras, Pandyas, and Cholas. The period of the
Sangam dynasty went from 300 BCE to 300 AD.

India is a vast and substantial nation that has been governed by one of the most magnanimous dynasties of the world. Either these
dynasties had Indian origin or got their birth from areas of west or north around the world. Instead of becoming a temporary dynasty in
the country, these dynasties decided to loot India to its fullest and settled here for their whole lifetime. 

35
One such period of the enormous ruling was in the Sangam period which was inhabited by the three most liberal regimes of Indian
History i.e., Cheras, Pandyas, and Cholas. These monarchies thrived in almost all the characteristics of belief and faith, society,
economy and administration of their kingdoms. Talking about the economy during the Sangam period, agriculture was the chief
occupation of the people and the port city of Puhar was considered as the significant place for foreign trade. 

About Sangam Period

The Sangam period was inhabited by the three most magnanimous regimes of Indian History, Cheras, Pandyas, and Cholas. The
period of the Sangam dynasty went on from 300 BCE to 300 AD in the areas of South India which lie to the south of rivers
Tungabhadra and Krishna. This eternity was designated after the Sangam academies (Academy formed by Tamil poets) that
prospered during the Pandya regime. A total of three Sangams were held in the ancient period of South India from the 3rd century
BCE to AD. 

The first one is speculated to have been held at Madurai which was given attention to by the Legendary sages and Gods. However,
no such literary work is available from the Sangam held at Madurai. The second one was the one held at Kapadapuram from which
the only survivor was the Tolkappiyam. The last one was held at Madurai and this is the only Sangam from where we got some of the
useful sources that provide us information regarding this Dynasty. 

Economy during the Sangam period 

According to the literary works that are gained from the lands of the Sangam period, provide a flourishing and developing economy
during the times of Cholas, Pandyas and Cheras. The people of the Sangam period engaged in all kinds of economic activities like
exports, imports, hunting, draining out and trade balances in the economy. 

Agriculture 
Agriculture was the chief occupation of the people in the Sangam period. It was one of the most significant reasons as to why the
Sangam economy flourished during that time and how the expansion of trade in the Sangam economy took place only due to the
presence of developing agriculture. Following the Madurai Kanji, trade and agriculture were the major driving forces of the economic
development in the dynasty.

Rightfully, the Poems from the Sangam dynasty also gave certain signs of how agriculture was prospering and how people attached
so much of importance to the practice of cattle rearing and cultivation of the crops. The protection of the cattles was considered one of

35
the most important tasks for the kings of the kingdom. Apart from that, the texts of Silappadikaram also interpreted the happiness and
satisfaction people affixed to the occupation of agriculture. 

Industry
The period of Cholas, Cheras and Pandyas substantiated a vast amount of industrial activities in the economy. The poems that are
derived from the Sangams held at various places provided details on various occupations like a potter, goldsmith, the sculptor, the
blacksmith, the weaver and the painter. These occupations were hereditary and passed on to the son from his family or the ancestors.
Thus, each of them was skilled and superfluous in their art of particular occupations they did. 

Paripadal and Silappadikaram brought out that there was even a museum for the paintings to be sold to the people. Apart from that,
not only the paintings, people had great demand and interest in painting all the things of their day to day usage, keeping them
colourful. The cloth that was exported to the people around the world was made not only from the basic essentiality of cotton, wool or
silk but also from the colored yarn and rat’s hair. These clothes had a huge demand from the Roman merchants, who were in great
admiration of these skills. 

Trade
There was an enlarged exchange relation between the people of the Sangam era and the people of the Mediterranean world that
included countries like China, Egypt, Sri Lanka and Southeast Asia. Clothes produced by the Sangam industries had a huge demand
from the Roman merchants, who were in great admiration of these skills. These are depicted from the literary texts who have referred
to trade relations of the people of the Sangam period with the Greeks and Romans. 

Amidst all this the port city of puhar became a major centre for the foreign trade and the trade of various expensive and important
artefacts of the time. If we talk about the inclusions in the trade, the major exports of the Sangam Age were cotton fabrics and spices
and the imports in the area included horses, sweet wine, and gold coins that were issued by the great Roman emperors of those
times. The currency system of barter was one of the most important, where people bought commodities in exchange of commodities
only. 

Conclusion
In conclusion, the Sangam dynasty was inhabited by the three most magnanimous regimes of Indian History, Cheras, Pandyas, and
Cholas. The period of the Sangam dynasty went on from 300 BCE to 300 AD in the areas of South India which lie to the south of
rivers Tungabhadra and Krishna. The literary works from the Sangams provide a very elaborated and defining economic development

35
in the Sangam Period.  The Sangam period had a flourishing and developing economy during the times of Cholas, Pandyas and
Cheras. The people of the Sangam period engaged in all kinds of economic activities like exports, imports, hunting, draining out and
trade balances in the economy.

The Chola dynasty was a Tamil thalassocratic empire of southern India and one of the longest-ruling dynasties in world history. The earliest datable
references to the Chola are from inscriptions dated to the 3rd century BCE during the reign of Ashoka of the Maurya Empire. As one of the Three
Crowned Kings of Tamilakam, along with the Chera and Pandya, the dynasty continued to govern over varying territories until the 13th century CE. The
Chola Empire was at its peak and achieved imperialism under the Medieval Cholas in the mid-9th century CE.
The heartland of the Cholas was the fertile valley of the Kaveri River. They ruled a significantly larger area at the height of their power from the later half
of the 9th century till the beginning of the 13th century. They unified peninsular India south of the Tungabhadra River, and held the territory as one state
for three centuries between 907 and 1215 CE.[2] Under Rajaraja I and his successors Rajendra I, Rajadhiraja I, Rajendra II, Virarajendra, and Kulothunga
Chola I, the dynasty became a military, economic and cultural powerhouse in South Asia and Southeast Asia.[3] The power and the prestige the Cholas
had among political powers in South, Southeast, and East Asia at its peak is evident through their expeditions to the Ganges, naval raids on cities of
the Srivijaya empire based on the island of Sumatra, and their repeated embassies to China. [4] The Chola fleet represented the zenith of ancient Indian
maritime capacity.
During the period of 1010–1153 CE, the Chola territories stretched from the Maldives in the south to the banks of the Godavari River in Andhra
Pradesh as the northern limit. Rajaraja Chola conquered peninsular South India, annexed part of the Rajarata kingdom in present-day Sri Lanka, and
occupied Maldives islands. His son Rajendra Chola further expanded the Cholar territory by sending a victorious expedition to North India that touched
the river Ganges and defeating the Pala ruler of Pataliputra, Mahipala. By 1019, he also completely conquered the Rajarata kingdom of Sri Lanka and
annexed it to the Chola empire. [5] In 1017 and 1025, Rajendra Chola launched raids on the cities of the Srivijaya empire.[6] However, this invasion failed to
install direct administration over Srivijaya, as the invasion was short and only meant to plunder the wealth of Srivijaya. However, the Chola influence on
Srivijava would last until 1070, when the Cholas began to lose almost all of their overseas territories. The later Cholas (1070–1279 CE) would still rule
portions of Southern India. The Chola dynasty went into decline at the beginning of the 13th century with the rise of the Pandyan dynasty, which
ultimately caused their downfall. [7]
The Cholas succeeded in building the greatest thalassocratic empire in the history of India, thereby leaving a lasting legacy. They established a
centralized form of government and a disciplined bureaucracy. Moreover, their patronage of Tamil literature and their zeal for building temples has
resulted in some of the greatest works of Tamil literature and architecture. [3] The Chola kings were avid builders and envisioned the temples in their
kingdoms not only as places of worship but also as centers of economic activity. [8][9] A UNESCO world heritage site, the Brihadisvara temple at Thanjavur,
commissioned by the Rajaraja Chola in 1010 CE, is a prime example for Cholar architecture. They were also well known for their patronage to art. The
development of the specific sculpturing technique used in the 'Chola bronzes', exquisite bronze sculptures of Hindu deities built in a lost wax process was
pioneered in their time. The Chola tradition of art spread and influenced the architecture and art of Southeast Asia. [10][11]

