GI Bleeding

Achal Khanna
General Surgery
 GI Bleeding
Maybe classified into:
• Upper GI bleeding (proximal to DJ flexure)
• Variceal bleeding
• Non-variceal bleeding
• Lower GI bleeding (distal to DJ flexure)

• Upper GI bleeding 4x more common than lower GI bleeding

• Emergency resuscitation same for upper and lower GI bleeds

GI Bleeding
 Emegency Resuscitation
Takes priority over determining the diagnosis/cause
• ABC (main focus is ‘C’)
• Oxygen: 15L Non-rebreath mask
• 2 large bore cannulae into both ante-cubital fossae
• Take bloods at same time for FBC, U&E, LFT, Clotting, X match 6Units
• Catheterise
• IVF initially then blood as soon as available (depending on urgency: O-, Group
specific, fully X-matched)
• Monitor response to resuscitation frequently (HR, BP, urine output, level of
consciousness, peripheral temperature, CRT)
• Stop anti-coagulants and correct any clotting derrangement
• NG tube and aspiration (will help differentiate upper from lower GI bleed)
• Organise definitive treatment (endoscopic/radiological/surgical)
 Estimating Degree of Blood Loss
• RR, HR, and BP can be used to estimate degree of blood
loss/hypovolaemia
Class I Class II Class III Class IV
Volume Loss 0-750 750-1500 1500-2000 >2000
(ml)
Loss (%) 0-15 15-30 30-40 >40
RR 14-20 20-30 30-40 >40
HR <100 >100 >120 >140
BP Unchanged Unchanged Reduced Reduced
Urine Output >30 20-30 5-15 Anuric
(ml/hr)
Mental State Restless Anxious Anxious/confus Confused/
ed lethargic
 History and Examination

• Aim of history and examination is 3 fold

• 1. Identify likely source – upper vs lower – and

potential cause

• 2. Determine severity of bleeding

• 3. Identify precipitants (e.g. Drugs)

 History in patients with GI bleeding

• Presenting Complaint / HPC

• Past Medical History

• Drug History

• Social History
 History in patients with GI bleeding
• PC/HPC
• Duration, frequency, and volume of bleeding (indicate severity of bleeding)
• Nature of bleeding: will point to source
• Haematemesis (fresh or coffee ground)/melaena suggest upper GI bleed. (Note a very brisk upper GI bleed can present with
dark or bright red blood PR).
• PR Dark red blood suggests colon
• PR Bright red blood suggests rectum, anus
• If PR bleeding, is blood being passed alone or with bowel opening (if alone suggests heavier bleeding)
• If with bowel opening is blood mixed with the stool (colonic), coating the stool (colonic/rectal), in the toilet water (anal), on
wiping (anal)
• Ask about associated upper or lower GI symptoms that may point to underlying cause
• E.g. Upper abdominal pain/dyspeptic symptoms suggest upper GI cause such as peptic ulcer
• E.g. 2. lower abdo pain, bowel symptoms such as diarrhoea or a background of change in bowel habit suggest lower GI cause
e.g. Colitis, cancer
• Previous episodes of bleeding and cause
• PMH
• History of any diseases that can result in GI bleeding, e.g. Peptic ulcer disease, diverticular disease, liver disease/cirrhosis
• Bleeding disorders e.g. haemophilia
• DH
• Anti-platelets or anti-coagulants can exacerbate bleeding
• NSAIDs and steroids may point to PUD
• SH
• Alcoholics at risk of liver disease and possible variceal bleeding as a result
• Smokers at risk of peptic ulcer disease
 Examination in patients with GI bleeding

• Reduced level of consiousness

• Pale and clammy
• Cool peripheries
• Reduced CRT
• Tachcardic and thready pulse
• Hypotensive with narrow pulse pressure
• Tenderness on abdominal examination may point to underlying cause e.g.
Epigastric  peptic ulcer
• Stigmata of chronic liver disease (palmer erythema, leukonychia,
dupuytrens contracture, liver flap, jaundice, spider naevi, gynacomastia,
shifting dullness/ascites)
• Digital rectal examination may reveal melaena, dark red blood, bright red
blood
Upper GI bleed
 Upper GI bleed

• Upper GI bleeding refers to bleeding from oesophagus, stomach,

duodenum (i.e. Proximal to ligament of treitz)

• Bleeding from jejunum/ileum is not common

 Presentation

• Acute Upper GI bleeding presents as:

• Haematemesis (vomiting of fresh blood)
• Coffee ground vomit (partially digested blood)
• Melaena (black tarry stools PR)