Origins
There is very little written evidence for the Cholas prior to the 7th century CE. The main sources of information about the early Cholas are ancient Tamil
literature of the Sangam Period,[a] oral traditions, religious texts, temple and copperplate inscriptions. Later medieval Cholas also claimed a long and
ancient lineage. The Cholas are mentioned in Ashokan Edicts (inscribed 273 BCE–232 BCE) as one of the Mauryan Empire's neighbors to the South
(Ashoka Major Rock Edict No.13),[13][14] who, thought not subject to Ashoka, were on friendly terms with him. [b] There are also brief references to the Chola
country and its towns, ports and commerce in the Periplus of the Erythraean Sea (Periplus Maris Erythraei), and in the slightly later work of the
35
geographer Ptolemy. Mahavamsa, a Buddhist text written down during the 5th century CE, recounts a number of conflicts between the inhabitants of Sri
Lanka and Cholas in the 1st century BCE.[16]
A commonly held view is that Chola is, like Chera and Pandya, the name of the ruling family or clan of immemorial antiquity. The
annotator Parimelazhagar said: "The charity of people with ancient lineage (such as the Cholas, the Pandyas and the Cheras) are forever generous in
spite of their reduced means". Other names in common use for the Cholas are Choda,[17] Killi (கிள்ளி), Valavan (வளவன்), Sembiyan (செம்பியன்)
and Cenni.[18] Killi perhaps comes from the Tamil kil (கிள்) meaning dig or cleave and conveys the idea of a digger or a worker of the land. This word often
forms an integral part of early Chola names like Nedunkilli, Nalankilli and so on, but almost drops out of use in later times. Valavan is most probably
connected with "valam" (வளம்) – fertility and means owner or ruler of a fertile country. Sembiyan is generally taken to mean a descendant of Shibi – a
legendary hero whose self-sacrifice in saving a dove from the pursuit of a falcon figures among the early Chola legends and forms the subject matter of
the Sibi Jataka among the Jataka stories of Buddhism.[19] In Tamil lexicon Chola means Soazhi or Saei denoting a newly formed kingdom, in the lines
of Pandya or the old country.[20] Cenni in Tamil means Head.

History
The history of the Cholas falls into four periods: the Early Cholas of the Sangam literature, the interregnum between the fall of the Sangam Cholas and
the rise of the Imperial medieval Cholas under Vijayalaya (c. 848), the dynasty of Vijayalaya, and finally the Later Chola dynasty of Kulothunga Chola I
from the third quarter of the 11th century.[c]

Early Cholas
Main article: Early Cholas
Further information: Legendary early Chola kings
The earliest Chola kings for whom there is tangible evidence are mentioned in the Sangam literature. Scholars generally agree that this literature belongs
to the late centuries before the common era and the early centuries of the common era. [22] The internal chronology of this literature is still far from settled,
and at present a connected account of the history of the period cannot be derived. It records the names of the kings and the princes, and of the poets
who extolled them.[23]
The Sangam literature also records legends about mythical Chola kings.[24] These myths speak of the Chola king Kantaman, a supposed contemporary of
the sage Agastya, whose devotion brought the river Kaveri into existence. [citation needed] Two names are prominent among those Chola kings known to have
existed who feature in Sangam literature: Karikala and Kocengannan.[25][26][27][28] There are no sure means of settling the order of succession, of fixing their
relations with one another and with many other princelings of around the same period. [29][d] Urayur (now a part of Thiruchirapalli) was their oldest capital.
[24]
 Kaveripattinam also served as an early Chola capital. [30] The Mahavamsa mentions that an ethnic Tamil adventurer, a Chola prince known as Ellalan,
invaded the Rajarata kingdom of Sri Lanka and conquered it in 235 BCE with the help of a Mysore army.[24][31]

35
Interregnum

South India in BC 300, showing the Chera, Pandya and Chola countries
There is not much information about the transition period of around three centuries from the end of the Sangam age (c. 300) to that in which the Pandyas
and Pallavas dominated the Tamil country. An obscure dynasty, the Kalabhras invaded Tamil country, displaced the existing kingdoms and ruled during
that time.[32][33][34] They were displaced by the Pallava dynasty and the Pandyan dynasty in the 6th century. [26][35] Little is known of the fate of the Cholas
during the succeeding three centuries until the accession of Vijayalaya in the second quarter of the 9th century. [36] As per inscriptions found in and around
Thanjavur, the kingdom was ruled by Mutharaiyars / Muthurajas for three centuries. Their reign was ended by Vijayalaya chola who captured Thanjavur
from Ilango Mutharaiyar between 848 and 851 CE.
Epigraphy and literature provide few glimpses of the transformations that came over this line of kings during this long interval. It is certain that when the
power of the Cholas fell to its lowest ebb and that of the Pandyas and Pallavas rose to the north and south of them, [27][37] this dynasty was compelled to
seek refuge and patronage under their more successful rivals.[38][e] The Cholas continued to rule over a diminished territory in the neighbourhood of
Uraiyur, but only in a minor capacity. In spite of their reduced powers, the Pandyas and Pallavas accepted Chola princesses in marriage, possibly out of
regard for their reputation.[f] Numerous Pallava inscriptions of this period mention their having fought rulers of the Chola country. [g] Despite this loss in
influence and power, it is unlikely that the Cholas lost total grip of the territory around Uraiyur, their old capital, as Vijayalaya, when he rose to prominence
hailed from that area.[39][41]

An early silver coin of Uttama Chola found in Sri Lanka showing the tiger emblem of the Chola and in Nagari script. [42]
Around the 7th century, a Chola kingdom flourished in present-day Andhra Pradesh. [39] These Telugu Cholas traced their descent to the early Sangam
Cholas. However, it is not known if they had any relation to the early Cholas. [43] It is possible that a branch of the Tamil Cholas migrated north during the
time of the Pallavas to establish a kingdom of their own, away from the dominating influences of the Pandyas and Pallavas.
[h]
 The Chinese pilgrim Xuanzang, who spent several months in Kanchipuram during 639–640 writes about the "kingdom of Culi-ya", in an apparent
reference to these Telugu Cholas.[36][45]

35
Imperial Cholas
Main article: Medieval Cholas
See also: List of Chola Temples in Bangalore
Vijayalaya was the founder of the Imperial Chola dynasty which was the beginning of one of the most splendid empires in Indian history. [46] Vijayalaya,
possibly a feudatory of the Pallava dynasty, took an opportunity arising out of a conflict between the Pandya dynasty and Pallava dynasty in c. 850,
captured Thanjavur from Muttarayar, and established the imperial line of the medieval Chola Dynasty.[47][48] Thanjavur became the capital of the Imperial
Chola Dynasty.[49]

Detail of the statue of Rajaraja I at Brihadisvara Temple at Thanjavur.

The Chola dynasty was at the peak of its influence and power during the medieval period. [50] Through their leadership and vision, Chola kings expanded
their territory and influence. The second Chola King, Aditya I, caused the demise of the Pallava dynasty and defeated the Pandyan dynasty of Madurai in
885, occupied large parts of the Kannada country, and had marital ties with the Western Ganga dynasty. In 925, his son Parantaka I conquered Sri Lanka
(known as Ilangai). Parantaka I also defeated the Rashtrakuta dynasty under Krishna II in the battle of Vallala. [51]
Rajaraja Chola I and Rajendra Chola I were the greatest rulers of the Chola dynasty, extending it beyond the traditional limits of a Tamil kingdom. [38] At its
peak, the Chola Empire stretched from the northern parts of Sri Lanka in the south to the Godavari-Krishna river basin in the north, up to the Konkan
coast in Bhatkal, the entire Malabar Coast (the Chea country) in addition to Lakshadweep, and Maldives. Rajaraja Chola I was a ruler with inexhaustible
energy, and he applied himself to the task of governance with the same zeal that he had shown in waging wars. He integrated his empire into a tight
administrative grid under royal control, and at the same time strengthened local self-government. Therefore, he conducted a land survey in 1000 CE to
effectively marshall the resources of his empire.[52] He also built the Brihadeeswarar Temple in 1010 CE.[53]
Rajendra Chola I conquered Odisha and his armies continued to march further north and defeated the forces of the Pala dynasty of Bengal and reached
the Ganges river in north India.[54] Rajendra Chola I built a new capital called Gangaikonda Cholapuram to celebrate his victories in northern India.
[55]
 Rajendra Chola I successfully invaded the Srivijaya kingdom in Southeast Asia which led to the decline of the empire there. [56] This expedition had such
a great impression to the Malay people of the medieval period that his name was mentioned in the corrupted form as Raja Chulan in the medieval Malay

35
chronicle Sejarah Melayu.[57][58][59] He also completed the conquest of the Rajarata kingdom of Sri Lanka and took the Sinhala king Mahinda V as a prisoner,
in addition to his conquests of Rattapadi (territories of the Rashtrakutas, Chalukya country, Talakkad, and Kolar, where the Kolaramma temple still has
his portrait statue) in Kannada country.[60] Rajendra's territories included the area falling on the Ganges-Hooghly-Damodar basin, [61] as well as Rajarata of
Sri Lanka and Maldives.[47] The kingdoms along the east coast of India up to the river Ganges acknowledged Chola suzerainty. [62] Three diplomatic
missions were sent to China in 1016, 1033, and 1077. [47]

Gopuram Corner View of Thanjavur Brihadisvara Temple.

The sikhara of Brihadisvara Temple, a cupolic dome (25 tons), is octagonal and rests on a single block of granite, weighing 80 tons. [citation needed]

35
Airavateswara temple, Darasuram in Thanjavur District.
The Western Chalukya Empire under Satyashraya and Someshvara I tried to wriggle out of Chola domination from time to time, primarily due to the
Chola influence in the Vengi kingdom.[63] The Western Chalukyas mounted several unsuccessful attempts to engage the Chola emperors in war, and
except for a brief occupation of Vengi territories between 1118 and 1126, all their other attempts ended in failure with successive Chola emperors routing
the armies of the Chalukyas at various places in many wars. Virarajendra Chola defeated Someshvara II of the Western Chalukya Empire and made an
alliance with Prince Vikramaditya VI.[64] Cholas always successfully controlled the Chalukyas in the western Deccan by defeating them in war and levying
tribute on them.[65] Even under the emperors of the Cholas like Kulothunga I and Vikrama Chola, the wars against the Chalukyas were mainly fought in
Chalukya territories in Karnataka or in the Telugu country like Vengi, Kakinada, Anantapur, or Gutti. Then the former feudatories like the Hoysalas,
Yadvas, and Kakatiyas steadily increased their power and finally replaced the Chalukyas. [66] With the occupation of Dharwar in North Central Karnataka
by the Hoysalas under Vishnuvardhana, where he based himself with his son Narasimha I in-charge at the Hoysala capital Dwarasamudra around 1149,
and with the Kalachuris occupying the Chalukyan capital for over 35 years from around 1150–1151, the Chalukya kingdom was already starting to
dissolve.[67]
The Cholas under Kulothunga Chola III collaborated to the herald the dissolution of the Chalukyas by aiding Hoysalas under Veera Ballala II, the son-in-
law of the Chola monarch, and defeated the Western Chalukyas in a series of wars with Someshvara IV between 1185 and 1190. The last Chalukya
king's territories did not even include the erstwhile Chalukyan capitals Badami, Manyakheta or Kalyani. That was the final dissolution of Chalukyan power
though the Chalukyas existed only in name since 1135–1140. But the Cholas remained stable until 1215, were absorbed by the Pandyan empire and
ceased to exist by 1279.[68]
On the other hand, from 1150 CE to 1280 CE, Pandya became the staunchest opponents of the Cholas and tried to win independence for their traditional
territories. Thus, this period saw constant warfare between the Cholas and the Pandyas. Besides, Cholas regularly fought with the
Eastern Gangas of Kalinga. Moreover, under Chola's protection, Veng remained largely independent. Cholas also dominated the entire eastern coast
with their feudatories, the Telugu Cholas, Velananti Cholas, Renandu Cholas, etc.. These feudatories always aided the Cholas in their successful
campaigns against the Chalukyas and levying tribute on the Kannada kingdoms. Furthermore, Cholar fought constantly with the Sinhala kings from the
Rohana kingdom of Sri Lanka, who repeatedly attempted to overthrow the Chola occupation of Rajarata and unify the island. But until the later Chola king
Kulottunga I, the Cholas had firm control over the area. In one such instance, the Chola king, Rajadhiraja Chola II, was able to defeat the Sinhalese,
aided by their traditional ally, a confederation of five Pandya princes, and kept the control of Rajarata under Cholar rule. His successor, the last great
Chola monarch Kulottunga Chola III reinforced the hold of the Chola territories by quelling further rebellions and disturbances in the Rajarata area of Sri
Lanka and Madurai. He also defeated Hoysala generals fought under Veera Ballala II at Karuvur. Furthermore, he also continued holding on to traditional
territories in Tamil country, Eastern Gangavadi, Draksharama, Vengi, and Kalinga. However, after defeating Veera Ballala II, Kulottunga Chola III entered
into a marital alliance with him through Ballala's marriage to a Chola princess, which improved the Kulottunga Chola III relationship with Hoysalas. [65][i]

35
Overseas conquests
See also: Chola invasion of Srivijaya and Chola rule in Sri Lanka
During the reign of Rajaraja Chola I and his successors Rajendra Chola I, Virarajendra Chola and Kulothunga Chola I the Chola armies invaded Sri
Lanka, the Maldives and parts of Southeast Asia like Malaysia, Indonesia and Southern Thailand [70] of the Srivijaya Empire in the 11th century. Rajaraja
Chola I launched several naval campaigns that resulted in the capture of Sri Lanka, Maldives and the Malabar Coast. [71] In 1025, Rajendra Chola
launched naval raids on ports of Srivijaya and against the Burmese kingdom of Pegu. [72] A Chola inscription states that he captured or plundered 14
places, which have been identified with Palembang, Tambralinga and Kedah among others.[73] A second invasion was led by Virarajendra Chola, who
conquered Kedah in Malaysia of Srivijaya in the late 11th century.[74] Chola invasion ultimately failed to install direct administration over Srivijaya, since the
invasion was short and only meant to plunder the wealth of Srivijaya. However, this invasion gravely weakened the Srivijayan hegemony and enabled the
formation of regional kingdoms. Although the invasion was not followed by direct Cholan occupation and the region was unchanged geographically, there
were huge consequences in trade. Tamil traders encroached on the Srivijayan realm traditionally controlled by Malay traders and the Tamil guilds'
influence increased on the Malay Peninsula and north coast of Sumatra.