• If bleeding very brisk and severe then can present with red
blood PR!
• If bleeding very slow and occult then can present with iron
deficiency anaemia
Causes
 Causes
Cause of Bleeding Relative Frequency
Peptic Ulcer 44
Oesophagitis 28
Gastritis/erosions 26
Duodenitis 15
Varices 13
Portal hypertensive 7
gastropathy
Malignancy 5
Mallory Weiss tear 5
Vascular Malformation 3
Other (e.g. Aortoenteric rare
fistula)
 Risk Stratification: Rockall Score
• Identifies patients at risk of adverse outcome following acute
upper GI bleed
Variable Score 0 Score 1 Score 2 Score 3

Age <60 60-79 >80 -

Shock Nil HR >100 SBP <100 -

Co-morbidity Nil major - IHD/CCF/major Renal failure/liver

morbidity failure

Diagnosis Mallory Weiss tear All other diagnoses GI malignancy -

Endoscopic Findings None - Blood, adherent -

clot, spurting vessel

• Score <3 carries good prognosis

• Score >8 carries high risk of mortality
 Management (Non-variceal)
• Emergency resuscitation as already described

• Endoscopy
• Urgent OGD (within 24hrs) – diagnostic and therepeutic
• Treatment administered if active bleeding, visible vessel, adherent blood clot
• Treatment options include injection (adrenaline), coagulation, clipping
• If re-bleeds then arrange urgent repeat OGD

• Pharmacology
• PPI (infusion) – pH >6 stabilises clots and reduces risk of re-bleeding following
endoscopic haemostasis
• Tranexamic acid (anti-fibrinolytic) – maybe of benefit (more studies needed)
• If H pylori positive then for eradication therapy
• Stop NSAIDs/aspirin/clopidogrel/warfarin/steroids if safe to do so (risk:benefit analysis)
 Management (Non-variceal)
• Surgery
• Reserved for patients with failed medical management (ongoing
bleeding despite 2x OGD)
• Nature of operation depends on cause of bleeding (most commonly
performed in context of bleeding peptic ulcer: DU>GU)
• E.g. Under-running of ulcer (bleeding DU), wedge excision of bleeding
lesion (e.g. GU), partial/total gastrectomy (malignancy)
VB
 Variceal Bleeds

• Suspect if upper GI bleed in patient with history of chronic liver

disease/cirrhosis or stigmata on clinical examination
• Liver Cirrhosis results in portal hypertension and development of porto-
systemic anastamosis (opening or dilatation of pre-existing vascular
channels connecting portal and systemic circulations)
• Sites of porto-systemic anastomosis include:
• Oesophagus (P= oeosophageal branch of L gastric v, S= oesophageal branch of azygous v)
• Umbilicus (P= para-umbilical v, S= inferior epigastric v)
• Retroperitoneal (P= right/middle/left colic v, S= renal/supra-renal/gonadal v)
• Rectal (P= superior rectal v, S= middle/inferior rectal v)
• Furthermore, clotting derrangement in those with chronic liver disease can
worsen bleeding
Management of Variceal bleeds
 Management of Variceal bleeds
• Emergency resuscitation as already described
• Drugs
• Somatostatin/octreotide – vasoconstricts splanchnic circulation and reduces pressure in portal system
• Terlipressin – vasoconstricts splanchnic circulation and reduces pressure in portal system
• Propanolol – used only in context of primary prevention (in those found to have varices to reduce risk of first bleed)

• Endoscopy
• Band ligation
• Injection sclerotherapy

• Balloon tamponade – sengstaken-blakemore tube

• Rarely used now and usually only as temporary measure if failed endoscopic management

• Radiological procedure – used if failed medical/endoscopic Mx

• Selective catheterisation and embolisation of vessels feeding the varices
• TIPSS procedure: transjugular intrahepatic porto-systemic shunt
• shunt between hepatic vein and portal vein branch to reduce portal pressure and bleeding from varices): performed if failed medical
and endoscopic management
• Can worsen hepatic encephalopathy

• Surgical
• Surgical porto-systemic shunts (often spleno-renal)
• Liver transplantation (patients often given TIPP/surgical shunt whilst awaiting this)
 TIPSS

Sengstaken-Blakemore Tube
Surgical porto-systemic shunt (spleno-renal shunt)
 Variceal Bleed: Prognosis
• Prognosis closely related to severity of underlying chronic liver disease
(Childs-Pugh grading)
• Child-Pugh classification grades severity of liver disease into A,B,C based on
degree of ascites, encephalopathy, bilirubin, albumin, INR

• Mortality 32% Childs A, 46% Childs B, 79% Childs C

Lower GI Bleed
 Lower GI bleeding

• Lower GI bleed refers to bleeding arising distal to the ligament of

Treitz (DJ flexure)