Later Cholas (1070–1279)

Main article: Later Cholas

Later Chola Kingdom under Kulothunga Chola I (1070–1120 C.E)

Marital and political alliances between the Eastern Chalukyas began during the reign of Rajaraja following his invasion of Vengi. Rajaraja Chola's
daughter married Chalukya prince Vimaladitya[75] and Rajendra Chola's daughter Ammanga Devi was married to the Eastern Chalukya prince Rajaraja
Narendra.[76] Virarajendra Chola's son, Athirajendra Chola, was assassinated in a civil disturbance in 1070, and Kulothunga Chola I, the son of Ammanga
Devi and Rajaraja Narendra, ascended the Chola throne. Thus began the Later Chola dynasty. [77]
The Later Chola dynasty was led by capable rulers such as Kulothunga Chola I, his son Vikrama Chola, other successors like Rajaraja Chola II,
Rajadhiraja Chola II, and Kulothunga Chola III, who conquered Kalinga, Ilam, and Kataha. However, the rule of the later Cholas between 1218, starting
with Rajaraja Chola II, to the last emperor Rajendra Chola III was not as strong as those of the emperors between 850 and 1215. Around 1118, they lost
control of Vengi to the Western Chalukya and Gangavadi (southern Mysore districts) to the Hoysala Empire. However, these were only temporary
setbacks, because immediately following the accession of king Vikrama Chola, the son and successor of Kulothunga Chola I, the Cholas lost no time in
35
recovering the province of Vengi by defeating Chalukya Someshvara III and also recovering Gangavadi from the Hoysalas. The Chola Empire, though not
as strong as between 850 and 1150, was still largely territorially intact under Rajaraja Chola II (1146–1175) a fact attested by the construction and
completion of the third grand Chola architectural marvel, the chariot-shaped Airavatesvara Temple at Dharasuram on the outskirts of modern
Kumbakonam. Chola administration and territorial integrity until the rule of Kulothunga Chola III was stable and very prosperous up to 1215, but during his
rule itself, the decline of the Chola power started following his defeat by Maravarman Sundara Pandiyan II in 1215–16.[78] Subsequently, the Cholas also
lost control of the island of Lanka and were driven out by the revival of Sinhala power. [citation needed]

Portrait of Rajaraja I and his guru Karuvurar at Brihadeeswarar Temple.

In continuation of the decline, also marked by the resurgence of the Pandyan dynasty as the most powerful rulers in South India, a lack of a controlling
central administration in its erstwhile-Pandyan territories prompted a number of claimants to the Pandya throne to cause a civil war in which the Sinhalas
and the Cholas were involved by proxy. Details of the Pandyan civil war and the role played by the Cholas and Sinhalas, are present in
the Mahavamsa as well as the Pallavarayanpettai Inscriptions.[79][80]

Decline
The Cholas, under Rajaraja Chola III and later, his successor Rajendra Chola III, were quite weak and therefore, experienced continuous trouble. One
feudatory, the Kadava chieftain Kopperunchinga I, even held Rajaraja Chola III as hostage for sometime.[81][82] At the close of the 12th century, the growing
influence of the Hoysalas replaced the declining Chalukyas as the main player in the Kannada country, but they too faced constant trouble from the
Seunas and the Kalachuris, who were occupying Chalukya capital because those empires were their new rivals. So naturally, the Hoysalas found it
convenient to have friendly relations with the Cholas from the time of Kulothunga Chola III, who had defeated Hoysala Veera Ballala II, who had

35
subsequent marital relations with the Chola monarch. This continued during the time of Rajaraja Chola III the son and successor of Kulothunga Chola III[78]
[83]

The Hoysalas played a divisive role in the politics of the Tamil country during this period. They thoroughly exploited the lack of unity among the Tamil
kingdoms and alternately supported one Tamil kingdom against the other thereby preventing both the Cholas and Pandyas from rising to their full
potential. During the period of Rajaraja III, the Hoysalas sided with the Cholas and defeated the Kadava chieftain Kopperunjinga and the Pandyas and
established a presence in the Tamil country. Rajendra Chola III who succeeded Rajaraja III was a much better ruler who took bold steps to revive the
Chola fortunes. He led successful expeditions to the north as attested by his epigraphs found as far as Cuddappah. [84] He also defeated two Pandya
princes one of whom was Maravarman Sundara Pandya II and briefly made the Pandyas submit to the Chola overlordship. The Hoysalas, under Vira
Someswara, were quick to intervene and this time they sided with the Pandyas and repulsed the Cholas in order to counter the latter's revival. [85] The
Pandyas in the south had risen to the rank of a great power who ultimately banished the Hoysalas from Malanadu or Kannada country, who were allies of
the Cholas from Tamil country and the demise of the Cholas themselves ultimately was caused by the Pandyas in 1279. The Pandyas first steadily
gained control of the Tamil country as well as territories in Sri Lanka, southern Chera country, Telugu country under Maravarman Sundara Pandiyan II
and his able successor Jatavarman Sundara Pandyan before inflicting several defeats on the joint forces of the Cholas under Rajaraja Chola III, and the
Hoysalas under Someshwara, his son Ramanatha[78] The Pandyans gradually became major players in the Tamil country from 1215 and intelligently
consolidated their position in Madurai-Rameswaram-Ilam-southern Chera country and Kanyakumari belt, and had been steadily increasing their territories
in the Kaveri belt between Dindigul-Tiruchy-Karur-Satyamangalam as well as in the Kaveri Delta i.e., Thanjavur-Mayuram-Chidambaram-Vriddhachalam-
Kanchi, finally marching all the way up to Arcot—Tirumalai-Nellore-Visayawadai-Vengi-Kalingam belt by 1250. [86]

History of South Asia

show

Outline

show

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 National histories

show

Regional histories

show

Specialised histories

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The Pandyas steadily routed both the Hoysalas and the Cholas. [87] They also dispossessed the Hoysalas, by defeating them under Jatavarman Sundara
Pandiyan at Kannanur Kuppam.[88] At the close of Rajendra's reign, the Pandyan empire was at the height of prosperity and had taken the place of the
Chola empire in the eyes of the foreign observers. [89] The last recorded date of Rajendra III is 1279. There is no evidence that Rajendra was followed
immediately by another Chola prince.[90][91] The Hoysalas were routed from Kannanur Kuppam around 1279 by Kulasekhara Pandiyan and in the same war
the last Chola emperor Rajendra III was routed and the Chola empire ceased to exist thereafter. Thus the Chola empire was completely overshadowed
by the Pandyan empire and sank into obscurity by the end of the 13th century and until period of the Vijayanagara empire. [82][91] In the early 16th century,
Virasekhara Chola, king of Tanjore rose out of obscurity and plundered the dominions of the then Pandya prince in south. The Pandya who was under
the protection of the Vijayanagara appealed to the emperor and the Raya accordingly directed his agent (Karyakartta) Nagama Nayaka who was
stationed in the south to put down the Chola. Nagama Nayaka then defeated the Chola but to everyone's surprise the once loyal officer of Krishnadeva
Raya defied the emperor for some reason and decided to keep Madurai for himself. Krishnadeva Raya is then said to have dispatched Nagama's son,
Viswanatha who defeated his father and restored Madurai to Vijayanagara. [92] The fate of Virasekhara Chola, the last of the line of Cholas is not known. It
is speculated that he either fell in battle or was put to death along with his heirs during his encounter with Vijayanagara. [93][94]

Administration and society

Chola territory
Main article: Chola Nadu
According to Tamil tradition, the Chola country comprised the region that includes the modern-day Tiruchirapalli District, Tiruvarur District, Nagapattinam
District, Ariyalur District, Perambalur district, Pudukkottai district, Thanjavur District in Tamil Nadu and Karaikal District. The river Kaveri and its tributaries
dominate this landscape of generally flat country that gradually slopes towards the sea, unbroken by major hills or valleys. The river, which is also known
as the Ponni (Golden) river, had a special place in the culture of Cholas. The annual floods in the Kaveri marked an occasion for celebration, known
as Adiperukku, in which the whole nation took part. [citation needed]
Kaveripoompattinam on the coast near the Kaveri delta was a major port town. [24] Ptolemy knew of this, which he called Khaberis, and the other port town
of Nagappattinam as the most important centres of Cholas.[95] These two towns became hubs of trade and commerce and attracted many religious faiths,
35
including Buddhism.[j] Roman ships found their way into these ports. Roman coins dating from the early centuries of the common era have been found
near the Kaveri delta.[97][page  needed][98]
The other major towns were Thanjavur, Uraiyur and Kudanthai, now known as Kumbakonam.[24] After Rajendra Chola moved his capital to Gangaikonda
Cholapuram, Thanjavur lost its importance. [99]

Government
Main article: Chola Government

The mandalams of the Chola Empire, early 12th century CE

In the age of the Cholas, the whole of South India was for the first time brought under a single government. [k]
35
The Cholas' system of government was monarchical, as in the Sangam age. [26] However, there was little in common between the local chiefdoms of the
earlier period and the imperial-like states of Rajaraja Chola and his successors. [100] Aside from the early capital at Thanjavur and the later on at
Gangaikonda Cholapuram, Kanchipuram and Madurai were considered to be regional capitals in which occasional courts were held. The king was the
supreme leader and a benevolent authoritarian. His administrative role consisted of issuing oral commands to responsible officers when representations
were made to him. Due to the lack of a legislature or a legislative system in the modern sense, the fairness of king's orders dependent on his morality and
belief in Dharma. The Chola kings built temples and endowed them with great wealth. The temples acted not only as places of worship but also as
centres of economic activity, benefiting the community as a whole. [101] Some of the output of villages throughout the kingdom was given to temples that
reinvested some of the wealth accumulated as loans to the settlements. [102] The Chola dynasty was divided into several provinces
called mandalams which were further divided into valanadus, which were subdivided into units called kottams or kutrams.[103] According to Kathleen
Gough, during the Chola period the Vellalar were the "dominant secular aristocratic caste ... providing the courtiers, most of the army officers, the lower
ranks of the kingdom's bureaucracy, and the upper layer of the peasantry". [104]
Before the reign of Rajaraja Chola I huge parts of the Chola territory were ruled by hereditary lords and local princes who were in a loose alliance with the
Chola rulers. Thereafter, until the reign of Vikrama Chola in 1133 CE when the Chola power was at its peak, these hereditary lords and local princes
virtually vanished from the Chola records and were either replaced or turned into dependent officials. Through these dependent officials the
administration was improved and the Chola kings were able to exercise a closer control over the different parts of the empire. [105] There was an expansion
of the administrative structure, particularly from the reign of Rajaraja Chola I onwards. The government at this time had a large land revenue department,
consisting of several tiers, which was largely concerned with maintaining accounts. The assessment and collection of revenue were undertaken by
corporate bodies such as the ur, nadu, sabha, nagaram and sometimes by local chieftains who passed the revenue to the centre. During the reign of
Rajaraja Chola I, the state initiated a massive project of land survey and assessment and there was a reorganisation of the empire into units known
as valanadus.[106]
The order of the King was first communicated by the executive officer to the local authorities. Afterwards the records of the transaction was drawn up and
attested by a number of witnesses who were either local magnates or government officers. [107]
At local government level, every village was a self-governing unit. A number of villages constituted a larger entity known as a kurram, nadu or kottam,
depending on the area.[108][109][110] A number of kurrams constituted a valanadu.[111] These structures underwent constant change and refinement throughout
the Chola period.[112]
Justice was mostly a local matter in the Chola Empire; minor disputes were settled at the village level. [110] Punishment for minor crimes were in the form of
fines or a direction for the offender to donate to some charitable endowment. Even crimes such as manslaughter or murder were punished with fines.
Crimes of the state, such as treason, were heard and decided by the king himself; the typical punishment in these cases was either execution or
confiscation of property.[113]

Military
The Chola dynasty had a robust military, of which the king was the supreme commander. It had four elements, comprising the cavalry, the elephant
corps, several divisions of infantry and a navy.[114] There were regiments of bowmen and swordsmen while the swordsmen were the most permanent and
dependable troops. The Chola army was spread all over the country and was stationed in local garrisons or military camps known as Kodagams. The
elephants played a major role in the army and the dynasty had numerous war elephants. These carried houses or huge Howdahs on their backs, full of
soldiers who shot arrows at long range and who fought with spears at close quarters. [115]

35
The Chola rulers built several palaces and fortifications to protect their cities. The fortifications were mostly made up of bricks but other materials like
stone, wood and mud were also used.[116][117] According to the ancient Tamil text Silappadikaram, the Tamil kings defended their forts with catapults that
threw stones, huge cauldrons of boiling water or molten lead, and hooks, chains and traps. [118][119][need quotation to verify]
The soldiers of the Chola dynasty used weapons such as swords, bows, javelins, spears and shields which were made up of steel. [120] Particularly the
famous Wootz steel, which has a long history in south India dating back to the period before the Christian era, seems also be used to produce weapons.
[121]
 Kallar served in the armies of the Chola kings.[122]
The Chola navy was the zenith of ancient India sea power. [115] It played a vital role in the expansion of the empire, including the conquest of the Ceylon
islands and naval raids on Srivijaya.[123] The navy grew both in size and status during the medieval Cholas reign. The Chola admirals commanded much
respect and prestige. The navy commanders also acted as diplomats in some instances. From 900 to 1100, the navy had grown from a small backwater
entity to that of a potent power projection and diplomatic symbol in all of Asia, but was gradually reduced in significance when the Cholas fought land
battles subjugating the Chalukyas of the Andhra-Kannada area in South India. [124]
A martial art called Silambam was patronised by the Chola rulers. Ancient and medieval Tamil texts mention different forms of martial traditions but the
ultimate expression of the loyalty of the warrior to his commander was a form of martial suicide called Navakandam. The medieval Kalingathu Parani text,
which celebrates the victory of Kulothunga Chola I and his general in the battle for Kalinga, describes the practice in detail.