• Although this includes jejunum and ileum bleeding from these

sites is rare (<5%)

• Vast majority of lower GI bleeding arises from

colon/rectum/anus
Presentation
 Presentation
• Lower GI bleeding presents as:
• Dark red blood PR – more proximal bleeding point (e.g. Distal small
bowel, colon)
• Bright red blood PR – more distal bleeding point (e.g. rectum, anus)
• PR blood maybe:
• mixed or separate from the stool
• If separate from the stool it maybe noticed in the toilet water or on wiping
• Passed with motion or alone

• If blood mixed with stool (as oppose to separate from it)

suggests more proximal bleeding
• If bleeding very slow and occult then can present with iron
deficiency anaemia
Causes
 Causes
Colon Rectum Anus
Diverticular Disease Polyps Haemorrhoids
Polyps Malignancy Fissure
Malignancy Proctitis Malignancy
Colitis
Angiodysplasia
Management
 Management

• Emergency resuscitation as already described

• Pharmacological
• Stop NSAIDS/anti-platelets/anti-coagulants if safe
• Tranexamic acid

• Endoscopic
• OGD (15% of patients with severe acute PR bleeding will have an upper GI source!)
• Colonoscopy – diagnostic and therepeutic (injection, diathermy, clipping)
 Management

• Radiological
• CT angiogram – diagnostic only (non-invasive)
• Determines site and cause of bleeding

• Mesenteric Angiogram – diagnostic and therepeutic (but invasive)

• Determines site of bleeding and allows embolisation of bleeding vessel
• Can result in colonic ischaemia

• Nuclear Scintigraphy – technetium labelled red blood cells: diagnostic only

• Determines site of bleeding only (not cause)
 Management

• Surgical – Last resort in management as very difficult to

determine bleeding point at laparotomy
• Segmental colectomy – where site of bleeding is known
• Subtotal colectomy – where site of bleeding unclear
• Beware of small bowel bleeding – always embarassing when bleeding continues
after large bowel removed!
 Management Flow Chart for Severe lower GI
bleeding
Resuscitate

OGD (to exclude upper GI cause for severe PR bleeding)

Colonoscopy (to identify site and cause of bleeding and to treat bleeding by injection/diathermy/clipping) – often
unsuccessful as blood obscures views

CT angiogram (to identify Mesenteric angiogram (to identify site

site and cause of of bleeding and treat bleeding by
bleeding) embolisation of vessel)

Surgery
 Management
• As 85% of lower GI bleeds will settle spontaneously the
interventions mentioned on previous slide are reserved for:
• Severe/Life threatening bleeds

• In the 85% where bleeding settles spontaneously OPD

investigation is required to determine underlying cause:
• Endoscopy: flexible sigmoidoscopy, colonoscopy
• Barium enema
Iron Deficiency Anaemia
 Definition

• Insufficient iron in the body for haemopoeisis

• Decrease Hb and MCV

• Decreased serum iron and Ferritin
• Increased TIBC and serum transferrin
 Causes

• Increased Iron demand

• Chronic Blood loss
• Think Chronic bleeding (often occult) from GI tract in men and post-menopausal females (pre-
menopause menorrhagia most common cause) e.g. Colonic polyp or cancer, gastric/duodenal ulcer or
malignancy
• Chronic haemolysis
• Pregnancy

• Insufficient Iron intake

• Diet lacking in iron
• Vegans – plant based iron poorly absorbed compared to meat based iron

• Malabsorption of iron
• Small intestinal disease e.g. Crohn’s, caeliac disease
• Lack of vitamin C (important for iron absorption)
 Causes
• In adults >50yrs of age the most common cause of
Iron deficiency anaemia is chronic occult GI bleeding
• In females <50yrs most common cause is blood loss during
menses with inadequate replacement

• In developing world intestinal parasitic infection causing

chronic blood loss from the GI tract is the most common cause
of iron deficiency anaemia (rare in developed world)
 Investigations
• To confirm iron deficiency anaemia
• Hb, MCV, Ferritin, transferrin, TIBC
• Rarely bone marrow aspirate (gold standard but invasive: rarely performed)

• OGD and colonoscopy

• Perform in males and post-menopausal females
• In pre-menopausal females menorrhagia is most common cause and often
OGD/colonoscopy not required unless other symptoms warrant it (e.g.
dyspepsia, dysphagia, PR bleeding, change in bowel habit, family history etc.)
• Note that iron deficiency anaemia maybe the only sign of an occult GI
malignancy
The End

Questions