Economy
Land revenue and trade tax were the main source of income. [125] The Chola rulers issued their coins in gold, silver and copper. [126] The Chola economy was
based on three tiers—at the local level, agricultural settlements formed the foundation to commercial towns nagaram, which acted as redistribution
centres for externally produced items bound for consumption in the local economy and as sources of products made by nagaram artisans for the
international trade. At the top of this economic pyramid were the elite merchant groups (samayam) who organised and dominated the regions
international maritime trade.[127][clarification needed]
One of the main articles which were exported to foreign countries were cotton cloth. [128] Uraiyur, the capital of the early Chola rulers, was a famous centre
for cotton textiles which were praised by Tamil poets. [129][130] The Chola rulers actively encouraged the weaving industry and derived revenue from it.
[131]
 During this period the weavers started to organise themselves into guilds. [132] The weavers had their own residential sector in all towns. The most
important weaving communities in early medieval times were the Saliyar and Kaikolar.[131] During the Chola period silk weaving attained a high degree
and Kanchipuram became one of the main centres for silk.[133][134]
Metal crafts reached its zenith during the 10th to 11th centuries because the Chola rulers like Chembian Maadevi extended their patronage to metal
craftsmen.[135] Wootz steel was a major export item. [136]
The farmers occupied one of the highest positions in society. [137] These were the Vellalar community who formed the nobility or the landed aristocracy of
the country and who were economically a powerful group. [137][138] Agriculture was the principal occupation for many people. Besides the landowners, there
were others dependent on agriculture.[139] The Vellalar community was the dominant secular aristocratic caste under the Chola rulers, providing the
courtiers, most of the army officers, the lower ranks of the bureaucracy and the upper layer of the peasantry. [104]
In almost all villages the distinction between persons paying the land-tax (iraikudigal) and those who did not was clearly established. There was a class of
hired day-labourers who assisted in agricultural operations on the estates of other people and received a daily wage. All cultivable land was held in one of
the three broad classes of tenure which can be distinguished as peasant proprietorship called vellan-vagai, service tenure and eleemosynary tenure
resulting from charitable gifts.[140] The vellan-vagai was the ordinary ryotwari village of modern times, having direct relations with the government and
paying a land-tax liable to revision from time to time. [127] The vellan-vagai villages fell into two broad classes- one directly remitting a variable annual
35
revenue to the state and the other paying dues of a more or less fixed character to the public institutions like temples to which they were assigned. [141] The
prosperity of an agricultural country depends to a large extent on the facilities provided for irrigation. Apart from sinking wells and excavating tanks, the
Chola rulers threw mighty stone dams across the Kaveri and other rivers, and cut out channels to distribute water over large tracts of land. [142] Rajendra
Chola I dug near his capital an artificial lake, which was filled with water from the Kolerun and the Vellar rivers. [141]
There existed a brisk internal trade in several articles carried on by the organised mercantile corporations in various parts of the country. The metal
industries and the jewellers art had reached a high degree of excellence. The manufacture of sea-salt was carried on under government supervision and
control. Trade was carried on by merchants organised in guilds. The guilds described sometimes by the terms nanadesis were a powerful autonomous
corporation of merchants which visited different countries in the course of their trade. They had their own mercenary army for the protection of their
merchandise. There were also local organisations of merchants called "nagaram" in big centres of trade like Kanchipuram and Mamallapuram. [143][141]

Hospitals
Hospitals were maintained by the Chola kings, whose government gave lands for that purpose. The Tirumukkudal inscription shows that a hospital was
named after Vira Chola. Many diseases were cured by the doctors of the hospital, which was under the control of a chief physician who was paid annually
80 Kalams of paddy, 8 Kasus and a grant of land. Apart from the doctors, other remunerated staff included a nurse, barber (who performed minor
operations) and a waterman.[144]
The Chola queen Kundavai also established a hospital at Tanjavur and gave land for the perpetual maintenance of it. [145][146]

Society
During the Chola period several guilds, communities and castes emerged. The guild was one of the most significant institutions of south India and
merchants organised themselves into guilds. The best known of these were the Manigramam and Ayyavole guilds though other guilds such as
Anjuvannam and Valanjiyar were also in existence. [147] The farmers occupied one of the highest positions in society. These were the Vellalar community
who formed the nobility or the landed aristocracy of the country and who were economically a powerful group. [137][138] The Vellalar community was the
dominant secular aristocratic caste under the Chola rulers, providing the courtiers, most of the army officers, the lower ranks of the bureaucracy and the
upper layer of the peasantry.[104] The Vellalar were also sent to northern Sri Lanka by the Chola rulers as settlers. [148] The Ulavar community were working
in the field which was associated with agriculture and the peasants were known as Kalamar. [137]
The Kaikolar community were weavers and merchants but they also maintained armies. During the Chola period they had predominant trading and
military roles.[149] During the reign of the Imperial Chola rulers (10th–13th century) there were major changes in the temple administration and land
ownership. There was more involvement of non-Brahmin elements in the temple administration. This can be attributed to the shift in money power. Skilled
classes like the weavers and the merchant-class had become prosperous. Land ownership was no longer a privilege of the Brahmins (priest caste) and
the Vellalar land owners.[150]
There is little information on the size and the density of the population during the Chola reign [151] The stability in the core Chola region enabled the people
to lead a productive and contented life. However, there were reports of widespread famine caused by natural calamities. [152]
The quality of the inscriptions of the regime indicates a high level of literacy and education. The text in these inscriptions was written by court poets and
engraved by talented artisans. Education in the contemporary sense was not considered important; there is circumstantial evidence to suggest that some
village councils organised schools to teach the basics of reading and writing to children, [153] although there is no evidence of systematic educational
system for the masses.[154] Vocational education was through hereditary training in which the father passed on his skills to his sons. Tamil was the medium
of education for the masses; Religious monasteries (matha or gatika) were centres of learning and received government support. [155]

35
Foreign trade
See also: Chola Navy and Relationship of the Cholas with the Chinese
The Cholas excelled in foreign trade and maritime activity, extending their influence overseas to China and Southeast Asia. [156] Towards the end of the 9th
century, southern India had developed extensive maritime and commercial activity. [157] The south Indian guilds played a major role in interregional and
overseas trade. The best known of these were the Manigramam and Ayyavole guilds who followed the conquering Chola armies. [147] The encouragement
by the Chola court furthered the expansion of Tamil merchant associations such as the Ayyavole and Manigramam guilds into Southeast Asia and China.
[158]
 The Cholas, being in possession of parts of both the west and the east coasts of peninsular India, were at the forefront of these ventures. [159]
[160]
 The Tang dynasty of China, the Srivijaya empire under the Sailendras, and the Abbasid Kalifat at Baghdad were the main trading partners.[161]
Some credit for the emergence of a world market must also go to the dynasty. It played a significant role in linking the markets of China to the rest of the
world. The market structure and economic policies of the Chola dynasty were more conducive to a large-scale, cross-regional market trade than those
enacted by the Chinese Song Dynasty. A Chola record gives their rationale for engagement in foreign trade: "Make the merchants of distant foreign
countries who import elephants and good horses attach to yourself by providing them with villages and decent dwellings in the city, by affording them
daily audience, presents and allowing them profits. Then those articles will never go to your enemies." [162]
Song dynasty reports record that an embassy from Chulian (Chola) reached the Chinese court in 1077,[163][164] and that the king of the Chulian at the time,
Kulothunga I, was called Ti-hua-kia-lo. This embassy was a trading venture and was highly profitable to the visitors, who returned with copper coins in
exchange for articles of tribute, including glass and spices.[165] Probably, the motive behind Rajendra's expedition to Srivijaya was the protection of the
merchants' interests.[166]

Canals and water tanks

There was tremendous agrarian expansion during the rule of the imperial Chola dynasty (c. 900–1270 AD) all over Tamil Nadu and particularly in the
Kaveri Basin. Most of the canals of the Kaveri River belongs to this period e.g. Uyyakondan canal, Rajendran vaykkal, Sembian Mahadegvi vaykkal.
There was a well-developed and highly efficient system of water management from the village level upwards. The increase in the royal patronage and
also the number of devadana and bramadeya lands which increased the role of the temples and village assemblies in the field. Committees like eri-
variyam (tank-committee) and totta-variam (garden committees) were active as also the temples with their vast resources in land, men and money. The
water tanks that came up during the Chola period are too many to be listed here. But a few most outstanding may be briefly mentioned. Rajendra Chola
built a huge tank named Solagangam in his capital city Gangaikonda Solapuram and was described as the liquid pillar of victory. About 16 miles long, it
was provided with sluices and canals for irrigating the lands in the neighbouring areas. Another very large lake of this period, which even today seems an
important source of irrigation was the Viranameri near Kattumannarkoil in South Arcot district founded by Parantaka Chola. Other famous lakes of this
period are Madurantakam, Sundra-cholapereri, Kundavai-Pereri (after a Chola queen). [167]

35
Cultural contributions

Detail of the main vimanam (tower) of the Thanjavur Temple.

Under the Cholas, the Tamil country reached new heights of excellence in art, religion, music and literature.[168] In all of these spheres, the Chola period
marked the culmination of movements that had begun in an earlier age under the Pallavas. [169] Monumental architecture in the form of
majestic temples and sculpture in stone and bronze reached a finesse never before achieved in India. [170]
The Chola conquest of Kadaram (Kedah) and Srivijaya, and their continued commercial contacts with the Chinese Empire, enabled them to influence the
local cultures.[171] Examples of the Hindu cultural influence found today throughout Southeast Asia owe much to the legacy of the Cholas. For example, the
great temple complex at Prambanan in Indonesia exhibit a number of similarities with the South Indian architecture. [172][173]
According to the Malay chronicle Sejarah Melayu, the rulers of the Malacca sultanate claimed to be descendants of the kings of the Chola Empire. [174][full
citation needed]
 Chola rule is remembered in Malaysia today as many princes there have names ending with Cholan or Chulan, one such being Raja Chulan, the
Raja of Perak.[175][full citation needed][176][full citation needed]

Art and architecture

Main article: Chola art and architecture

35
With heavily ornamented pillars accurate in detail and richly sculpted walls, the Airavateswara temple at Darasuram is a classic example of Chola art and architecture.
The Cholas continued the temple-building traditions of the Pallava dynasty and contributed significantly to the Dravidian temple design. [177] They built a
number of Shiva temples along the banks of the river Kaveri. The template for these and future temples was formulated by Aditya I and Parantaka.[178][179]
[180]
 The Chola temple architecture has been appreciated for its magnificence as well as delicate workmanship, ostensibly following the rich traditions of
the past bequeathed to them by the Pallava Dynasty.[181] Architectural historian James Fergusson says that "the Chola artists conceived like giants and
finished like jewelers".[181] A new development in Chola art that characterised the Dravidian architecture in later times was the addition of a huge gateway
called gopuram to the enclosure of the temple, which had gradually taken its form and attained maturity under the Pandya Dynasty. [181] The Chola school
of art also spread to Southeast Asia and influenced the architecture and art of Southeast Asia. [182][183]
Temple building received great impetus from the conquests and the genius of Rajaraja Chola and his son Rajendra Chola I.[184] The maturity and grandeur
to which the Chola architecture had evolved found expression in the two temples of Thanjavur and Gangaikondacholapuram. The magnificent Shiva
temple of Thanjavur, completed around 1009, is a fitting memorial to the material achievements of the time of Rajaraja. The largest and tallest of all
Indian temples of its time, it is at the apex of South Indian architecture. The temple of Gangaikondacholisvaram at Gangaikondacholapuram, the creation
of Rajendra Chola, was intended to excel its predecessor. Completed around 1030, only two decades after the temple at Thanjavur and in the same
style, the greater elaboration in its appearance attests the more affluent state of the Chola Empire under Rajendra. [177][185][page  needed] The Brihadisvara Temple,
the temple of Gangaikondacholisvaram and the Airavatesvara Temple at Darasuram were declared as World Heritage Sites by the UNESCO and are
referred to as the Great living Chola temples.[186]
The Chola period is also remarkable for its sculptures and bronzes. [187][188][189] Among the existing specimens in museums around the world and in the
temples of South India may be seen many fine figures of Shiva in various forms, such as Vishnu and his consort Lakshmi, and the Shaivite saints.
[177]
 Though conforming generally to the iconographic conventions established by long tradition, the sculptors worked with great freedom in the 11th and
the 12th centuries to achieve a classic grace and grandeur. The best example of this can be seen in the form of Nataraja the Divine Dancer.[190][l]

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Literature
Main article: Chola literature

Chola bronze from the Ulster Museum

The Imperial Chola era was the golden age of Tamil culture, marked by the importance of literature. Chola records cite many works, including
the Rajarajesvara Natakam, Viranukkaviyam and Kannivana Puranam.[192]
The revival of Hinduism from its nadir during the Kalabhras spurred the construction of numerous temples and these in turn generated Shaiva and
Vaishnava devotional literature. [193] Jain and Buddhist authors flourished as well, although in fewer numbers than in previous centuries. [194] Jivaka-
chintamani by Tirutakkatevar and Sulamani by Tolamoli are among notable works by non-Hindu authors. [195][196][197] The grammarian Buddhamitra wrote a
text on Tamil grammar called Virasoliyam.[198] Commentaries were written on the great text Tolkāppiyam which deals with grammar but which also
mentions ethics of warfare.[199][200][201] Periapuranam was another remarkable literary piece of this period. This work is in a sense a national epic of the Tamil
people because it treats of the lives of the saints who lived in all parts of Tamil Nadu and belonged to all classes of society, men and women, high and
low, educated and uneducated.[202]
Kamban flourished during the reign of Kulothunga III. His Ramavataram (also referred to as Kambaramayanam) is an epic of Tamil literature, and
although the author states that he followed Valmiki's Ramayana, it is generally accepted that his work is not a simple translation or adaptation of the
Sanskrit epic.[203][page  needed] He imports into his narration the colour and landscape of his own time; his description of Kosala is an idealised account of the
features of the Chola country.[197][204][page  needed][205]

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Jayamkondar's masterpiece, Kalingattuparani, is an example of narrative poetry that draws a clear boundary between history and fictitious conventions.
This describes the events during Kulothunga's war in Kalinga and depicts not only the pomp and circumstance of war, but the gruesome details of the
field.[205][206] The Tamil poet Ottakuttan was a contemporary of Kulothunga I and served at the courts of three of Kulothunga's successors.[207][208] Ottakuttan
wrote Kulothunga Cholan Ula, a poem extolling the virtues of the Chola king.[209]
Nannul is a Chola era work on Tamil grammar. It discusses all five branches of grammar and, according to Berthold Spuler, is still relevant today and is
one of the most distinguished normative grammars of literary Tamil. [210]
The Telugu Choda period was in particular significant for the development of Telugu literature under the patronage of the rulers. It was the age in which
the great Telugu poets Tikkana, Ketana, Marana and Somana enriched the literature with their contributions. Tikkana Somayaji wrote Nirvachanottara
Ramayanamu and Andhra Mahabharatamu. Abhinava Dandi Ketana wrote Dasakumaracharitramu, Vijnaneswaramu and Andhra Bhashabhushanamu.
Marana wrote Markandeya Purana in Telugu. Somana wrote Basava Purana. Tikkana is one of the kavitrayam who translated Mahabharata into Telugu
language.[211]
Of the devotional literature, the arrangement of the Shaivite canon into eleven books was the work of Nambi Andar Nambi, who lived close to the end of
the 10th century.[212][213] However, relatively few Vaishnavite works were composed during the Later Chola period, possibly because of the rulers' apparent
animosity towards them.[214]

Cultural centres
Chola rulers took an active interest in the development of temple centres and used the temples to widen the sphere of their royal authority. They
established educational institutions and hospitals around the temple, enhanced the beneficial aspects of the role of the temple, and projected the royalty
as a very powerful and genial presence.[215] A record of Virarajendra Chola's reign relates to the maintenance of a school in the Jananamandapa within the
temple for the study of the Vedas, Sastras, Grammar, and Rupavatara, as well as a hostel for students. The students were provided with food, bathing oil
on Saturdays, and oil for pups.[clarification needed] A hospital named Virasolan was provided with fifteen beds for sick people. The items of expense set apart for
their comforts are rice, a doctor, a surgeon, two maid servants for nursing the patients, and a general servant for the hospital. [216]

Religion

Bronze Chola Statue of Nataraja at the Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York City

In general, Cholas were followers of Hinduism. They were not swayed by the rise of Buddhism and Jainism as were the kings of the Pallava and Pandya
dynasties. Kocengannan, an Early Chola, was celebrated in both Sangam literature and in the Shaivite canon as a Hindu saint.[28]
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While the Cholas did build their largest and most important temple dedicated to Shiva, it can be by no means concluded that either they were followers of
Shaivism only or that they were not favourably disposed to other faiths. This is borne out by the fact that the second Chola king, Aditya I (871–903 CE),
built temples for Shiva and also for Vishnu. Inscriptions of 890 refer to his contributions to the construction of the Ranganatha Temple
at Srirangapatnam in the country of the Western Gangas, who were both his feudatories and had connections by marriage with him. He also pronounced
that the great temples of Shiva and the Ranganatha temple were to be the Kuladhanam of the Chola emperors.[217]
Parantaka II was a devotee of the reclining Vishnu (Vadivu Azhagiya Nambi) at Anbil, on the banks of the Kaveri river on the outskirts of Tiruchy, to whom
he gave numerous gifts and embellishments. He also prayed before him before his embarking on war to regain the territories in and around Kanchi and
Arcot from the waning Rashtrakutas and while leading expeditions against both Madurai and Ilam (Sri Lanka). [218] Parantaka I and Parantaka Chola II
endowed and built temples for Shiva and Vishnu.[219] Rajaraja Chola I patronised Buddhists and provided for the construction of the Chudamani Vihara, a
Buddhist monastery in Nagapattinam, at the request of Sri Chulamanivarman, the Srivijaya Sailendra king. [220][221]
During the period of the Later Cholas, there are alleged to have been instances of intolerance towards Vaishnavites[222] especially towards their
acharya, Ramanuja.[223] A Chola sovereign called Krimikanta Chola is said to have persecuted Ramanuja. Some scholars identify Kulothunga Chola II with
Krimikanta Chola or worm-necked Chola, so called as he is said to have suffered from cancer of the throat or neck. The latter finds mention in
the vaishnava Guruparampara and is said to have been a strong opponent of the vaishnavas. The work Parpannamritam (17th century) refers to the
Chola king called Krimikanta who is said to have removed the Govindaraja idol from the Chidambaram Nataraja temple.[224] However, according to "Koil
Olugu" (temple records) of the Srirangam temple, Kulottunga Chola II was the son of Krimikanta Chola. The former, unlike his father, is said to have been
a repentant son who supported vaishnavism. [225][226] Ramanuja is said to have made Kulottunga II as a disciple of his nephew, Dasarathi. The king then
granted the management of the Ranganathaswamy temple to Dasarathi and his descendants as per the wish of Ramanuja. [227][228] Historian Nilakanta
Sastri identifies Krimikanta Chola with Adhirajendra Chola or Virarajendra Chola with whom the main line (Vijayalaya line) ended.[229][230] There is an
inscription from 1160 AD which states that the custodians of Shiva temples who had social intercourses with Vaishnavites would forfeit their property.
However, this is more of a direction to the Shaivite community by its religious heads than any kind of dictat by a Chola emperor. While Chola kings built
their largest temples for Shiva and even while emperors like Rajaraja Chola I held titles like Sivapadasekharan, in none of their inscriptions did the Chola
emperors proclaim that their clan only and solely followed Shaivism or that Shaivism was the state religion during their rule.

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In popular culture

Standing Hanuman, Chola Dynasty, 11th century.

The Chola dynasty has inspired many Tamil authors.[234] The most important work of this genre is the popular Ponniyin Selvan (The son of Ponni), a
historical novel in Tamil written by Kalki Krishnamurthy.[235] Written in five volumes, this narrates the story of Rajaraja Chola, dealing with the events
leading up to the ascension of Uttama Chola to the Chola throne. Kalki had used the confusion in the succession to the Chola throne after the demise of
Parantaka Chola II.[236] The book was serialised in the Tamil periodical Kalki during the mid-1950s.[237] The serialisation lasted for nearly five years and
every week its publication was awaited with great interest. [238]
Kalki's earlier historical romance, Parthiban Kanavu, deals with the fortunes of the imaginary Chola prince Vikraman, who was supposed to have lived as
a feudatory of the Pallava king Narasimhavarman I during the 7th century. The period of the story lies within the interregnum during which the Cholas
were in decline before Vijayalaya Chola revived their fortunes. [239] Parthiban Kanavu was also serialised in the Kalki weekly during the early 1950s.[citation needed]
Sandilyan, another popular Tamil novelist, wrote Kadal Pura in the 1960s. It was serialised in the Tamil weekly Kumudam. Kadal Pura is set during the
period when Kulothunga Chola I was in exile from the Vengi kingdom after he was denied the throne. It speculates the whereabouts of Kulothunga during
this period. Sandilyan's earlier work, Yavana Rani, written in the early 1960s, is based on the life of Karikala Chola. [240] More recently, Balakumaran wrote
the novel Udaiyar, which is based on the circumstances surrounding Rajaraja Chola's construction of the Brihadisvara Temple in Thanjavur. [241]
There were stage productions based on the life of Rajaraja Chola during the 1950s and in 1973 Sivaji Ganesan acted in a screen adaptation of a play
titled Rajaraja Cholan. The Cholas are featured in the History of the World board game, produced by Avalon Hill.[citation needed]
The Cholas were the subject of the 2010 Tamil-language film Aayirathil Oruvan, and the 2022 film Ponniyin Selvan: I. The 2022 movie was based on
the novel of the same name.

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